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(INR) Jewellery From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Diamond ring Amber pendants Contemporary jewellery design. The Queen Farida of Egypt red coral parure by Ascione manufacture, 1938, Neaples , Coral Jewellery Museum Jewellery or jewelry[1] ( /'d?u??l?ri/) is a form of personal adornment, such as brooches, rings, necklaces, earrings, and bracelets. With some exceptions, such as medical alert bracelets or military dog tags, jewe llery normally differs from other items of personal adornment in that it has no other purpose than to look appealing, but humans have been producing and wearing with 100,000-year-old beads made from Nassarius shells thoug it for a long time ht to be the oldest known jewellery.[2] Jewellery may be made from a wide range of materials, but gemstones, precious me tals, beads and shells have been widely used. Depending on the culture and times jewellery may be appreciated as a status symbol, for its material properties, i ts patterns, or for meaningful symbols. Jewellery has been made to adorn nearly every body part, from hairpins to toe rings. The word jewellery itself is derived from the word jewel, which was anglicized f rom the Old French "jouel",[3] and beyond that, to the Latin word "jocale", mean ing plaything. Contents [hide] 1 Form and function 2 Materials and methods 2.1 Diamonds 2.2 Other gemstones 2.3 Metal finishes 3 Impact on society 4 History 4.1 Early history 4.1.1 Egypt 4.2 Europe and the Middle East 4.2.1 Mesopotamia 4.2.2 Greece 4.2.3 Rome 4.2.4 Middle Ages 4.2.5 Renaissance 4.2.6 Romanticism 4.2.7 Art Nouveau 4.2.8 Art Deco 4.3 Asia 4.3.1 China 4.3.2 India 4.4 North and South America 4.5 Native American 4.6 Pacific

5 Modern 6 Body modification 7 Jewellery market 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading [edit]Form and function

Kenyan man wearing tribal beads Jewellery has been used for a number of reasons: Currency, wealth display and storage, Functional use (such as clasps, pins and buckles) Symbolism (to show membership or status) Protection (in the form of amulets and magical wards),[4] Artistic display Most cultures have at some point had a practice of keeping large amounts of weal th stored in the form of jewellery. Numerous cultures move wedding dowries in th e form of jewellery or create jewellery as a means to store or display coins. Al ternatively, jewellery has been used as a currency or trade good; an example bei ng the use of slave beads.[citation needed] Many items of jewellery, such as brooches and buckles, originated as purely func tional items, but evolved into decorative items as their functional requirement diminished.[5] Jewellery can also be symbolic of group membership, as in the case of the Christ ian crucifix or Jewish Star of David, or of status, as in the case of chains of office, or the Western practice of married people wearing a wedding ring. Wearing of amulets and devotional medals to provide protection or ward off evil is common in some cultures; these may take the form of symbols (such as the ankh ), stones, plants, animals, body parts (such as the Khamsa), or glyphs (such as stylised versions of the Throne Verse in Islamic art).[6] Although artistic display has clearly been a function of jewellery from the very beginning, the other roles described above tended to take primacy.[citation nee ded] It was only in the late 19th century, with the work of such masters as Pete r Carl Faberg and Ren Lalique, that art began to take primacy over function and we alth.[citation needed] This trend has continued into modern times, expanded upon by artists such as Robert Lee Morris, Ed Levin, and Alberto Repossi. [edit]Materials and methods

Anticlastic raised sterling bracelet. In creating jewellery, gemstones, coins, or other precious items are often used, and they are typically set into precious metals. Alloys of nearly every metal k nown have been encountered in jewellery. Bronze, for example, was common in Roma n times. Modern fine jewellery usually includes gold, white gold, platinum, pall adium, titanium, or silver. Most American and European gold jewellery is made of an alloy of gold, the purity of which is stated in karats, indicated by a numbe r followed by the letter K. American gold jewellery must be of at least 10K puri ty (41.7% pure gold), (though in the UK the number is 9K (37.5% pure gold) and i s typically found up to 18K (75% pure gold). Higher purity levels are less commo n with alloys at 22 K (91.6% pure gold), and 24 K (99.9% pure gold) being consid ered too soft for jewellery use in America and Europe. These high purity alloys, however, are widely used across Asia, the Middle East and Africa.[citation need ed] Platinum alloys range from 900 (90% pure) to 950 (95.0% pure). The silver us ed in jewellery is usually sterling silver, or 92.5% fine silver. In costume jew ellery, stainless steel findings are sometimes used.

Bead embroidery design. Other commonly used materials include glass, such as fused-glass or enamel; wood , often carved or turned; shells and other natural animal substances such as bon e and ivory; natural clay; polymer clay; and even plastics. Hemp and other twine s have been used as well to create jewellery that has more of a natural feel. Ho wever, any inclusion of lead or lead solder will cause an English Assay office ( the building which gives English jewellery its stamp of approval, the Hallmark) to destroy the piece.[citation needed] Beads are frequently used in jewellery. These may be made of glass, gemstones, m etal, wood, shells, clay and polymer clay. Beaded jewellery commonly encompasses necklaces, bracelets, earrings, belts and rings. Beads may be large or small; t he smallest type of beads used are known as seed beads, these are the beads used for the "woven" style of beaded jewellery. Another use of seed beads is an embr oidery technique where seed beads are sewn onto fabric backings to create broad collar neck pieces and beaded bracelets. Bead embroidery, a popular type of hand work during the Victorian era, is enjoying a renaissance in modern jewellery mak ing. Beading, or beadwork, is also very popular in many African cultures. Advanced glass and glass beadmaking techniques by Murano and Venetian glassmaste rs developed crystalline glass, enamelled glass (smalto), glass with threads of gold (goldstone), multicoloured glass (millefiori), milk-glass (lattimo), and im itation gemstones made of glass.[citation needed] As early as the 13th century, Murano glass and Murano beads were popular.[citation needed] Silversmiths, goldsmiths, and lapidaries methods include forging, casting, solde ring or welding, cutting, carving and "cold-joining" (using adhesives, staples a nd rivets to assemble parts).[7] [edit]Diamonds Diamonds. Main article: Diamond Diamonds were first mined in India.[8] Pliny may have mentioned them, although t here is some debate as to the exact nature of the stone he referred to as Adamas ;[9] In 2005, Australia, Botswana, Russia and Canada ranked among the primary so urces of gemstone diamond production.[10][11] The British crown jewels contain the Cullinan Diamond, part of the largest gem-q uality rough diamond ever found (1905), at 3,106.75 carats (621.35 g). Now popular in engagement rings, this usage dates back to the marriage of Maximi lian I to Mary of Burgundy in 1477.[12] [edit]Other gemstones Main article: Gemstone Many precious and semiprecious stones are used for jewellery. Among them are: Amber Amber, an ancient organic gemstone, is composed of tree resin that has hardened over time. The stone must be at least one million years old to be classified as amber, and some amber can be up to 120 million years old. Amethyst Amethyst has historically been the most prized gemstone in the quartz family. It is treasured for its purple hue, which can range in tone from light to dark. Spanish emerald and gold pendant at Victoria and Albert Museum. Emerald Emeralds are one of the three main precious gemstones (along with rubies and sap phires) and are known for their fine green to bluish green colour. They have bee n treasured throughout history, and some historians report that the Egyptians mi ned emerald as early as 3500 BC. Jade Jade is most commonly associated with the colour green but can come in a number of other colours, as well. Jade is closely linked to Asian culture, history, and tradition, and is sometimes referred to as the stone of heaven.

Jasper Jasper is a gemstone of the chalcedony family that comes in a variety of colours . Often, jasper will feature unique and interesting patterns within the coloured stone. Picture jasper is a type of jasper known for the colours (often beiges a nd browns) and swirls in the stone s pattern. Quartz Quartz refers to a family of crystalline gemstones of various colours and sizes. Among the well-known types of quartz are rose quartz (which has a delicate pink colour), and smoky quartz (which comes in a variety of shades of translucent br own). A number of other gemstones, such as Amethyst and Citrine, are also part o f the quartz family. Rutilated quartz is a popular type of quartz containing nee dle-like inclusions. Ruby Rubies are known for their intense red colour and are among the most highly valu ed precious gemstones. Rubies have been treasured for millennia. In Sanskrit, th e word for ruby is ratnaraj, meaning king of precious stones. Sapphire The most popular form of sapphire is blue sapphire, which is known for its mediu m to deep blue colour and strong saturation. Fancy sapphires of various colours are also available. In the United States, blue sapphire tends to be the most pop ular and most affordable of the three major precious gemstones (emerald, ruby, a nd sapphire). Turquoise Turquoise is found in only a few places on earth, and the world s largest turquois e producing region is the southwest United States. Turquoise is prized for its a ttractive colour, most often an intense medium blue or a greenish blue, and its ancient heritage. Turquoise is used in a great variety of jewellery styles. It i s perhaps most closely associated with southwest and Native American jewellery, but it is also used in many sleek, modern styles. Some turquoise contains a matr ix of dark brown markings, which provides an interesting contrast to the gemston e s bright blue colour. Some gemstones (like pearls, coral, and amber) are classified as organic, meanin g that they are produced by living organisms. Others are inorganic, meaning that they are generally composed of and arise from minerals.[13] Some gems, for example, amethyst, have become less valued as methods of extracti ng and importing them have progressed. Some man-made gems can serve in place of natural gems, such as cubic zirconia, which can be used in place of diamond.[14] [edit]Metal finishes An example of gold plated jewellery For platinum, gold, and silver jewellery, there are many techniques to create fi nishes. The most common are high-polish, satin/matte, brushed, and hammered. Hig h-polished jewellery is by far the most common and gives the metal a highly refl ective, shiny look. Satin, or matte finish reduces the shine and reflection of t he jewellery and is commonly used to accentuate gemstones such as diamonds. Brus hed finishes give the jewellery a textured look and are created by brushing a ma terial (similar to sandpaper) against the metal, leaving "brush strokes." Hammer ed finishes are typically created by using a soft, rounded hammer and hammering the jewellery to give it a wavy texture. Some jewellery is plated to give it a shiny, reflective look or to achieve a des ired colour. Sterling silver jewellery may be plated with a thin layer of 0.999 fine silver (a process known as flashing) or may be plated with rhodium or gold. Base metal costume jewellery may also be plated with silver, gold, or rhodium f or a more attractive finish.[15] [edit]Impact on society Jewellery has been used to denote status. In ancient Rome, for instance, only ce rtain ranks could wear rings;[16] Later, sumptuary laws dictated who could wear what type of jewellery, again based on rank. Cultural dictates have also played

a significant role. For example, the wearing of earrings by Western men was cons idered effeminate in the 19th century and early 20th century. More recently, the display of body jewellery, such as piercings, has become a mark of acceptance o r seen as a badge of courage within some groups but is completely rejected in ot hers. Likewise, hip hop culture has popularised the slang term bling-bling, whic h refers to ostentatious display of jewellery by men or women. Conversely, the jewellery industry in the early 20th century launched a campaign to popularise wedding rings for men, which caught on, as well as engagement rin gs for men, which did not, going so far as to create a false history and claim t hat the practice had medieval roots. By the mid 1940s, 85% of weddings in the U. S. featured a double-ring ceremony, up from 15% in the 1920s.[17] Religion has a lso played a role: Islam, for instance, considers the wearing of gold by men as a social taboo,[18] and many religions have edicts against excessive display.[19 ] In Christianity, the New Testament gives injunctions against the wearing of go ld, in the writings of the apostles Paul and Peter. In Revelation 17, "the great whore" or false religious system, is depicted as being "decked with gold and pr ecious stones and pearls, having a golden cup in her hand." (Rev. 17:4) [edit]History The history of jewellery is a long one, with many different uses among different cultures. It has endured for thousands of years and has provided various insigh ts into how ancient cultures worked. [edit]Early history The first signs of jewellery came from the people in Africa. Perforated beads ma de from snail shells have been found dating to 75,000 years ago at Blombos Cave. In Kenya, at Enkapune Ya Muto, beads made from perforated ostrich egg shells ha ve been dated to more than 40,000 years ago. Outside of Africa, the Cro-Magnons had crude necklaces and bracelets of bone, te eth, berries, and stone hung on pieces of string or animal sinew, or pieces of c arved bone used to secure clothing together. In some cases, jewellery had shell or mother-of-pearl pieces. In southern Russia, carved bracelets made of mammoth tusk have been found. The Venus of Hohle Fels features a perforation at the top, showing that it was intended to be worn as a pendant. Around 7,000 years ago, the first sign of copper jewellery was seen.[5] [edit]Egypt Amulet pendant (1254 BC) made from gold, lapis lazuli, turquoise and carnelian, 14 cm wide. An 18th dynasty pharaonic era princess' crown The first signs of established jewellery making in Ancient Egypt was around 3,00 0-5,000 years ago.[20] The Egyptians preferred the luxury, rarity, and workabili ty of gold over other metals. Predynastic Egypt had Jewellery in Egypt soon bega n to symbolise power and religious power in the community. Although it was worn by wealthy Egyptians in life, it was also worn by them in death, with jewellery commonly placed among grave goods. In conjunction with gold jewellery, Egyptians used coloured glass, along with pr ecious gems. The colour of the jewellery had significance. Green, for example, s ymbolised fertility. Although lapis lazuli and silver had to be imported from be yond the country s borders, many other materials for jewellery were found in or ne ar Egypt. Egyptian jewellery was predominantly made in large workshops. Egyptian designs were most common in Phoenician jewellery. Also, ancient Turkish designs found in Persian jewellery suggest that trade between the Middle East a nd Europe was not uncommon. Women wore elaborate gold and silver pieces that wer e used in ceremonies.[20] [edit]Europe and the Middle East [edit]Mesopotamia By approximately 4,000 years ago, jewellery-making had become a significant craf

t in the cities of Sumer and Akkad. The most significant archaeological evidence comes from the Royal Cemetery of Ur, where hundreds of burials dating 2900 2300 B C were unearthed; tombs such as that of Puabi contained a multitude of artefacts in gold, silver, and semi-precious stones, such as lapis lazuli crowns embellis hed with gold figurines, close-fitting collar necklaces, and jewel-headed pins. In Assyria, men and women both wore extensive amounts of jewellery, including am ulets, ankle bracelets, heavy multi-strand necklaces, and cylinder seals.[21] Jewellery in Mesopotamia tended to be manufactured from thin metal leaf and was set with large numbers of brightly-coloured stones (chiefly agate, lapis, carnel ian, and jasper). Favoured shapes included leaves, spirals, cones, and bunches o f grapes. Jewellers created works both for human use and for adorning statues an d idols. They employed a wide variety of sophisticated metalworking techniques, such as cloisonn, engraving, fine granulation, and filigree.[22] Extensive and meticulously maintained records pertaining to the trade and manufa cture of jewellery have also been unearthed throughout Mesopotamian archaeologic al sites. One record in the Mari royal archives, for example, gives the composit ion of various items of jewellery: 1 necklace of flat speckled chalcedony beads including: 34 flat speckled chalced ony bead, [and] 35 gold fluted beads, in groups of five. 1 necklace of flat speckled chalcedony beads including: 39 flat speckled chalced ony beads, [with] 41 fluted beads in a group that make up the hanging device. 1 necklace with rounded lapis lazuli beads including: 28 rounded lapis lazuli be ads, [and] 29 fluted beads for its clasp.[23] [edit]Greece Gold earring from Mycenae, 16th century BC. The Greeks started using gold and gems in jewellery in 1600 BC, although beads s haped as shells and animals were produced widely in earlier times. By 300 BC, th e Greeks had mastered making coloured jewellery and using amethysts, pearl, and emeralds. Also, the first signs of cameos appeared, with the Greeks creating the m from Indian Sardonyx, a striped brown pink and cream agate stone. Greek jewell ery was often simpler than in other cultures, with simple designs and workmanshi p. However, as time progressed, the designs grew in complexity and different mat erials were soon used. Pendant with naked woman, made from electrum, Rhodes, around 630-620 BC. Jewellery in Greece was hardly worn and was mostly used for public appearances o r on special occasions. It was frequently given as a gift and was predominantly worn by women to show their wealth, social status, and beauty. The jewellery was often supposed to give the wearer protection from the Evil Eye or endowed the own er with supernatural powers, while others had a religious symbolism. Older piece s of jewellery that have been found were dedicated to the Gods. The largest prod uction of jewellery in these times came from Northern Greece and Macedon. Howeve r, although much of the jewellery in Greece was made of gold and silver with ivo ry and gemstones, bronze and clay copies were made also. Ancient Greek jewellery from 300 BC. They worked two styles of pieces: cast pieces and pieces hammered out of sheet m etal. Fewer pieces of cast jewellery have been recovered. It was made by casting the metal onto two stone or clay moulds. The two halves were then joined togeth er, and wax, followed by molten metal, was placed in the centre. This technique had been practised since the late Bronze Age. The more common form of jewellery was the hammered sheet type. Sheets of metal would be hammered to thickness and then soldered together. The inside of the two sheets would be filled with wax or another liquid to preserve the metal work. Different techniques, such as using a stamp or engraving, were then used to create motifs on the jewellery. Jewels m

ay then be added to hollows or glass poured into special cavities on the surface . The Greeks took much of their designs from outer origins, such as Asia, when A lexander the Great conquered part of it. In earlier designs, other European infl uences can also be detected. When Roman rule came to Greece, no change in jewell ery designs was detected. However, by 27 BC, Greek designs were heavily influenc ed by the Roman culture. That is not to say that indigenous design did not thriv e. Numerous polychrome butterfly pendants on silver foxtail chains, dating from the 1st century, have been found near Olbia, with only one example ever found an ywhere else.[24] [edit]Rome Roman Amethyst intaglio engraved gem, c. 212 AD; later regarded as of St. Peter. Although jewellery work was abundantly diverse in earlier times, especially amon g the barbarian tribes such as the Celts, when the Romans conquered most of Euro pe, jewellery was changed as smaller factions developed the Roman designs. The m ost common artefact of early Rome was the brooch, which was used to secure cloth ing together. The Romans used a diverse range of materials for their jewellery f rom their extensive resources across the continent. Although they used gold, the y sometimes used bronze or bone, and in earlier times, glass beads & pearl. As e arly as 2,000 years ago, they imported Sri Lankan sapphires and Indian diamonds and used emeralds and amber in their jewellery. In Roman-ruled England, fossilis ed wood called jet from Northern England was often carved into pieces of jewelle ry. The early Italians worked in crude gold and created clasps, necklaces, earri ngs, and bracelets. They also produced larger pendants that could be filled with perfume. Like the Greeks, often the purpose of Roman jewellery was to ward off the Evil Ey e given by other people. Although women wore a vast array of jewellery, men often only wore a finger ring. Although they were expected to wear at least one ring, some Roman men wore a ring on every finger, while others wore none. Roman men a nd women wore rings with an engraved gem on it that was used with wax to seal do cuments, a practice that continued into medieval times when kings and noblemen u sed the same method. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the jewellery designs w ere absorbed by neighbouring countries and tribes.[20] [edit]Middle Ages Merovingian fibulae, Bibliothque nationale de France. 6th century bronze eagle-shaped Visigothic cloisonn fibula from Guadalajara, Spai n, using glass-paste fillings in imitation of garnets. Post-Roman Europe continued to develop jewellery making skills. The Celts and Me rovingians in particular are noted for their jewellery, which in terms of qualit y matched or exceeded that of Byzantium. Clothing fasteners, amulets, and, to a lesser extent, signet rings, are the most common artefacts known to us. A partic ularly striking celtic example is the Tara Brooch. The Torc was common throughou t Europe as a symbol of status and power. By the 8th century, jewelled weaponry was common for men, while other jewellery (with the exception of signet rings) s eemed to become the domain of women. Grave goods found in a 6th-7th century buri al near Chalon-sur-Sane are illustrative. A young girl was buried with: 2 silver fibulae, a necklace (with coins), bracelet, gold earrings, a pair of hair-pins, comb, and buckle.[25] The Celts specialised in continuous patterns and designs, while Merovingian designs are best known for stylised animal figures.[26] They w ere not the only groups known for high quality work. Note the Visigoth work show n here, and the numerous decorative objects found at the Anglo-Saxon Ship burial at Sutton Hoo Suffolk, England are a particularly well-known example.[20] On th e continent, cloisonn and garnet were perhaps the quintessential method and gemst one of the period.

Byzantine wedding ring. The Eastern successor of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, continued many of the methods of the Romans, though religious themes came to predominate. Unlik e the Romans, the Franks, and the Celts, however, Byzantium used light-weight go ld leaf rather than solid gold, and more emphasis was placed on stones and gems. As in the West, Byzantine jewellery was worn by wealthier females, with male je wellery apparently restricted to signet rings. Like other contemporary cultures, jewellery was commonly buried with its owner.[27] [edit]Renaissance Sardonyx cameo. The Renaissance and exploration both had significant impacts on the development of jewellery in Europe. By the 17th century, increasing exploration and trade le d to increased availability of a wide variety of gemstones as well as exposure t o the art of other cultures. Whereas prior to this the working of gold and preci ous metal had been at the forefront of jewellery, this period saw increasing dom inance of gemstones and their settings. A fascinating example of this is the Che apside Hoard, the stock of a jeweller hidden in London during the Commonwealth p eriod and not found again until 1912. It contained Colombian emerald, topaz, ama zonite from Brazil, spinel, iolite, and chrysoberyl from Sri Lanka, ruby from In dia, Afghan lapis lazuli, Persian turquoise, Red Sea peridot, as well as Bohemia n and Hungarian opal, garnet, and amethyst. Large stones were frequently set in box-bezels on enamelled rings.[28] Notable among merchants of the period was Jea n-Baptiste Tavernier, who brought the precursor stone of the Hope Diamond to Fra nce in the 1660s. When Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned as Emperor of the French in 1804, he revived the style and grandeur of jewellery and fashion in France. Under Napoleon s rule, jewellers introduced parures, suites of matching jewellery, such as a diamond t iara, diamond earrings, diamond rings, a diamond brooch, and a diamond necklace. Both of Napoleon s wives had beautiful sets such as these and wore them regularly . Another fashion trend resurrected by Napoleon was the cameo. Soon after his ca meo decorated crown was seen, cameos were highly sought. The period also saw the early stages of costume jewellery, with fish scale covered glass beads in place of pearls or conch shell cameos instead of stone cameos. New terms were coined to differentiate the arts: jewellers who worked in cheaper materials were called bijoutiers, while jewellers who worked with expensive materials were called joa illiers, a practice which continues to this day. [edit]Romanticism Mourning jewellery in the form of a jet brooch, 19th century. Starting in the late 18th century, Romanticism had a profound impact on the deve lopment of western jewellery. Perhaps the most significant influences were the p ublic s fascination with the treasures being discovered through the birth of moder n archaeology and a fascination with Medieval and Renaissance art. Changing soci al conditions and the onset of the Industrial Revolution also led to growth of a middle class that wanted and could afford jewellery. As a result, the use of in dustrial processes, cheaper alloys, and stone substitutes led to the development of paste or costume jewellery. Distinguished goldsmiths continued to flourish, however, as wealthier patrons sought to ensure that what they wore still stood a part from the jewellery of the masses, not only through use of precious metals a nd stones but also though superior artistic and technical work. One such artist was the French goldsmith Franoise Dsire Froment Meurice. A category unique to this period and quite appropriate to the philosophy of romanticism was mourning jewe llery. It originated in England, where Queen Victoria was often seen wearing jet jewellery after the death of Prince Albert, and it allowed the wearer to contin ue wearing jewellery while expressing a state of mourning at the death of a love d one.[29]

In the United states, this period saw the founding in 1837 of Tiffany & Co. by C harles Lewis Tiffany. Tiffany's put the United States on the world map in terms of jewellery and gained fame creating dazzling commissions for people such as th e wife of Abraham Lincoln. Later, it would gain popular notoriety as the setting of the film Breakfast at Tiffany's. In France, Pierre Cartier founded Cartier S A in 1847, while 1884 saw the founding of Bulgari in Italy. The modern productio n studio had been born and was a step away from the former dominance of individu al craftsmen and patronage. This period also saw the first major collaboration between East and West. Collab oration in Pforzheim between German and Japanese artists led to Shakudo plaques set into Filigree frames being created by the Stoeffler firm in 1885).[30] Perha ps the grand final and an appropriate transition to the following period were the masterful creations of the Russian artist Peter Carl Faberg, working for the Imp erial Russian court, whose Faberg eggs and jewellery pieces are still considered as the epitome of the goldsmith s art. [edit]Art Nouveau In the 1890s, jewellers began to explore the potential of the growing Art Nouvea u style and the closely related German Jugendstil, British (and to some extent A merican) Arts and Crafts Movement, Catalan Modernisme, Austro-Hungarian Sezessio n, Italian "Liberty", etc. Art Nouveau jewellery encompassed many distinct features including a focus on th e female form and an emphasis on colour, most commonly rendered through the use of enamelling techniques including basse-taille, champleve, cloisonn, and plique-jour. Motifs included orchids, irises, pansies, vines, swans, peacocks, snakes, dragonflies, mythological creatures, and the female silhouette. Ren Lalique, working for the Paris shop of Samuel Bing, was recognised by contemp oraries as a leading figure in this trend. The Darmstadt Artists' Colony and Wie ner Werksttte provided perhaps the most significant German input to the trend, wh ile in Denmark Georg Jensen, though best known for his Silverware, also contribu ted significant pieces. In England, Liberty & Co. and the British arts & crafts movement of Charles Robert Ashbee contributed slightly more linear but still cha racteristic designs. The new style moved the focus of the jeweller's art from th e setting of stones to the artistic design of the piece itself. Lalique's dragon fly design is one of the best examples of this. Enamels played a large role in t echnique, while sinuous organic lines are the most recognisable design feature. The end of World War I once again changed public attitudes, and a more sober sty le developed.[31] [edit]Art Deco Growing political tensions, the after-effects of the war, and a reaction against the perceived decadence of the turn of the 20th century led to simpler forms, c ombined with more effective manufacturing for mass production of high-quality je wellery. Covering the period of the 1920s and 1930s, the style has become popula rly known as Art Deco. Walter Gropius and the German Bauhaus movement, with thei r philosophy of "no barriers between artists and craftsmen" led to some interest ing and stylistically simplified forms. Modern materials were also introduced: p lastics and aluminium were first used in jewellery, and of note are the chromed pendants of Russian-born Bauhaus master Naum Slutzky. Technical mastery became a s valued as the material itself. In the West, this period saw the reinvention of granulation by the German Elizabeth Treskow, although development of the re-inv ention has continued into the 1990s. It is based on the basic shapes. [edit]Asia Royal earrings, India, 1st Century BC. In Asia, the Indian subcontinent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery making anywhere, with a history of over 5,000 years.[32] One of the first to sta rt jewellery making were the peoples of the Indus Valley Civilization in what is now predominately modern-day Pakistan. Early jewellery making in China started around the same period, but it became widespread with the spread of Buddhism aro und 2,000 years ago.

[edit]China The Chinese used silver in their jewellery more than gold. Blue kingfisher feath ers were tied onto early Chinese jewellery and later, blue gems and glass were i ncorporated into designs. However, jade was preferred over any other stone. The Chinese revered jade because of the human-like qualities they assigned to it, su ch as its hardness, durability, and beauty.[5] The first jade pieces were very s imple, but as time progressed, more complex designs evolved. Jade rings from bet ween the 4th and 7th centuries BC show evidence of having been worked with a com pound milling machine, hundreds of years before the first mention of such equipm ent in the west.[33] Jade coiled serpent, Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD) `Xin' Shape Jewellery from Ming Dynasty Tombs, (1368 1644) In China,the most uncommon piece of jewellery was the earring, which was worn ne ither by men nor women. Amulets were common, often with a Chinese symbol or drag on. Dragons, Chinese symbols, and phoenixes were frequently depicted on jeweller y designs. The Chinese often placed their jewellery in their graves. Most Chinese graves fo und by archaeologists contain decorative jewellery.[34] [edit]India India has a long jewellery history, which went through various changes through c ultural influence and politics for more than 5,000-8,000 years. India has the lo ngest continuous legacy of jewellery making anywhere since Ramayana and Mahabhar ata times. Because India had abundant amount of jewellery resources, it prospere d financially through export and exchange with other [Link] Western tra ditions were heavily influenced by waxing and waning empires, India enjoyed a co ntinuous development of art forms for some 5,000 years.[32] One of the first to start jewellery making were the peoples of the Indus Valley Civilization (encomp assing present-day Pakistan and northwest India). By 1500 BC, the peoples of the Indus Valley were creating gold earrings and necklaces, bead necklaces, and met allic bangles. Before 2100 BC, prior to the period when metals were widely used, the largest jewellery trade in the Indus Valley region was the bead trade. Bead s in the Indus Valley were made using simple techniques. First, a bead maker wou ld need a rough stone, which would be bought from an eastern stone trader. The s tone would then be placed into a hot oven where it would be heated until it turn ed deep red, a colour highly prized by people of the Indus Valley. The red stone would then be chipped to the right size and a hole bored through it with primit ive drills. The beads were then polished. Some beads were also painted with desi gns. This art form was often passed down through family. Children of bead makers often learned how to work beads from a young age. Persian style also plays a bi g role in India s jewellery. Each stone had its own characteristics related to Hin duism. Jewellery in the Indus Valley was worn predominantly by females, who wore numero us clay or shell bracelets on their wrists. They were often shaped like doughnut s and painted black. Over time, clay bangles were discarded for more durable one s. In present-day India, bangles are made out of metal or glass. Other pieces th at women frequently wore were thin bands of gold that would be worn on the foreh ead, earrings, primitive brooches, chokers, and gold rings. Although women wore jewellery the most, some men in the Indus Valley wore beads. Small beads were of ten crafted to be placed in men and women s hair. The beads were about one millime tre long. A female skeleton (presently on display at the National Museum, New Delhi, India ) wears a carlinean bangle (bracelet) on her left hand. According to Hindu belief, Gold and silver are considered as sacred metal symbol ic of the warm sun, the other suggesting the cool moon are the quintessential meta ls of Indian jewellery. Pure gold does not oxidise or corrode with time, which i s why Hindu tradition associates gold with immortality. Gold imagery occurs freq

uently in ancient Indian literature. In the Vedic Hindu myth of cosmological cre ation, the source of physical and spiritual human life originated in and evolved from a golden womb (hiranyagarbha) or egg (hiranyanda), a metaphor of the sun, whose light rises from the primordial waters.[35] Mughal reign was the most significant period of time in relation to jewellery. A lot of jewellery prospered from sixteenth to the nineteenth century. Jewellery had merit in India s royalty, it was very powerful that the royalty established la ws, which was only limited to the royalty. Only royalty and few others whom they granted permission could wear gold ornaments on their feet. This would normally be considered breaking the appreciation of the sacred metals. Even though the m ajority of the Indian population wore jewelries, Maharaja and people related to the royalty had deeper connection with jewellery. Maharaja's role was so importa nt that the Hindu philosophers identified him as the central to the smooth worki ng of the world. He was considered as a divine being, deities in human form, who se duty was to uphold and protect dharma, the moral order of the universe.[36] A Navaratna ring. Indian gemstone uses Navaratna (nine gems), which is the powerful jewel Maharaja frequently wore. It is an amulet, which comprises diamond, pearl, ruby, sapphir e, emerald, topaz, cat s eye, coral, and hyacinth (red zircon). Each of these ston es was associated with a celestial deity, represented the totality of the Hindu universe with all nine gems all together. Among all the gemstones, diamond is th e most powerful gem among nine stones. There were various cuts for the gemstone. Indian Kings bought gemstones privately from the sellers. Maharaja and other ro yal family members value gem as Hindu God. They exchanged gems with people whom they were very close to, especially the royal family members and other intimate allies. Only the emperor himself, his intimate relations, and select members of h is entourage were permitted to wear royal turban ornament. As the empire matured , differing styles of ornament acquired the generic name of sarpech, from sar or sir, meaning head, and pech, meaning fastener. India was the first country to mine diamonds, with some mines dating back to 296 BC. India traded the diamonds, realising their valuable qualities. Historically , diamonds have been given to retain or regain a lover s or ruler s lost favour, as symbols of tribute, or as an expression of fidelity in exchange for concessions and protection. Mughal emperors used the diamonds as a means of assuring their i mmortality by having their names and wordly titles inscribed upon them. Moreover , it has played and continues to play a pivotal role in Indian social, political , economic, and religious event, as it often has done elsewhere. In Indian histo ry, diamonds have been used to acquire military equipment, finance wars, foment revolutions, and tempt defections. They have contributed to the abdication or th e decapitation of potentates. They have been used to murder a representative of the dominating power by lacing his food with crushed diamond. Indian diamonds ha ve been used as security to finance large loans needed to buttress politically o r economically tottering regimes. Victorious military heroes have been honoured by rewards of diamonds and also have been used as ransom payment for release fro m imprisonment or abduction. [37] Today, many of the jewellery designs and tradi tions are used, and jewellery is commonplace in Indian ceremonies and weddings.[ 34] [edit]North and South America Jewellery played a major role in the fate of the Americas when the Spanish estab lished an empire to seize South American gold. Jewellery making developed in the Americas 5,000 years ago in Central and South America. Large amounts of gold wa s easily accessible, and the Aztecs, Mixtecs, Mayans, and numerous Andean cultur es, such as the Mochica of Peru, created beautiful pieces of jewellery. With the Mochica culture, goldwork flourished. The pieces are no longer simple m etalwork, but are now masterful examples of jewellery making. Pieces are sophist icated in their design, and feature inlays of turquoise, mother of pearl, spondy lus shell, and amethyst. The nose and ear ornaments, chest plates, small contain ers and whistles are considered masterpieces of ancient Peruvian culture.[38]

Moche Ear Ornaments. 1-800 AD. Larco Museum Collection, Lima-Peru Among the Aztecs, only nobility wore gold jewellery, as it showed their rank, po wer, and wealth. Gold jewellery was most common in the Aztec Empire and was ofte n decorated with feathers from Quetzal birds and others. In general, the more je wellery an Aztec noble wore, the higher his status or prestige. The Emperor and his High Priests, for example, would be nearly completely covered in jewellery w hen making public appearances. Although gold was the most common and a popular m aterial used in Aztec jewellery, Jade, Turquoise, and certain feathers were cons idered more valuable.[39] In addition to adornment and status, the Aztecs also u sed jewellery in sacrifices to appease the gods. Priests also used gem-encrusted daggers to perform animal and human sacrifices.[20][29] Another ancient American civilization with expertise in jewellery making were th e Maya. At the peak of their civilization, the Maya were making jewellery from j ade, gold, silver, bronze, and copper. Maya designs were similar to those of the Aztecs, with lavish headdresses and jewellery. The Maya also traded in precious gems. However, in earlier times, the Maya had little access to metal, so they m ade the majority of their jewellery out of bone or stone. Merchants and nobility were the only few that wore expensive jewellery in the Maya Empire, much the sa me as with the Aztecs.[34] In North America, Native Americans used shells, wood, turquoise, and soapstone, almost unavailable in South and Central America. The turquoise was used in neckl aces and to be placed in earrings. Native Americans with access to oyster shells , often located in only one location in America, traded the shells with other tr ibes, showing the great importance of the body adornment trade in Northern Ameri ca.[40] [edit]Native American Main article: Native American Jewelry Bai-De-Schluch-A-Ichin or Be-Ich-Schluck-Ich-In-Et-Tzuzzigi (Slender Silversmith ) "Metal Beater," Navajo silversmith, photo by George Ben Wittick, 1883 Native American jewelry is the personal adornment, often in the forms of necklac es, earrings, bracelets, rings, pins, brooches, labrets, and more, made by the I ndigenous peoples of the United States. Native American jewelry reflects the cul tural diversity and history of its makers. Native American tribes continue to de velop distinct aesthetics rooted in their personal artistic visions and cultural traditions. Artists create jewelry for adornment, ceremonies, and trade. Lois S herr Dubin writes, "[i]n the absence of written languages, adornment became an i mportant element of Indian communication, conveying many levels of information." Later, jewelry and personal adornment "...signaled resistance to assimilation. It remains a major statement of tribal and individual identity."[41] Metalsmiths, beaders, carvers, and lapidaries combine a variety of metals, hardw oods, precious and semi-precious gemstones, beadwork, quillwork, teeth, bones, h ide, vegetal fibers, and other materials to create jewelry. Contemporary Native American jewelry ranges from hand-quarried and processed stones and shells to co mputer-fabricated steel and titanium jewelry. [edit]Pacific Main article: Jewellery in the Pacific Jewellery making in the Pacific started later than in other areas because of rec ent human settlement. Early Pacific jewellery was made of bone, wood, and other natural materials, and thus has not survived. Most Pacific jewellery is worn abo ve the waist, with headdresses, necklaces, hair pins, and arm and waist belts be ing the most common pieces. Jewellery in the Pacific, with the exception of Australia, is worn to be a symbo l of either fertility or power. Elaborate headdresses are worn by many Pacific c ultures and some, such as the inhabitants of Papua New Guinea, wear certain head dresses once they have killed an enemy. Tribesman may wear boar bones through th

eir noses. Island jewellery is still very much primal because of the lack of communication with outside cultures. Some areas of Borneo and Papua New Guinea are yet to be e xplored by Western nations. However, the island nations that were flooded with W estern missionaries have had drastic changes made to their jewellery designs. Mi ssionaries saw any type of tribal jewellery as a sign of the wearer's devotion t o paganism. Thus many tribal designs were lost forever in the mass conversion to Christianity.[42] A modern opal bracelet Australia is now the number one supplier of opals in the world. Opals had alread y been mined in Europe and South America for many years prior, but in the late 1 9th century, the Australian opal market became predominant. Australian opals are only mined in a few select places around the country, making it one the most pr ofitable stones in the Pacific.[43] The New Zealand Maori traditionally had a strong culture of personal adornment,[ 44] most famously the hei-tiki. Hei-tikis are traditionally carved by hand from bone, nephrite, or bowenite. Nowadays a wide range of such traditionally-inspired items such as bone carved p endants based on traditional fishhooks hei matau and other greenstone jewellery are popular with young New Zealanders of all backgrounds for whom they relate to a generalized sense of New Zealand identity. These trends have contributed towa rds a worldwide interest in traditional Maori culture and arts. Other than jewellery created through Maori influence, modern jewellery in New Ze aland is multicultural and varied.[42] [edit]Modern The modern jewellery movement began in the late 1940s at the end of World War II with a renewed interest in artistic and leisurely pursuits. The movement is mos t noted with works by Georg Jensen and other jewellery designers who advanced th e concept of wearable art. The advent of new materials, such as plastics, Precio us Metal Clay (PMC), and colouring techniques, has led to increased variety in s tyles. Other advances, such as the development of improved pearl harvesting by p eople such as Mikimoto Kokichi and the development of improved quality artificia l gemstones such as moissanite (a diamond simulant), has placed jewellery within the economic grasp of a much larger segment of the population. The "jewellery as art" movement was spearheaded by artisans such as Robert Lee M orris and continued by designers such as Gill Forsbrook in the UK. Influence fro m other cultural forms is also evident. One example of this is bling-bling style jewellery, popularised by hip-hop and rap artists in the early 21st century. The late 20th century saw the blending of European design with oriental techniqu es such as Mokume-gane. The following are innovations in the decades straddling the year 2000: "Mokume-gane, hydraulic die forming, anti-clastic raising, fold-f orming, reactive metal anodising, shell forms, PMC, photoetching, and [use of] C AD/CAM."[45] Artisan jewellery continues to grow as both a hobby and a profession. With more than 17 United States periodicals about beading alone, resources, accessibility, and a low initial cost of entry continues to expand production of hand-made ado rnments. Some fine examples of artisan jewellery can be seen at The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.[46] [edit]Body modification

A Padaung girl in Northern Thailand. Jewellery used in body modification is usually plain. The use of simple silver s tuds, rings, and earrings predominates. Common jewellery pieces such as earrings are a form of body modification, as they are accommodated by creating a small h ole in the ear.

Padaung women in Myanmar place large golden rings around their necks. From as ea rly as five years old, girls are introduced to their first neck ring. Over the y ears, more rings are added. In addition to the twenty-plus pounds of rings on he r neck, a woman will also wear just as many rings on her calves too. At their ex tent, some necks modified like this can reach 10-15 inches long. The practice ha s obvious health impacts, however, and has in recent years declined from cultura l norm to tourist curiosity.[47] Tribes related to the Paduang, as well as other cultures throughout the world, use jewellery to stretch their earlobes or enlar ge ear piercings. In the Americas, labrets have been worn since before first con tact by Innu and First Nations peoples of the northwest coast.[48] Lip plates ar e worn by the African Mursi and Sara people, as well as some South American peop les. In the late 20th century, the influence of modern primitivism led to many of the se practices being incorporated into western subcultures. Many of these practice s rely on a combination of body modification and decorative objects, thus keepin g the distinction between these two types of decoration blurred. In many cultures, jewellery is used as a temporary body modifier, with, in some cases, hooks or even objects as large as bike bars being placed into the recipie nt's skin. Although this procedure is often carried out by tribal or semi-tribal groups, often acting under a trance during religious ceremonies, this practise has seeped into western culture. Many extreme-jewellery shops now cater to peopl e wanting large hooks or spikes set into their skin. Most often, these hooks are used in conjunction with pulleys to hoist the recipient into the air. This prac tice is said to give an erotic feeling to the person and some couples have even performed their marriage ceremony whilst being suspended by hooks.[47] [edit]Jewellery market According to a recent KPMG study[49] the largest jewellery market is the United States with a market share of 30.8%, Japan, India, China, and the Middle East ea ch with 8 9%, and Italy with 5%. The authors of the study predict a dramatic chang e in market shares by 2015, where the market share of the United States will hav e dropped to around 25%, and China and India will increase theirs to over 13%. T he Middle East will remain more or less constant at 9%, whereas Europe's and Jap an's marketshare will be halved and become less than 4% for Japan, and less than 3% for the biggest individual European countries, Italy and the UK. [edit]See also Gemology and Jewelry portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Jewellery Wikisource has original works on the topic: Jewellery Art jewellery List of jewellery types Gemology History of jewellery in Ukraine Jewellery cleaning Murano glass Murano beads Wire sculpture Titanium ring [edit]References ^ see American and British spelling differences ^ Study reveals 'oldest jewellery', BBC News, June 22, 2006. ^ jewel. (n.d.). [Link] Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved on August 7, 2007, from the [Link] website. ^ Kunz, PhD, DSc, George Frederick (1917). Magic of Jewels and Charms. John Lipp incott Co.. URL: Magic Of jewels: Chapter VII Amulets George Frederick Kunz was gemmologist for Tiffany's built the collections of banker J.P. Morgan and the Am erican Natural History Museum in NY City. This chapter deals entirely with using

jewels and gemstones in jewellery for talismanic purposes in Western Cultures. The next chapter deals with other, indigenous cultures. ^ a b c Holland, J. 1999. The Kingfisher History Encyclopedia. Kingfisher books. ^ Morris, Desmond. Body Guards: Protective Amulets and Charms. Element, 1999, IS BN 1-86204-572-0. ^ McCreight, Tim. Jewelry: Fundamentals of Metalsmithing. Design Books Internati onal, 1997 ISBN 1-880140-29-2 ^ [Link] ^ Pliny. Natural History XXXVI, 15 ^ Microsoft Word WMP 2001 2005 [Link] ^ Natural Diamond: World Production, By Country And Type ^ "Diamonds Are a Girl's Worst Friend: The trouble with engagement rings." by Me ghan O'Rourke at [Link] on June 11, 2007 ^ Silver Stars Collection Gemstone Glossary ^ Nassau, K. (1980).Gems made by man. ISBN 0801967732 ^ [Link] ^ Pliny the Elder. The Natural History. ed. John Bostock, H.T. Riley, Book XXXII I The Natural History of Metals Online at the Perseus Project Chapter 4. Accesse d July 2006 ^ Howard, Vicky. "A real Man's Ring: Gender and the Invention of Tradition." Jou rnal of Social History, Summer 2003, pp 837 856. ^ Yusuf al-Qaradawi. The Lawful and Prohibited in Islam (online) ^ Greenbaum, Toni. "SILVER SPEAKS: TRADITIONAL JEWELRY FROM THE MIDDLE EAST". Me talsmith, Winter2004, Vol. 24, Issue 1, p.56. Greenbaum provides the explanation for the lack of historical examples; the majority of Islamic jewellery was in t he form of bridal dowries, and traditionally was not handed down from generation to generation; instead, on a woman's death it was sold at the souk and recycled or sold to passers-by. Islamic jewellery from before the 19th century is thus e xceedingly rare. ^ a b c d e Reader's Digest Association. 1986. The last 2 million years. Reader' s Digest. ISBN 0-86438-007-0 ^ Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life, 155 157. ^ Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life, 295 297. ^ Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life, 297. ^ Treister, Mikhail YU. "Polychrome Necklaces from the Late Hellenistic Period." Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 2004, Vol. 10 Issue 3/4, p199 257, 59p. ^ Duby Georges and Philippe Aris, eds. A History of Private Life Vol 1 From Pagan Rome to Byzantium. Harvard, 1987. p 506 ^ Duby, throughout. ^ Sherrard, P. 1972. Great Ages of Man: Byzantium. Time-Life International. ^ Scarisbrick, Diana. Rings: Symbols of Wealth, Power, and Affection. New York: Abrams, 1993. ISBN 0-8109-3775-1 p77. ^ a b Farndon, J. 2001. 1,000 Facts on Modern History. Miles Kelly Publishing. ^ Ilse-Neuman, Ursula. Book review Schmuck/Jewellery 1840 1940: Highlights from the Schmuckmuseum Pforzheim. Metalsmith . Fall2006, Vol. 26 Issue 3, p12 13, 2p ^ Constantino, Maria. Art Nouveau. Knickerbocker Press; 1999 ISBN 1-57715-074-0 as well as Ilse-Neuman 2006. ^ a b Untracht, Oppi. Traditional Jewellery of India. New York: Abrams, 1997 ISB N 0-8109-3886-3. p15. ^ Lu, Peter J., "Early Precision Compound Machine from Ancient China." Science, 6/11/2004, Vol. 304, Issue 5677 ^ a b c Reader's Digest Association. 1983. Vanished Civilisations. Reader's Dige st. ^ Untracht, Oppi (1997). Traditional Jewelry of India. pp. 278. ISBN 0810938863. ^ Prior, Katherine (2000). Maharajas Jewels. New York: Harry N. Adams. pp. 12. ^ Prior, Katherine (2000). Traditional Jewelry of India. New York: Vendome. pp. 312. ^ Larco Hoyle, Rafael (2008). Museo Larco. Experience Ancient Peru. Lima: Museo Larco. ISBN 978-9972-9341-2-4.

^ The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya. Miller,Mary 1993 ^ Josephy Jr, A.M. 1994. 500 Nations: The Illustrated History of North American Indians. Alfred A. Knopf. Inc. ^ Dubin, 17 ^ a b Neich, R., Pereira, F. 2004. Pacific Jewellery and Adornment. David Batema n & Auckland Museum. ISBN 1-86953-535-9. ^ Dorling Kindersley Ltd. 1989. Facts and Fallacies: Stories of the Strange and Unusual. Reader's Digest. 11-13. ^ "Maori made and wore items of jewllery...", Te Papa ^ McCrieght, Tim. "What's New?" Metalsmith Spring 2006, Vol. 26 Issue 1, p42 45, 4 p ^ Nineteenth-Century American Jewelry Thematic Essay Timeline of Art History The Metropolitan Museum of Art ^ a b Packard, M. 2002. Ripley's Believe it or not: Special Edition. Scholastic Inc. 22. ^ Moss, Madonna L. "George Catlin among the Nayas: Understanding the practice of labret wearing on the Northwest Coast." Ethnohistory Winter99, Vol. 46 Issue 1, p31, 35p. ^ KPMG India (2007). "Global Jewelry Consumption". Gems and Gemology (GIA) XLIII (Summer 2007): 180. [edit]Further reading Borel, F. 1994. The Splendor of Ethnic Jewelry: from the Colette and Jean-Pierre Ghysels Collection. New York: H.N. Abrams (ISBN 0-8109-2993-7). Evans, J. 1989. A History of Jewellery 1100 1870 (ISBN 0-486-26122-0). Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea 1998. Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Westport, CT: G reenwood Press (ISBN 0-313-29497-6). Tait, H. 1986. Seven Thousand Years of Jewellery. London: British Museum Publica tions (ISBN 0-7141-2034-0). Look up jewellery in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. [hide]v d eJewellery Forms Anklet Belt buckle Belly chain Bindi Bracelet Brooch Chatelaine Collar pin Crown Cufflink Earring Lapel pin Necklace Pendant Ring Tiara Tie clip Toe ring Watch (pocket) Making People Bench jeweler Goldsmith Jewellery designer Lapidary Watchmaker Processes Casting (centrifugal, lost-wax, vacuum) Enameling Engraving Filigree Metal clay Plating Polishing Repouss and chasing Soldering Stonesetting Wire wrapping Tools Draw plate File Hammer Mandrel Pliers Materials Precious metals Gold Palladium Platinum Rhodium Silver Precious metal alloys Britannia silver Colored gold Crown gold Electrum Platinum sterling Shakudo Shib uichi Sterling silver Tumbaga Base metals/alloys Brass Bronze Copper Mokume-gane Pewter Stainless steel Titanium Mineral gemstones Aventurine Agate Alexandrite Amethyst Aquamarine Carnelian Citrine Diamond Diops ide Emerald Garnet Jade Jasper Lapis lazuli Larimar Malachite Marcasite Moonston e Obsidian Onyx Opal Peridot Quartz Ruby Sapphire Sodalite Sunstone Tanzanite Ti ger's eye Topaz Tourmaline Turquoise Yogo sapphire Organic gemstones Amber Copal Coral Jet Pearl Abalone Terms Carat (mass) Carat (purity) Finding Millesimal fineness

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