Simplify and evolve your mobile network

A GUIDE FOR OPTIMIZING YOUR RF PATH

Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction: Welcome to RF communications 3

Chapter 2 The solutions, practices and trends: Cell site development 8

Chapter 3 Getting the signal across: Base station antennas 18

Chapter 4 Working within the limits: Co-siting solutions 43

Chapter 5 Getting from the air to the network: Cables and connectivity 58

Chapter 6 The impact of PIM on mobile networks 80

Chapter 7 Spectrum management: Getting the most from every cycle 95

Chapter 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul 104

Chapter 9 The next RF architecture evolution: C-RAN 128

Chapter 10 The energy of communications: Powering wireless networks 136

Chapter 11 Successfully planning against failure: Reliability in wireless systems 158

Chapter 12 Simplifyiing RF deployment where it matters 174

BIOGRAPHIES
 Chapter 1
Introduction: Welcome to RF communications

3 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 1 Introduction: Welcome to RF communications

With demand for 5G rising and 6G on the way, Simplicity and innovation, agility and sustainability. These
mobile operators need more of everything— are the hallmarks of tomorrow’s evolved RF path and a more
powerful, prepared and profitable wireless network. We
more bandwidth and frequency support, more
know because we’ve been involved from the beginning.
capacity and reach, more spectral efficiency
and RF conditioning, more backhaul and power.
That means adding more equipment, ports,
bands and cabling to an already cluttered RF
path. So how do you do it without adding more
complexity? That’s Challenge #1.

Challenge #2 is interoperability. The rate at which new

technologies and applications are coming online is SIMPLICITY I N N N O V AT I O N
accelerating; the interval between disruptions is shrinking.
To stay ahead, you need to constantly adapt your RF path
to capitalize on the opportunities and mitigate the risks.
It means making difficult decisions on how to modernize
and restructure your sites and having the ability to
integrate and deploy the best new technologies and
architectures at the right time.

All the while, there’s simmering pressure to add

AGILITY S U S TA I N A B I L I T Y
sustainability into your solutions and network, while
deploying at the lowest CapEx and OpEx. Consider that
Challenge #3.

4 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 1 Introduction: Welcome to RF communications

The CommScope Outdoor

Wireless Network group
As technologies evolve, standards advance, and demand All of this—our industry experience, design expertise,
keeps growing, our commitment to delivering highly global perspective, customer collaborations and
customizable, cutting-edge macro cellular and small commitment to sustainability—provided the raw material
cell network infrastructure guides our innovation and used to create this ebook.
manufacturing as it has for over 85 years*.

Our expertise and technologies helped launch the first

2G, 3G and 4G networks; today, they enable 5G rollouts Industry
and will be a central component of 6G and the networks experience
that follow. Each year, we invest significant dollars and
resources to pioneer the solutions that enable you to meet
your customers’ growing expectations while simplifying
your network.
Design Global
As a global leader, we have our finger on the pulse of the expertise perspective
industry and our eye on the horizon. We are also deeply
attuned to our partners’ business opportunities and
challenges. We have the vision to see what’s next and the
resources needed to design and redesign solutions that
ensure our customers are prepared.

At the same time, we recognize the potential

environmental impacts of our efforts; therefore, we are Sustainability Customer
committed to being part of the solution, not the problem. commitment collaborations

*Andrew® corporation founded in 1937—acquired by CommScope in 2007

5 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 1 Introduction: Welcome to RF communications

About this ebook

The guidebook to RF path readiness is designed to C-RAN technologies, reliable power delivery and
help you plan a network infrastructure to support your bringing outdoor wireless inside.
immediate needs and long-term growth strategy. It is not
Where appropriate, we’ve included some of our more
intended to be a comprehensive discourse on every RF
innovative and relevant solutions. If you’re interested in
path component and condition. Think of it as a resource
learning more about them, great—we’d be happy to
containing insights, ideas and solutions that we think are
answer any question. Otherwise, use them as examples
important when planning and designing a future-ready
to understand how the industry is evolving and what’s
RF path. In addition to important technical information
possible. We’ve also highlighted solutions and ideas that
regarding the performance, evolution and optimization of
will be of special importance as climate change accelerates,
your mobile network, you’ll find current insights on the
as well as issues that have yet to be addressed.
trends and issues affecting it.

So what can you expect to find in the following pages?

• Start by getting your bearings with an introduction to “What’s with all the green?”
the RF path and an overview of cell site development Throughout this ebook, the theme of environmental stewardship is a common refrain. That is intentional.
solutions, trends and best practices. Then dive into the In its Smart 2020 report, the International Telecom Union estimates the ICT industry generates 2 percent of
global greenhouse gas emissions and challenges the industry to reach net-zero by 2040. CommScope has a
finer points of base station antennas, co-siting options
clear vision of our role in this effort and a roadmap to guide our journey. It features practical concrete steps
and the importance of transmit/receive isolation for that lead to a more sustainable network ecosystem and healthier planet. For example:
both.
• In chapters 5–8, we discuss cables and connectivity,
· Improve radio planning to right-size network capacity

provide insight on overcoming passive intermodulation

· Use more energy-efficient antennas

(PIM), and help you get the most from your available
· Seek out eco-friendly network equipment

spectrum and backhaul network. · Consider greener power and cooling solutions

• Chapters 9–12 are devoted to operational issues that

· Select supply chain partners who are committed to being part of the solution.

are key to maximizing the reach and ROI of your Please consider the “green content” in this book with the same gravity as the situation facing our world.

outdoor network. These include developments in

6 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 1 Introduction: Welcome to RF communications

Chapter by chapter, we’re redefining the RF path

Thanks for spending some time exploring The guidebook to RF path
readiness. At more than 200 pages, there’s a lot of information here.
Please don’t feel you have to read it cover to cover in one sitting. Find
a chapter that interests you, take a few minutes to digest it, then
spend a few days considering the ideas presented. Our hope is that
each chapter will provide a new thought, spark a new question or lead
to a breakthrough that helps you do your job better.

When you’re ready to start planning your next network deployment

or upgrade, we hope you’ll give us a call. Let us show you what’s
possible when you simplify and innovate everywhere it matters.

Contact and Support

[Link]

7 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 Chapter 2
The solutions, practices and trends: Cell site development

8 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 2 The solutions, practices and trends: Cell site development

Building a new cell site—or upgrading an Macro or metro? Know the difference. Macro cell sites
existing one—raises some of the same questions First and foremost, you need to know how the site, along Large, conventional, standalone cell
sites that occupy a dedicated space.
as building a new house. You have to decide with its scope and scale, fits into your overall wireless
Metro cell sites
what materials to use, who to entrust with the strategy. The two primary choices are macro cell sites and
Smaller, lower-power cell sites that
metro cell sites.
construction, estimating the environmental can be concealed in lamp posts
impact and how to get the best results for Macro sites are the large steel towers you’re familiar with. or other fixtures to add network
capacity with fewer zoning and
your money. They typically host many different antennas, as well as
aesthetic challenges.
the cabling and radio equipment needed to receive and
Building or retrofitting a site also forces a discussion transmit cellular signals over a wide area. Metro cells, on
about the latest technologies, practices and solutions. The the other hand, are smaller, more easily concealed sites
components you use for a site today may be very different designed to meet stringent appearance and size criteria
from those used for a site built a year ago—and best demanded by many urban zoning regulations.
practices may have evolved as well. In this chapter, we’ll
While metro cells are an important part of a forward-
look at some of these solutions and practices as they exist
thinking wireless strategy, this book will mainly address
today and try to discern which trends, current and future,
the processes and components involved in deployments
are worth noting.
of macro cell sites. We will begin with the cabling
Chances are that, if you are developing a new cell site infrastructure.
or upgrading an existing site, you will have plenty of
third-party help in the process; site deployments involve Choosing cable and connectors
many different RF disciplines. The topics we’ll cover here Efficient cell site operation relies on the precise pairing
will span the appropriate scale of the deployment, your of components. Some of those components, known as
contractors’ work and the decisions you will have to make passive components, do not need electrical power as
with them. their job is to handle the RF signals that carry the site’s
cellular traffic. Other components are active, meaning
they require both power and an RF signal to perform
their specific task. As a result, the cabling that connects
the various components must be designed to conduct RF
signals only or power plus RF signals.

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 2 The solutions, practices and trends: Cell site development

Historically, copper coaxial cables (Figure 2.1) have been and power cables. This more efficient design also Coaxial cable
the de facto choice for carrying RF-only signals, specifically provides key advantages regarding the environmental A copper cable featuring an inner
between the radio and antenna. To conduct both RF and impact created during manufacturing, packaging and conductive core,outer conductive
layer and a dielectric (insulating
power signals, mobile networks most often use a hybrid distribution.
space) between them. Coaxial
cable that combines fiber-optic strands and a power cable “jumpers” connect antennas
As we will discuss in detail in Chapter 3, certain cable
conductor in a single cable (Figure 2.2). These are used to radios.
types are designed to work with certain antennas.
to transmit data and power from the base station on the Hybrid cable
In Chapter 7, we’ll explore modern connectivity
ground to the radios on the tower. With more and more A cable combining both fiber-
solutions including how connectors built for certain
sites moving to fiber-optic connections between radios optic strands and a copper power
frequencies and power levels are used to best match
and base station, most new installations use hybrid rather conductor. Hybrid cables are used
the components they connect. to remotely power tower-mounted
than coaxial cable.
radios and connect them to base
It should also be noted that a hybrid cable uses less stations located on the ground.
material and is lighter in weight than separate fiber

2.1: Coaxial cables showing the inner conductor and 2.2: Hybrid cable containing fiber-optic and
shielding layer separated by dielectric insulator copper power cables

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 2 The solutions, practices and trends: Cell site development

Best practices for cable handling construction, size and weight. If possible, use
During installation, both coaxial and hybrid cable support clamps from the same manufacturer to avoid
must be handled carefully to avoid damaging their damaging the cable and loss of performance. Using
internal structure and seriously compromising their third-party clamps may also invalidate your warranty.
RF performance. Here are several best practices for • Use the right hoisting grips. Hoisting cables up a
installations: cell tower is difficult. Using the correct hoisting grip
helps lift the cable into position without damaging it.
• Use the right tool for the job. Use the appropriate
Hoisting grips come in several types and sizes; ensure
cable prep tool—usually available from the cable’s
yours matches your cable’s specifications.
manufacturer—to cut and prep cable ends. Never use
a saw, as it leaves metal filings behind that cause poor • Proper cable grounding. Grounding the cable is
electrical performance and problems with passive very important to prevent damage from lightning
intermodulation (PIM). strikes. Best practices dictate at least three grounding
points: at the top of the tower, bottom of the tower,
• Watch those tricky curves. Different cable types
and just outside the entrance to the outbuilding,
have different degrees of allowable bend radii, or
shelter or cabinet.
flexibility. You must observe the manufacturer’s
prescribed bend radius for your particular cable to • Weatherproofing connections. Connectors are
ensure its specified performance. Bending too tightly particularly vulnerable to the infiltration of moisture.
can lead to poor electrical performance in coaxial As soon as the connections are made, you should
cable; overbending the glass in a fiber-optic cable can weatherproof them. Butyl tape is the preferred
cause stress cracks that may also cripple performance. method but, in tight spaces, like those atop the
antenna tower, you can opt for heat-shrink tubing
• Keep your cables consistent. When possible, use
applied with a heat gun.
RF jumper cables (coaxial or hybrid) from the same
manufacturer to ensure tight connections. Doing so By following these recommendations, you can help
provides consistent RF performance and guarantees ensure the cabling used in your cell site will operate at
PIM performance. peak efficiency with minimal maintenance. Reduced
• Ensure proper cable support. Manufacturers maintenance means fewer truck rolls, which lowers your
publish specifications describing how to support CO2 emissions and your overall carbon footprint.
lengths of cable, both vertically and horizontally.
Your specific guidelines will depend on your cable’s

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 2 The solutions, practices and trends: Cell site development

Mounts matter Electrical tilt antenna

More and more components in the RF path are being One of the most effective ways to improve antenna An antenna fitted with actuators
that can adjust its tilt relative to the
mounted on towers; these include remote radios, performance is beamtilt. Physically tilting the antenna’s
ground. Changing tilt affects gain, or
amplifiers and additional antennas to support newly orientation below the horizon concentrates the gain—its performance, of the antenna within
acquired spectrum. Using the correct mounting hardware operational power—where it’s needed most. We dive defined geographical areas.
for these components is vital to ensure proper support deeper into this concept in Chapter 3.
and trouble-free operation. Overloaded tower tops
Using remote electrical tilt antennas
with insufficient mounting solutions can shorten the
operational life of equipment and introduce the possibility Remote electrical tilt (a.k.a. RET) involves a motorized
of performance-sapping PIM (see Chapter 6). antenna actuator that alters the electrical downtilt
by adjusting the phase shifter. The actuators can be
The mounts for a six-foot-diameter microwave antenna
operated from a remote location (Figures 2.3 and 2.4),
must be rated to withstand 1,400 pounds of lateral force
reducing the need for truck rolls. The process is controlled
to ensure it remains on target even in high winds. You can
by an Antenna Interface Standards Group (AISG) RET
learn more about the functioning of microwave backhaul
controller, which connects to the antenna via AISG cables.
systems in Chapter 8.
Alternatively, if the antenna is equipped with smart bias
Using the right mount is particularly important for larger tees (SBT), the AISG signal can be carried to the antenna
antennas like microwave backhaul antennas and parabolic via coaxial cable that connects to the actuator inside the
antennas. These antennas can be very heavy, and their antenna. When using this configuration, the coaxial cable
large surface area can act as a sail, catching a great deal carrying the AISG signal must be connected to an SBT-
of wind. This not only increases the overall wind load equipped port.
on the tower, but it can also physically move (deflect)
RET-enabled antennas require a high degree of precision;
the antenna, altering its beam alignment. A 0.1-inch
therefore, properly installing and adjusting them can
deflection over several miles can cause the antenna to
be a challenge. Getting the best result is a matter of
completely miss the receiver on the other end.
understanding the software as well as the hardware.

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 2 The solutions, practices and trends: Cell site development

Here are several ways to avoid common pitfalls: • Test before installing. For new installations, test
the actuators, cables and other components before
• Install the software first. Before your crew goes
installing them on the tower. It’s much easier to address
to the cell site, install the manufacturer’s software
problems when the components, and you, are on the
and become familiar with the controller’s operation.
ground.
This early training will help your team hit the ground
running. • Match antennas and tilts. Not every antenna has the
same tilt range, so be sure you select the correct one
• Check for program updates. Just like your laptop or
from the database before adjusting it. Each antenna’s
cell phone, your RET system uses driver software, which
address is based on its product serial number, so be
must be updated. These updates improve operation and
sure to keep a written record. You should double-
expand compatibility to include more types of antennas.
check your tilts through tab reports generated by the
Make sure your software is current by checking for
controller.
updates on the manufacturer’s website.
• Understand the naming conventions. To prevent
onsite confusion, use conventions for the configuration
of actuators that everyone will understand.

2.3: A base station antenna (BSA) with integrated RET actuators 2.4: ATC-200 LITE

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 2 The solutions, practices and trends: Cell site development

• Keep a spare cable on hand. Bring a spare cable • Go right to the source for cable. It’s considered
to the site in case you need to troubleshoot a non- good practice to purchase your cable directly from the
reporting actuator. It’s the fastest, surest way to tell if manufacturer rather than obtaining it through a third
the problem is a faulty actuator or just a bad cable. party. Each manufacturer’s system requires specific
• Check before tilting. Before making any new tilt electrical conductors; using a mismatched cable may
adjustments, pre-scan the other antennas to determine lead to actuator failure, voiding your warranty.
their tilt values. • Make the right connections. The home run cable’s
• Double-check your work. After making the male connector—the end with the pins—is the end
adjustment, perform a post-scan to confirm the new that connects to the controller. Also, be careful not to
settings have been correctly applied. cross-thread actuator cables at the controller or on the
actuator itself. They should be hand tightened only.
• Don’t tape cables and connectors. Using electrical
Never use a wrench.
tape won’t keep moisture out—in fact, it gives water
a place to accumulate in the connector, where it can • Cycle the actuators when you’re done. After
cause shorts. addressing each actuator, cycle it fully to confirm there
are no hidden problems.
• Protect against lightning. Install lightning protection
units at the base of the tower, or just before the cable • Check for cable stress. All cables should be free of
enters the shelter or cabinet. Also, as stated above, it stress and secured in intervals of 18 to 24 inches, or per
should be grounded in at least three locations: at the manufacturer’s standards. Keep in mind that coaxial
top of the tower, at the bottom of the tower, and just and hybrid cable have different handling and hanging
before entering the enclosure or platform. instructions.

• Don’t splice in a ground lead. Cutting into the Thorough planning and clear procedures like these will
jacket to attach a ground to the thin foil tape inside will ensure your cell site reaches and maintains its maximum
cause water migration, damaging the conductors below potential while also allowing you to make the proper
the foil. adjustments as your network evolves.

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 2 The solutions, practices and trends: Cell site development

The bottom of the tower is evolving as well

New connectivity options aren’t the only recent advances
in cell site design. The base station and associated
equipment at the bottom of the tower are also trending
toward more energy-efficient designs and strategies.
As the network’s carbon footprint and the operator’s
environmental impact come under closer scrutiny, these
newer designs offer significant advantages.

Traditional enclosures—the small buildings you see at the

base of some cell towers—are becoming a thing of the
past. Those still being used (Figure 2.5) range in size from
a medium-sized shed to a modest-sized home depending
on the amount of equipment they support.

Inside the enclosure, cabling from the tower terminates

at the baseband unit. Other components in the enclosure 2.5: A traditional cell site enclosure housing radio and base station components
may include electrical transformers, large battery power
backup arrays, racks of switches and servers, connectivity inefficient, its energy demand is unsustainably steep
to the core network, and the climate control equipment and its complexity slows new site installations just as
needed to keep the equipment operating within its operators need to roll out more new deployments
specified temperatures. Much of this equipment requires than ever. Therefore, conventional enclosures are
a significant amount of power and generates a lot of heat being replaced by new, more efficient and sustainable
that must be constantly removed from the enclosure. solutions such as platforms, freestanding cabinets and
enclosures with free-air cooling.
As cell sites have become more powerful and numerous,
it has become clear this traditional way of storing
and operating the base station equipment is relatively

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 2 The solutions, practices and trends: Cell site development

Platforms and cabinets A typical CommScope platform solution like the one
Platform-built base stations (Figure 2.7) eliminate the pictured in Figure 2.6 includes:
need for enclosures altogether. With a lower cost, faster • Fiber cable and cable entry kits
deployment and greater energy efficiency, they are a • Grounding lugs and bars
rapidly growing trend. Given that the trend toward
• Battery backup cabinets
integrated electronics has resulted in increased heat
• BBU, RF and fiber equipment cabinets
output in a more compact footprint, the open-air design
makes platforms especially attractive. By enabling air • Canopies and ice shields
cooling, platforms can better manage heat removal to • H-frames for mounting ancillary enclosures
reduce energy use and operating costs. • Railings, platform and footing supports
A platform solution typically features integrated electrical • Seismic bracing
grounding, fiber and copper connectivity support, and
enough room for the base station equipment—plus a little
extra for a technician to service the components located
in the cabinets on the platform. It’s surprising how much
performance can be loaded onto such a platform, which
is, in all ways, a miniaturized cell site base station without
the building—and without the extra costs and weeks of
construction time a traditional enclosure requires.

2.6: An example of a CommScope platform

solution that replaces a traditional cell site
enclosure

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 2 The solutions, practices and trends: Cell site development

Free-air cooling enclosures Chapter 2 summary

Free-air cooling (Figure 2.7) is another fast-growing Cell site development
practice making its way to the bottom of the tower. • Technologies are evolving fast
Free-air cooling uses advanced backward-curved • Coaxial and hybrid cable solutions
radial fans to force outside air through the enclosure. have distinct handling requirements
The air is directed downward, forcing the warmer and installation practices

interior air up and out of exhaust vents located on the

• Fiber-based solutions are becoming
the norm
opposite side of the enclosure. To prevent airborne
• Remote electrical tilt can improve
contaminants from affecting the sensitive electronics
site performance
inside, free-air solutions incorporate sophisticated • Traditional enclosures are being
filtration systems. 2.7: Free-air cooling system replaced with more compact and
efficient platform solutions
This solution is designed for sites where use of a
• Free-air cooling helps improve the
platform is not feasible, such as a new site with
energy efficiency of
complex equipment configurations. Free-air cooling
• sites where enclosures are still
can also be used to retrofit an existing enclosure to required
make it more efficient. For example, CommScope’s • Consistency in manufacturer can
Monitor solution (Figure 2.8) reduces the internal help simplify site deployments
temperature inside the enclosure by 10 degrees Celsius
without the use of any air conditioning.

As more and more industries gain insights into their

electrical costs—in environmental as well as financial
terms—there’s a great deal of impetus to reduce the
impact of air conditioning on the balance sheet and on
the CO2 footprint.

2.8: The inlet and filtration system on CommScope’s Monitor free-air

cooling solution

17 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 Chapter 3
Getting the signal across: Base station antennas

18 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 3 Getting the signal across: Base station antennas

The quest for a stronger mobile signal—or, The emergence of base

station antenna standards
in some places, any signal—has become a (BASTA)
routine part of our daily lives. Having more In 2014, the Next Generation
service bars means a stronger connection Mobile Networks Alliance (NGMA)
published the base station antenna
and better reception, and that depends on standards (BASTA) for LTE networks.
antennas. For wireless operators, antennas BASTA defines a unified approach
to procurement and long-term
are the vehicles that power network
network planning, and provides
expansion, allowing operators to better common measurements of network
serve larger areas, more densely-populated performance across the industry. They
make it easier and more economical
regions, additional spectrum and other
for operators to expand their LTE
avenues of network growth. networks.

In early 2022, NGNM’s BASTA

The antenna is one of the most critical parts of both
passive antenna committee released
the transmit and receive paths, and often the most updated standards for that include
visible part. Antennas come in all shapes and sizes beamforming antennas. There is
because each is built for a specific purpose. However, also a separate committee for active
antennas that sets standards for
all antennas share a common link: They are the key
M-MIMO antennas.
to how well—and how far—communications can be
shared.

CommScope has been a trusted partner to all kinds of

wireless networks worldwide for decades, owing to
our deep expertise in antenna design and investment
in cutting-edge antenna innovation.

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 3 Getting the signal across: Base station antennas

Antenna:
What is an antenna? Testing this configuration is a simple task. We connect
The portion of an RF system that
At its most basic level, an antenna is the portion of a radio coaxial cable to the transmitter and place a 50-ohm
radiates radio energy into space and
system that: “dummy load” on the other end to simulate an antenna.
collects it from space.
Using a watt meter reveals two important factors that
1. Radiates radio energy from a transmission line in a Dummy load:
enable us to measure the system’s efficiency:
predictable pattern, and A simulated power load applied to an
1. The amount of power entering the cable from the electrical system for testing purposes.
2. Receives radio energy from open space and feed it back
transmitter, and
down a transmission line.
2. The amount of power reaching the dummy load.
Antennas are surprisingly efficient in transferring radio
energy from line-to-space and space-to-line. When The difference between these two measurements
properly configured with the right components, antennas represents the power lost in the line itself. The better
can yield 80% efficiency or greater. Compare this to the matched the cable, the smaller the difference—and the
common incandescent light bulb, which converts only more power reaches our simulated antenna.
20% of the total input energy to visible light. A key to If we reduce the antenna’s load from 50 ohms to
maintaining an antenna’s extraordinary efficiency is the 25 ohms, 11 percent of the energy sent through the
transmission cable that connects it to the transmitter. coaxial cable is reflected back to the transmitter, lowering
the efficiency. To restore the balance, we’d need to
Matching the line
replace the 50-ohm coaxial cable with one rated at about
To get maximum efficiency from a radio transmission’s
25 ohms. Even then, we’d only be moving the reflection
power, the antenna and cable must share certain
point where the cable connects to the transmitter.
characteristics to avoid wasted energy. For example, if a
radio system uses an industry standard coaxial cable fixed
at 50 ohms to connect the antenna and its transmitter,
the antenna itself must rate reasonably close to 50 ohms
as well.

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 3 Getting the signal across: Base station antennas

In a radio system, mismatched impedance causes energy Voltage standing wave

to reflect back and forth between the transmitter Hidden cost of an unbalanced transmission line ratio (VSWR)
A measurement of the power
and antenna. This endlessly reflected power creates a Mismatched impedance in a cell site’s transmission lines
not only creates inefficiencies in the RF path; there are reflected between transmitter and
measurable wave pattern in the cable—an effect called
environmental implications that are becoming hard for antenna in a transmission line that
the “voltage standing wave ratio” (VSWR). connects the two. This figure yields
network operators to ignore. The greater the impedance in a
transmission system, the more power is needed to maintain the system’s transmission efficiency.
Expressed as a ratio, VSWR is the measurement of how
the proper gain. Today’s mobile operators are under increasing
well matched a transmission line is to its antenna. A
pressure to reduce their carbon footprint while expanding their
VSWR of 1.0:1 indicates a perfect match. Likewise, a network coverage and capacity.
VSWR of 1.5:1 indicates a 4% power reflection, which is
another way of describing 96% efficiency, where 96% of
the power output from the transmitter actually makes it
to the antenna (Table 3.1).

Calculating voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR)

VSWR Return loss (dB) Reflected power (%) Through power (%)
1.10 26.5 0.2 99.8
1.25 19.1 1.2 98.8
1.50 14.1 4.0 96.0
1.75 11.6 7.4 92.6
2.00 10.0 11.0 89.0

VSWR = [1 + 10((-Return Loss)/20)]/[1 – 10 ((-Return Loss)/20)]

3.1: Calculating VSWR, and some sample efficiencies

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 3 Getting the signal across: Base station antennas

Velocity, frequency and wavelength while completing one full cycle. Wavelengths are
Like all forms of radiation, including visible light, radio usually measured in feet or inches and are useful in
waves travel about 186,000 miles—almost a billion feet understanding what it means to be “in phase” or “out
(30 billion cm)—per second. These waves oscillate, flip of phase,” which we’ll explore later in this chapter.
back and forth, between plus and minus at a predictable
Antennas are two-way streets
rate. Each complete flip is called a “cycle,” expressed in
In theory, antennas transmit and receive in precisely the
hertz (Figure 3.2). Measuring how many cycles, or hertz,
same way—only the direction is reversed. In practice,
a signal oscillates per second gives us its frequency—
however, complicating factors, particularly on the
literally, how “frequently” the signal oscillates in one
receiving end, can impact the efficiency with which the
second.
antenna operates.
Knowing a signal’s speed and its frequency, we
To demonstrate, it is perhaps easiest to explore the most
can divide the first by the second to determine
basic of antennas: the half-wave dipole.
its wavelength—the distance the signal travels

A cycle completes itself traveling The number of cycles in The speed divided by the frequency gives the
from plus to minus back to plus. one second gives the frequency. distance the wave travels in one cycle. This is
called the wavelength.

3.2: Relationship of time, frequency, and wavelength

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Half-wave dipole Frequency 1/2 Wavelength 1/2 Wavelength Frequency 1/2 Wavelength 1/2 Wavelength
(MHz) (inches) (centimeters) (MHz) (inches) (centimeters)
The half-wave dipole radiator antenna, often just called
30 196.8 499.9 800 7.4 18.8
a “dipole,” is the most basic antenna used in two-way
50 118.1 300.0 900 6.6 16.8
base station applications. It is essentially a straight
74 79.8 202.7 1700 3.5 8.9
conductor made of wire, rod or tubing that measures 150 39.4 100.1 1900 3.1 7.9
exactly half of its assigned frequency’s wavelength. A 220 26.8 68.1 2100 2.8 7.1
rule of thumb for determining wavelength at a given 450 13.1 33.3 2500 2.4 6.1
frequency is: 750 7.9 20.1 3500 1.7 4.3

Length (in centimeters) = 30 divided by 3.3: Half wavelengths of two-way frequencies

the desired frequency in GHz

As a result, dipole antenna length can be highly variable.

It could be just 0.5 cm in length for a frequency of 28
Dipole
GHz, or 21 cm long for a frequency of 700 MHz. Table antenna
3.3 provides more examples.

Generally, the feeder line is connected at the midpoint, 1/4 Wavelength

so the antenna radiates at maximum intensity in the
middle of the dipole (Figure 3.4).
Antenna
fader cable
1/2 Wavelength

1/4 Wavelength

Dipole antenna radiation pattern

Strongest at center (near feeder)

3.4: Dipole antenna construction and radiation pattern

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Vertical and horizontal antenna Dipole in center of

doughnut-shaped pattern
radiation patterns
All antennas, regardless of polarization, have three-
dimensional radiation patterns. If the pattern is extended
in all directions equally, the resulting shape would be a
sphere with the antenna at its center. The polarization
of the antenna determines which portion of that sphere
represents an antenna’s actual pattern. Slicing the sphere
vertically yields a vertical circle, while a horizontal slice
would reveal a horizontal circle.

Both polarization patterns (horizontal circle and vertical

circle) appear to be omnidirectional within their planes,
a) 3-dimensional view b) Horizontal pattern c) Vertical pattern looks
but that’s not quite the case. In practice, there are no truly looks like a fat doughnut looks like a circle with like a fat figure-eight
the dipole at the center lying on its side.
omnidirectional antennas. The pattern of our sample half-
wave dipole antenna (Figure 3.5), for instance, reveals the
3.5: Radiation patterns for a dipole antenna
truth. It appears circular, like a doughnut, on a horizontal
plane, but forms a figure-8 in the vertical plane.

As we will see later in this section, most real-world

Imagine an antenna whose power input is distributed in
antennas consist of a vertical array of radiating
an even isotropic manner. The directive gain is the radiated
elements—and elevation pattern shaping has become
power density at a specific (theta, phi) coordinate relative to
quite important for interference minimization.
the isotropic radiation. Directivity is the maximum value of
Antenna gain directive gain over the entire sphere.
As shown in Figure 3.5, the level of radiated power density The antenna’s gain is the directivity multiplied by the antenna
varies in space depending on the position relative to the efficiency (see “What is an antenna,” above). He antenna to
antenna. The ability of an antenna to focus energy in a the power input to the antenna. The difference between the
specific direction is described by its directivity and gain. antenna’s input power and radiated power includes insertion

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loss and power that is reflected back to the source due to Power ratio dB Power ratio dB
impedance mismatches (i.e., the antenna VSWR). Antenna 0.10 -10 1.00 0
gain measured relative to an isotropic radiator is expressed 0.13 -9 1.26 1
in dBi (dB isotropic); when measured relative to the gain of 0.16 -8 1.58 2

a single dipole, it’s stated in dBd (dB dipole). 0.20 -7 2.00 3

0.25 -6 2.50 4
Boosting gain 0.32 -5 3.16 5
0.40 -4 4.00 6
Since the input power is constant, the primary way to
0.50 -3 5.00 7
increase antenna gain, or maximize power density, is to 0.63 -2 6.30 8
focus more of the radiated power in a single direction. So, 0.79 -1 8.00 9
how do we do that? 1.00 -0 10.00 10

A base station antenna radiates its energy both 3.6: Deriving gain in dB from power ratios
horizontally and vertically. One way to focus more
radiated power in a single direction is to “squash” the
vertical pattern. The effect is like squeezing a balloon; as
the vertical beamwidth, the power density at the beam
peak, the antenna gain, becomes larger.

Lower insertion loss, increase sustainability

Another way to increase gain is to reduce the insertion loss of
the antenna. This is one of the ways in which antennas can be
made “greener” since reduced insertion loss means the antenna
can provide the same level of coverage while running the power
amplifiers of the radio at a lower setting, conserving electricity.

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Omnidirectional pattern gain antennas assigned frequency being transmitted. Anything lower or In phase
To achieve greater gain in this circular (or omnidirectional) higher tends to reduce the improvements in gain. Multiple antennas radiating together
at precisely the same time and rate.
pattern, we can stack multiple vertical dipole antennas
Feeding the array
above each other, as shown in Figure 3.7. This increases
In a vertical collinear array of two or more dipoles, the
the vertical size of the antenna. Then, we feed power
most common means of feeding power via the coaxial
to the dipoles in such a way that they add together at a
transmission lines is the parallel (shunt) feed. Power is
distant point—again, with transmission lines matching
fed along individual lines to each dipole or sub-array of
their radiation power limits for greatest efficiency.
dipoles. Using matching transformers and junctions, the
By feeding equal amounts of power that arrive at each cables connect to the line running down the tower. This
dipole at the same instant, the dipoles radiate “in phase,” allows the array to be fed from the center, equalizing the
or in synchronicity, for improved gain by virtue of its effectiveness of each array element and preventing the
pattern. This type of antenna is called a “vertical collinear beam tilt that affects series-fed installations.
phased array.”
Aperture of dipoles Vertical pattern Horizontal pattern
Aperture
Beamwidth determines the gain of an antenna. Like an
adjustable nozzle on a garden hose, beamwidth describes
Single dipole
the degree to which the signal is focused: the tighter the
focus, the greater the gain within that area of focus.

Spacing of dipole elements

In a vertical collinear array, each dipole or sub-array of
dipoles is connected in parallel to the common feed point Four dipoles vertically
by a separate transmission line. Positioning the dipoles stacked

so they are closer together vertically tightens the overall

beamwidth to boost gain. This separation is usually
3.7: The maximum distance of the edge of the orange shape from the black dot at the center
something between one half and one wavelength of the indicates the gain.

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Directional gain antennas

While omnidirectional gain antennas like the vertical
collinear array achieve greater gain by compressing
its vertical pattern into a flatter circular shape, other
types of antennas modify their horizontal patterns to
X
accomplish the same gain improvements. R

Dipole and reflector

As we’ve shown, a vertical dipole antenna has a circular
horizontal pattern. However, if we position it in front of
a metal screen or wire mesh, the radiation going to the
rear will be blocked (Figure 3.8). If this blocked radiation
is reflected off this screen, the horizontal pattern will no
longer be circular, but directional. F

If a dipole is positioned exactly one-quarter wavelength

from this reflection screen, the radiation that would
ordinarily go to the rear is redirected to the front to form
what is called a “directional lobe.” It’s the same effect
as that of the reflective mirror behind a flashlight’s light
bulb, which redirects the circular light pattern into a R1
Y
single direction. The larger the screen, the greater the
reflection and the narrower the directional lobe—and,
3.8: The omnidirectional pattern of a dipole can be made directional
just as the omnidirectional antenna increases gain by
compressing vertically, this directional antenna increases
gain by compressing horizontally and directing all its
power in a single direction.

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The bandwidth factor In cellular base stations, there are two basic antenna
As we discussed in our description of the dipole, the types currently in use (Figure 3.9):
length of an antenna is determined by the specific 1. Omnidirectional antennas, which exhibit a
wavelengths it is designed to support. As you may circular radiation pattern in the horizontal plane
recall, the dipole antenna must be half the length of and operate in virtually all directions, and
its assigned wavelength. However, it is possible to
2. Directional (or sector) antennas, which operate
build an antenna that covers a range of frequency
in a specific direction, most commonly covering an
bands—or bandwidth—centered on a particular
arc of 120 degrees or less, depending on capacity
frequency.
requirements.
Indeed, nearly every antenna in use today can
cover a wide swath of frequencies within a specific Rx Tx Rx
bandwidth. Certain antenna designs in the 1900
MHz frequency range can support over 61% of the
1427–2690 MHz bandwidth(). These are known as
Rx
“ultra-wideband antennas.” Tx Rx
Tx
Rx
Rx
Cellular antenna concepts
Now that you have a basic working knowledge
of antennas and how specific configurations can
help them perform even better—for example, by
improving gain—let’s zoom in on the cellular antenna.

3.9: Directional antennas

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Cell reuse Antenna characteristics

What makes cellular networks different from other A cellular base station antenna is the most critical
types of communications is the principle of cell reuse. consideration in creating an efficient cellular network;
Cellular or cell reuse is a way of increasing network network efficiency depends on choosing the antenna
capacity by reusing allocated frequencies in a repeated with exactly the right physical characteristics for a
pattern of cells. Earlier technologies such as 2G might specific application. These characteristics relate to
reuse a frequency every third or fourth cell, but 4G and radiation pattern, antenna gain, front-to-back ratio and
5G systems reuse every frequency in every cell. other critical factors.

To see this process in action, consider the shape of In the real world, defining, choosing and testing these
cells and how they fit together. Typically, cells are characteristics requires technical expertise and more than
represented as interlocking hexagons, as seen below a little math. For the purposes of this discussion, we will
(Figure 3.10). Depending on the density of the area cover the basics with a far more generalized approach
served, these hexagons can be miles across or cover than an engineer would use in an actual evaluation.
just a few hundred feet.

Thanks to this cellular design flexibility, channel

sensitivity is limited by external interference rather
than the noise issues that plagued older radio
communications. Directional antennas, for example,
enable specialized pattern shaping along the azimuth
(horizontal direction) and elevation (vertical space) to
deliver precise coverage that doesn’t interfere with
neighboring cells.

3.10: Cell reuse in a sample map

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Radiation pattern Radiation pattern

Perhaps the most obvious and important characteristic The three-dimensional shape of
an antenna’s strongest signal
to understand is an antenna’s radiation pattern. If a
transmission.
particular application calls for coverage in all directions,
Spherical coordinate system
you would choose an antenna with a circular or
A geometric polar coordinate system
omnidirectional radiation pattern. If your installation
used to mathematically map the
requires a more focused signal, a directional antenna’s z Probe antenna
radiation pattern of antennas.
radiation pattern makes more sense. Azimuth coordinate system
Antenna under test
Mapping an antenna’s radiation pattern is fairly simple The polar coordinate system used
in the field by RF engineers and
and involves use of a probe antenna, a small RF sensor
-
0 surveyors to map the radiation pattern
used to test antennas. The probe antenna is connected
of antennas.
to a receiver. Moving the probe around the antenna r

under test or rotating the antenna in proximity to

a fixed probe enables you to see the variations in y
signal strength. Mapping these readings with polar
O
coordinates yields a three-dimensional map showing in
which directions the antenna transmits most strongly
(Figure 3.11).

3.11: Moving a probe antenna around the tested antenna at a fixed

distance yields a three-dimensional map of its radiation pattern

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An antenna’s radiation pattern can also be expressed as energy standpoint—must have more gain on the horizon
a conventional rectangular plot whose X-axis represents than the dBi reference. The absolute difference between
the antenna’s angle and the Y-axis is signal strength. the isotropic dBi reference and half-wave dipole dBd
Depending on its design, the antenna can radiate in any reference is 2.14 dB; however, most manufacturers
number of shapes (patterns). The isotropic dBi reference today rate their products in dBi. Since an antenna’s gain
is a theoretical “point source” that generates a pattern is determined by comparing it to one of these standards,
covering all directions of a sphere. As seen previously, the the dBi rating will always be 2.14 dB greater than the
half-wave dipole dBd reference pattern has nulls above dBd rating.
and below the dipole and, thus—from a conservation-of-

Elevation absolute voltage level

1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1 Isotropic radiator
Absolute voltage level

0.9
0.8 Half-wave dipole
0.7
0.5
0.6 Polar plot center = 0
0.2 units/radial division
0.4
15°/angular division
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-180 -150 -120 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Elevation angle (°)

3.12: Rectangular and polar vertical pattern plots comparing isotropic radiator vs. half-wave dipole

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Antenna gain
As discussed earlier, an antenna’s radiation pattern
is directly connected to its gain. As we increase the
size of the antenna’s aperture, the pattern becomes
more “squashed” and the gain increases. For example,
doubling the area of the aperture results in a doubling
of antenna gain, or an increase of 3 dB (dBi or dBd).
Larger antennas, however, introduce efficiency-reducing
power losses that diminish the gain improvement.

Front-to-back ratio
Front-to-back ratio
The ratio of a directional antenna’s maximum “front” Half power
beamwidth
directivity (where its main lobe appears) to its “back”
(where its reflector is located) is the antenna’s front-
to-back (F/B) ratio (Figure 3.13). Note that F/B can be
defined several different ways. For example, it could be
defined based on the co-pol pattern, on the worst case
of the co-pol and x-pol patterns, or on the total power
pattern (pol plus x-pol patterns). In addition, F/B can be
defined so the “back” is defined as the worst-case value
Horizontal pattern Polar plot center = –40dB
over a sectoral range around the 180-degree azimuth 5 dB/radial division
point. For example, the BASTA committee has defined 10°/angular division
–3dB level
F/B as “total power over the 180±30-degree sector.”

3.13: A polar representation of a directional antenna’s front-to-back ratio

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Sidelobes and nulls

Apart from a radiation pattern’s main lobe, there are horizontally and vertically). This figure is calculated as the ratio
also sidelobes and nulls. Sidelobes are extraneous areas of co-polarization to cross-polarization in the antenna’s main
of strong signal, and nulls are the low-energy spaces lobe (Figure 3.15).
between them (Figure 3.14). Nulls may exhibit 30 dB or
more of attenuation, meaning the null signal strength
Back lobe
can be as weak as one one-thousandth of the power of Sidelobes

the main lobe.

Nulls
To reduce sidelobe signal strength and its potential Main lobe
interference, the amplitude and phase going into each Main lobe
maximum
element must be adjusted. This typically results in a
widening of the main lobe and a reduction in gain. It is
also possible to redirect the sidelobe power into the null. 3.14: A polar representation of a
This process, known as “null fill,” typically results in a vertical pattern including sidelobes
and nulls
reduction in gain as well.

Polarization Null fill

Polarization is a property of the wave produced by

an antenna; it describes how the wave varies in space Polar plot center = –40dB
5 dB/radial division
over time. In simpler terms, polarization describes the 10°/angular division
orientation of the wave, such as vertical or horizontal or
slant 45 degrees (dual-polarization).
120° 120°

Cross-polarization ratio
This characteristic measures how well a dual-polarized
array can distinguish between two orthogonal waves
3.15: Typical and
(signals broadcast perpendicular to one another, such as directed dipole cross-
polarization ratios

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Sector power ratio (SPR) incorporated fixed electrical downtilt, but this required
The sector power ratio (SPR) is the relative measure multiple different models. State-of-the-art antennas today
of signal power outside a receiving area versus signal have adjustable electrical downtilt, which can be adjusted
power inside the area. SPR is a consequence of an remotely using the architecture and standards published by
antenna’s radiation pattern (Figure 3.16); the lower the the Antenna Interface Standards Group (AISG).
ratio, the better the antenna’s interference performance.

As a practical matter, particularly in cellular network

applications, a higher SPR indicates a higher amount 120°
of interference between antennas in adjacent coverage
areas. When competing signals overlap, interference
can increase and reduce performance. One result
can be poor cell handoffs, where phone calls can be
dropped while moving from one cell to another. Cellular
networks require precise sectorized planning to prevent
this kind of problem.
3.16: Graphic and mathematical
representations of an antenna’s sector
Beamtilt power ratio

As capacity requirements increase, one solution is to split

the hexagons (see Figure 3.10), allowing the addition
of more sites and reducing the coverage radius of the
original site. To accomplish this, elevation beam downtilt
is commonly used to reduce the gain on the horizon
(and thus the coverage radius), as shown in Figure
3.17. Mechanical downtilt results in undesirable pattern
distortion on the horizon, while electrical downtilt
maintains the desired pattern shape. Early antennas

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Cellular antennas on a practical level

Mechanical tilt Electrical tilt
When we move beyond theoretical antenna design to
the real world, we soon discover that the laws of physics
are not the only limiting factors affecting an actual
installation. These issues include everything from tower
weight and wind limits to local zoning board approvals
for antenna size, shape, height and appearance. In most
installations, compromises are necessary to satisfy all the
competing interests.

Most cellular antennas are produced in a variety of

physical sizes to offer the best performance while
conforming to other requirements. Chances are you’ve
seen cellular antennas mounted in a number of ways,
featuring diverse sizes and designs—such as the
commonly used lengths of 4, 6 and 8 feet. Outside the
U.S., common lengths are 1.4, 2.0, and 2.7 meters.

10°
8°
6°
4°
0

3.17: Tilting the antenna changes the shape of the lobe at ground level, reducing gain

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Antenna profiles and tower/wind load amount of material needed and the CO2 output Antenna radomes:

The size and shape of an antenna dictate not only from the production processes. The same applies to • High-strength, low-RF loss materials such as
its function, but also how much stress it places on the antenna packaging materials. Finally, reducing fiberglass—or thermoplastics such as ASA or
the structural members holding it on to the tower. the size of the antenna packaging materials allows PVC—offer protection from the elements.
Because cellular base station antennas are typically a larger number of antennas to be placed in a • Materials must offer UV protection to prevent
located high above the ground, they experience shipping container or truck trailer, which reduces deterioration due to sunlight exposure. This can
greater wind speeds and gusts than one might the amount of energy consumed to deliver the be done via a coating or by adding UV inhibitors
notice at the base of the tower. Antennas act antenna to its destination. to the base polymer.
like sails, catching the wind on their flat surfaces
Materials and environment
to create “wind load,” a measure of the stress
wind places on the tower and antenna mounts. Cellular base station antennas are only as reliable as
Radomes go green
Therefore, where possible, antennas should be the materials that go into their construction. When
CommScope now manufactures many of its
designed with the smallest, most aerodynamic form it comes to working with the physical limitations of new radomes with GFRPP (glass fiber reinforced
factor. an antenna’s location, matching the right materials polypropylene), a lightweight synthetic material that
to the environment is critical. Here are just a few is also 100% recyclable.
A smaller size also means less weight, which
examples.
improves the antenna’s “tower load” characteristics,
or the combination of the antenna’s weight plus In the antenna array itself:
Tower appearance:
the force generated by wind loading. All cell site • Aluminum alloys offer lightweight increased
towers have a maximum load rating; so, by adding
• For improved aesthetics and faster regulatory
strength but can be vulnerable to the elements.
antennas, one reduces the tower’s remaining load compliance, nonmetallic paint can be applied to
• Pressure-cast aluminum is well suited to bases,
budget. This is increasingly important as more and the entire structure.
sockets, mounts and clamps, where its hardness
more cell site equipment is being mounted on the • For better wear, smooth surfaces should be
and resistance to corrosion are critical.
tower instead of in the shelter at the base. roughed prior to painting.
• Where weight is not a serious factor, copper
These are just a few of the more obvious physical
Moving to smaller antennas also increases the and brass are used for their easy plating and
considerations. Others such as cable selection,
network’s sustainability by lowering the overall conductive properties. However, they need to be
connector choice and termination options should
carbon footprint. This is because reducing the protected to prevent corrosion.
also be evaluated.
antenna’s size (and weight) typically reduces the

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More capacity with fewer antennas

As mentioned earlier, cellular antennas are directional, often
covering 120 degrees. Mounted together on a triangular
tower, these antennas can cover all directions. In dense
urban areas, sector splitting with narrowbeam antennas
provides more capacity to handle additional traffic. But this
configuration also means more antennas and more costs.
Increasing the number of antennas in a single location
also increases the chances of running afoul of local zoning
codes and increasing tower loads and wind loads.

Multibeam antennas enable you to add capacity without

adding more antennas. A multibeam antenna splits
the main beam into precisely spaced narrower beams.
Multibeam antennas are particularly effective in areas of
high network demand like stadiums and outdoor venues.
For temporary high-capacity coverage, many operators will
mount multibeam antennas on a COW (Cell on Wheels)—a
truck with the required radios and a telescoping mast to
elevate the antennas.

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Twin-beam
One example of multibeam technology is the twin-beam
antenna from CommScope. It produces two separate
35-degree beams with centers separated by 60 degrees.
As the illustration below shows, this dual-lobe approach
provides excellent coverage and only requires three twin-
beam antennas instead of six narrowbeam antennas to
provide a six-sector scheme (Figure 3.18).

“Six-sector” sites 65° antenna vs. twin-beam antenna

Wider coverage
0

-5

-10
Traditional 65° pattern
-15

-20

-30

-35

-40

Better roll-off

Twin beam advantages Twin beam pattern

• Back-to-back broaDCast channel (BCCH) re-use capability
• Enhanced RF footprint (higher gain)
• Better interference containment (better roll-off)
• Easier zoning and faster site deployment

3.18 Same number of antennas, double the coverage—a 65° pattern compared to a twin-beam installation

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Beamforming
Beamforming is a capacity-boosting option in which the both capacity and coverage to improve spectrum reuse
antenna elements steer a beam toward each user on a and reduce interference. Managing a beamforming
tightly managed time-division basis. uses It involves a system for a large number of users requires powerful
multiport antenna and correlated amplitude and phase and sophisticated digital processing, but it can
weights generated in the radio. This produces narrower effectively “null out” nearby interference for better
beams that optimize the SINR by increasing the link budget high-speed throughput (Figure 3.19).
to the intended UE or by decreasing the link budget to
other UEs that may generate interference. This increases

R/B [bits/s/Hz]

16 MPSK
R=C
R>C 250
8
M-256 MQAM
Unattainable region
M-64 MFSK
4 M-16 Bandwidth limited 200
M-8
2 M-4

Phyrate [Mbps]
R<C 150
1 M-2
Practical region

1/2 M-4 M-2 100

M-8
Shannon M-16
limit 1/4
50
1/8
Power limited
1/16 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
E0 / N0 [dB] Reach [m]

MIMO 2x3 with CB MIMO 2x3 without CB

3.19 A traditional plot of Shannon’s limiting law

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MIMO A MIMO rank describes the number of streams (layers) Shannon’s law
entering and exiting a communications channel, for each Created by Claude Shannon and
New wireless technologies are being developed and Ralph Hartley, this law establishes a
duplex mode. For a DL 4x4 MIMO, four streams enter and
deployed at a dizzying rate. The current field of cutting- theoretical limit to how much data
edge engineering is collectively known as “long-term four streams exit the air interface in the downlink direction.
can be reliably pushed through a
evolution” (LTE) networks. With the opportunities enabled 2T2R, 2T4R, 2X and 4X MIMO
given amount of bandwidth.
by “multiple input, multiple output” (MIMO), LTE has the
2T2R refers to the base station radio’s configuration to
potential to completely reshape how networks perform.
transmit on two separate streams and receive on two
MIMO splits data transmission into multiple streams and
sends them simultaneously on the same frequency using separate streams. 2T4R refers to a base station radio’s
multiple de-correlated RF ports. configuration to transmit on two separate streams and receive
on four separate streams.
What makes this development so exciting is that MIMO
offers a way around a classic limiting factor of RF 2x2 and 4x4 MIMO refer to the configurations used to
communications known as Shannon’s law, which dictates transmit and receive the respective number of streams. For
how much throughput can be delivered down a given example, 2x2 MIMO refers to the transmitter’s ability to
amount of bandwidth. As Figure 3.19 shows, you can only transmit two separate streams and the mobile’s ability to
expect to get to within 3 dB of a bandwidth’s theoretical receive two separate streams. 2x and 4x MIMO refer to the
maximum in a practical application. base station radio transmitter configuration only.

TR configuration and MIMO rank MIMO circumvents this limit through digital signal processing
(DSP), which can distinguish between the two split signal
A transmit/receive (TR) configuration refers to the
paths and reassemble them into the original data on
number of radio transmitters and receivers in one sector.
the receiving end. This workaround literally doubles the
Increasing the number of transmitters increases the base
theoretical limits defined by Shannon’s law when applied in a
station capabilities in terms of transmit diversity, MIMO
2x2 MIMO configuration with two transmit and two receive
transmission modes and beam steering.
antennas (Figure 3.20).

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The benefits of DSP are quadrupled in a 4x4 MIMO

configuration with four transmit and four receive antennas.
Actual throughput improvements do not quite achieve this
degree of volume, but that differential is to be expected in
any practical application of theoretical performance.

MIMO systems
2 x 2 SU-MIMO: Spatial multiplexing

Same time and frequency resource Different data streams

•  ultiple input multiple output
M • Space Time Block Coding is a transmit diversity
• Capacity gains due to multiple antennas at both mode used when SINR levels cannot support
ends of the link spatial multiplexing
• Multipath provides additional channel using DSP • Decorrelation between antennas and propagation

• LTE supports 1x2, 2x2, 4x2, 4x4

paths required for spatial multiplexing
• A dual polarized BSA for 2x2 MIMO; two
• Spatial multiplexing requires a multi-path
separated for 4x2 or 4x4 MIMO
environment
• Alternatively, vertically polarized antennas can be

used with spatial separation

3.20: This 2x2 MIMO system uses digital signal processing to circumvent theoretical throughput limits

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 3 Getting the signal across: Base station antennas

Chapter 3 summary

Massive MIMO and 5G Antennas:

MIMO’s capacity-magnifying effect sees its ultimate • Structures that radiate and
expression in massive MIMO (M-MIMO), which is already receive radio energy
coming to market in certain parts of the world. Scaling
• Can achieve 80 percent
up the grouped antenna architecture of MIMO to include
efficiency or greater
dozens, hundreds or thousands of antennas has proven
to yield remarkable improvements in network speed, • Directional (sectorized) or
capacity and efficiency. omnidirectional

In 2017 a wireless operator using a 4G M-MIMO Performance characteristics:

antenna was able to increase a single 20 MHz channels • Radiation pattern
capacity by 300% by using a 64T64R M-MIMO antenna • Polarization
system instead of the more typical (at that time) 8T8R • Gain
system. This degree of capacity and speed magnification • Beam width
will be essential to the coming rollouts of 5G wireless
services, which will require vastly increased performance Enhancements through
design:
and lower latency than current LTE wireless networks.
• Vertical stacking
• Element spacing
• Horizontal pattern shaping
• Downtilt

Cellular base station

antennas:
• Sectorized, grouped
antennas commonly
covering 120 degrees or less

42 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 Chapter 4
Working within the limits: Co-siting solutions

43 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 4 Working within the limits: Co-siting solutions

Carpooling neighborhood kids to school is a Co-siting solutions

great way to manage household costs—under Going back to our initial carpooling metaphor, we can
The technology and practices
that allow multiple operators or
the right circumstances. It allows more people think of different sharing models available to suit our technologies to share a physical site
to be moved with less infrastructure, for each participating families. For instance, they might split architecture

participant to spend less on gas, and also their vehicles’ cost and recruit a shared driver. They can

helps reduce the overall density of traffic on even sell their vehicles and hire a taxi company to drive
their kids for a monthly fee (corresponding to a tower
the road. However, it’s not always the best
companies model). More on these models below.
solution. Carpooling also limits where and when
passengers can go—reducing overall flexibility Whatever the specifics of a given cellular installation, X X X
X
CommScope offers a wide range of solutions that
in routing, speed and efficiency. X X X
X
meet virtually any installation requirement. It takes a X X X
700 850 1900

This tradeoff between cooperative advantage and combination of technology and insight to make the best
individualized flexibility applies to wireless networks as of every situation.
well. Here, “carpooling” is co-siting.
Dealing with the realities
The economic case for co-siting wireless network Just as it would be supremely convenient to have
infrastructure can be pretty compelling. With space at your own vehicle and driver, it would be ideal for cellular
a premium, there are real incentives to reducing your base stations to be equipped with their own dedicated
equipment footprint and the associated OpEx; however, towers, antennas and feeders at every cell site
every square foot saved places new constraints on the (Figure 4.1A).
way that base station operates. Since every site has
If such an arrangement were possible in every installation,
unique limitations, it can be a challenge to identify and
the benefits could include:
implement the best co-siting solutions that optimize the
balance of benefits for all concerned. • Individually optimized antenna pattern, azimuth T/R1 T/R2 T/R1 T/R2 T/R1 T/R2

LTE-700 GSM-850 UMTS-1900

direction and downtilt angle
• Minimal RF path loss and signal mismatch 4.1A: Multiband sector with
separate feeders

44 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 4 Working within the limits: Co-siting solutions

• Reduced interference and intermodulation In general, network sharing is a cooperative agreement

between systems between two or more wireless operators to use common
• The ability to perform maintenance on one system infrastructure including, antennas, backhaul capabilities, base
without impacting the others stations and even core networks themselves. It’s estimated that
these arrangements can reduce CapEx and OpEx spending by
Sadly, this arrangement isn’t a practical option for
10 to 40 percent for each participating operator.
most real-world designs. When a cellular base station
makes the move from the drawing board to the tower The major driver of network sharing continues to be the
installation, its design becomes subject to an incredible potential for cost savings. The amount that an operator can
number of variables and limiting factors. Some of the save depends upon the depth of the sharing arrangement.
more common limits are: Options range from real estate and infrastructure to active
• Local zoning ordinances that restrict quantity, forms in which a common RAN network, spectrum resources
size and location of antennas and core networks may be shared among MNOs. The potential
• The tower’s structural weight limits and cost savings and benefits increase as the depth of the sharing
wind load restrictions increases, but so do the risks. An overview of the most common
• Budget constraints that limit both the initial (capital network sharing models is illustrated in Table 4.1B.
expenditure, or CapEx) costs and ongoing (operational
expenditure, or OpEx) costs
• Scheduling demands that require accelerated
Civil infrastructure
service rollouts Site sharing
Backhaul
Network sharing models RF path
Passive sharing
Network sharing has been in use since the early Antennas
2000s when it was used to mitigate the onerous costs Base station
of deploying new 3G infrastructure in Europe. It gained Acitve sharing, MOCN, MORAN Controllers

additional importance when 4G/LTE deployments began Spectrum

GWCN Core network
to heat up there in 2015, again in response to costs.

4.1B: Popular network sharing models

45 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 4 Working within the limits: Co-siting solutions

Despite some 3GPP efforts, there are no standard sharing • National roaming. This is the practice of sharing 3rd Generation Partnership
terminologies, architectures or classifications in the responsibility for coverage and capacity by dividing Project (3GPP)
costs between participating operators based on A collaborative coalition of telecom
industry. Encountering different names for the same
associations originally formed to
sharing type is very likely. Even the term “sharing” itself is geography—in some ways like how separate railway
create global 3G specifications. 3GPP
referred to by “colocation” in some markets. However, all lines share coverage of specific routes and areas with
has since added standards for 4G/LTE
terminologies involve three main sharing categories: each other in a mutually beneficial way. This practice and other technologies.
also gives entrée to new operators who do not own a
• Site sharing. Shared assets may include the physical physical network, but can contract to ride on another
real estate for the site, space on a tower, cabinets or operator’s infrastructure to ensure consistent QoS and
enclosure spaces, and any utility connections supporting equitable pricing.
the site. This has become an extremely common
practice, and is even mandatory in some markets.
• Passive sharing. This is the sharing of passive, or non- Passive sharing techniques
electronic, components needed to support a cell site,
Multiband combining
such as antennas and transmission lines, tower-mounted
amplifiers and other RF conditioning equipment. One frequently used passive sharing technique is
called “multiband combining,” a method of frequency
• Active sharing. This refers to the sharing of active
multiplexing. It takes advantage of the fact that feeder
electronic infrastructure and radio spectrum used in
the RF path, such as base station radios and controllers, cables are naturally well suited to being shared by multiple
as well as operational resources such as maintenance, frequency bands. In other words, multiple base station
radio design and planning. Operators can share not services can be funneled into a single feeder cable that
only spectrum, but core network, infrastructure runs up the tower to the antennas. Those services can
management systems, content platforms, and then be split away from that one cable directly beneath
administrative resources like billing systems and even the antennas.
customer service platforms. Less common than passive
To visualize this concept, think of how you bundle your
sharing, it is nonetheless becoming more widespread to
home or office computer’s wires into a single plastic
support 4G/LTE rollout costs. More on this below.
cable wrap. At one end, the cables separate into various

46 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 4 Working within the limits: Co-siting solutions

ports on the back of your computer. On the other end, combiners (MBCs) are often added to a system as Multiband combining
the cables separate into your keyboard, mouse, network separate components, but they can also be built directly A configuration that combines
and printer connections. In between, they are combined into other components such as antennas. multiple frequency bands into a
common RF path, such as combining
into one slim run that reduces space requirements and
Widely known as “crossband couplers,” these combiners multiple operators or technologies
complexity. operating on different bands.
may be referred to as “diplexers” (two frequencies),
To achieve the benefits of frequency multiplexing, “triplexers” (three frequencies), and so forth according
the feeder cable must be equipped with the correct to the number of frequency paths involved (Figures 4.2
combining devices. Two or more frequency bands can and 4.3).
be combined using multiband combiners. Multiband

X X X X
X X
Antenna X X X X
X X
X X X X
850 1900 700/850 1.7-2.2

Jumper

850 1900 850 1900 LO HI LO HI

DIPLEXER DIPLEXER DIPLEXER DIPLEXER
COM COM COM COM
Jumper

Feeder

Hatch
Jumper

COM COM COM COM

DIPLEXER DIPLEXER TRIPLEXER TRIPLEXER
850 1900 850 1900 700 850 1.7-2.2 700 850 1.7-2.2

Jumper

Base T/R1 T/R2 T/R1 T/R2 T/R1 T/R2 T/R1 T/R2 T/R1 T/R2
Station
GSM-850 UMTS-1900 LTE-700 GSM-850 UMTS-1900

4.2: Shared feeders using diplex crossband couplers 4.3: Shared feeders using triplex crossband couplers, with
broadband antennas using diplex crossband couplers

47 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 4 Working within the limits: Co-siting solutions

The kind of MBC required in a particular application is COM

determined largely by the frequencies the system uses,

and, more specifically, how far apart from each other
those frequencies are. In systems with wide frequency
separation—such as 700-1000 MHz, 1700-2200 MHz
and 2400-2700 MHz—the needed MBCs are likely to be
low-cost, compact devices that introduce virtually no loss
or mismatch.

However, when dealing with frequencies that are relatively 698-960 1.7-2.2
MHz GHz
close to one another—such as 700 MHz and 850 MHz—
the appropriate MBC tends to become larger and more
complex (Figure 4.4).

On the antenna side of the connection, additional COM

efficiencies can be gained among broadband antennas
that can accept more than one frequency through a
single port. This allows it to operate over a range of
bands through one feeder cable, as previously shown
in Figure 4.3.

Like the other circumstances involved in planning an

efficient and compliant base station site, antenna
selection and the base station’s assigned frequencies can
698-787 824-894 1.7-2.2
play a large part in how a particular co-siting solution MHz MHz GHz
comes together.

4.4: Compact diplex and triplex crossband couplers, with example frequency differentiation

48 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 4 Working within the limits: Co-siting solutions

Same-band combining Same-band combining (SBC)

In some instances, multiple services require the use of the Another consideration is the significant heat it A configuration that combines
multiple services, carried over the
same frequency band. When this happens, multiband generates, which must be dissipated—adding costs
same bands, into a common RF path.
combiners—which are designed to suit specific frequency and creating even more design limitations. These Such as combining multiple operators
separation—don’t provide the solution we need. Instead, drawbacks limit the practicality of hybrid combining or technologies operating on the
we can use a variety of same-band combining (SBC) to in-building coverage and similar uses. It is rarely same bands.
options, which can allow different services to share the used in cellular sites.
same space on the electromagnetic spectrum.

In some applications, same-band combining is even used

X
for single-service systems—not to allow other services, but X
X
X
to increase the channels available to the one operating X
1900
service. In all cases, the idea is to combine transmit signals
(TX) and divide receive signals (RX). The best way to
achieve this depends on the specifics of the application.

Now let’s look at some of the more commonly used

techniques.

• Hybrid combining
CABLE CABLE
Hybrid combiners offer a low-cost means of combining LOAD LOAD

TX signals and dividing RX signals (Figure 4.5), but

this advantage comes at the cost of other operational 4 3 4 3
HYBRID HYBRID
restrictions inherent in its design. 1 2 1 2

The main disadvantage of this technique is the high rate

of loss experienced in both directions. This loss increases
with the number of ports involved, so hybrid combiners T/R1 T/R2 T/R1 T/R2
4.5: A hybrid combiner, using cable load to lower
are generally used only in two-port applications. GSM-1900 UMTS-1900
passive intermodulation

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 4 Working within the limits: Co-siting solutions

• Low-loss combiner-multiplexers (LLCs) scalability. As technology develops, networks require Guard bands
LLCs offer a different way to combine base station constant upgrading, adjusting and scaling—which often Narrow gaps kept between adjacent
entails replacement of the LLC component. bands to minimize interference. Used
transmitters. Integrated duplexers allow combining
by the low-loss combiner (LLC) to
of TX signals and distribution of RX signals as well Several examples of LLC realizations are shown in distinguish between different signals
(Figure 4.6). Figures 4.7 and 4.8 on the following page. riding on combined bands.
Like the multiband combiners discussed earlier,
the LLC is a filter multiplexer. However, unlike an
MBC that requires spaces between bands (recall
that the bigger the spaces, the better the combiner
X
operates), the LLC handles frequencies inside the X
X
X
same bandwidth. This is possible due to the addition X
1900
of guard bands, which act as very small gaps within
the band. They create boundary spaces between the
frequencies—allowing them to be distinguished from
one another.
Including these tiny guard bands often requires those
narrow frequencies to be left unused, which adds up
to slight bandwidth loss. In LLC design, smaller guard
bands incur greater cost, size and complexity, so an
economical alternative is to re-use the “lost” guard
band space with a second feeder and antenna.
ANT ANT
LLC-DUPLEXER LLC-DUPLEXER
LLC design significantly reduces insertion loss over TB/R Ri TN/R TB/R Ri TN/R

that of a hybrid combiner, but its reliance on filter

multiplexing places significant restrictions on its
T/R1 R1 T/R2 R2 T/R1 T/R2
4.6: An LLC with integrated duplexer;
GSM-1900 UMTS-1900 RX distribution from GSM BTS

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 4 Working within the limits: Co-siting solutions

ANT
• Multiport antennas
Today’s multiport antennas provide an excellent
opportunity for mobile network operators (MNOs)
to take advantage of antenna sharing while retaining
control of their individual antenna elements and

TXN
coverage patterns. Current modern multiport antennas
are able to support ultra-wideband spectrum and
multiple RET controllers, enabling sharing mobile
operators to individually optimize their tilts electrically
TXB/RX RXin TXN/RX and expand their frequency band allocations, without
physically modifying the antenna. An example is
4.7: An LLC combines a narrow portion of TX band into shown in Figure 4.9.
broadband path; includes duplexer for RX re-injection

ANT

A’/A B/A’/B’ A’/A B/A’/B’

RX RX TX TX

4.8: Filter multiplexer for downlink and uplink—a 4.9: A multiport antenna panel
quadruplexer

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 4 Working within the limits: Co-siting solutions

Sharing antennas—and co-siting antennas There are two basic solutions to antenna sharing: use of multiport
A site’s antennas are unique in that they are key antennas or deployment of combiners.
considerations in both passive and active network sharing As illustrated in Figure 4.10, the biggest challenge when deploying
agreements. The variety of network sharing scenarios in multiport antennas in support of a shared network is the larger
which they are used has led to manufacturers engineering physical size of the antenna and the resulting increase in tower
a high degree of versatility into the antenna’s architecture. loading. This is especially problematic across multiport antennas in
Therefore, base station antennas have evolved to become the lower frequency bands, where the array is larger to begin with.
highly complex, and their proper use in network sharing
X
arrangements can be complicated. Antenna sharing X
X
between multiple operators, for example, can be seen as X X X
X X X
so restrictive in terms of available degrees of optimization X X X
X X X
that it may seem more economical to simply add another X X
X X
(unshared) antenna instead. X X

In fact, an August 2015 regional market survey conducted

by CommScope sales teams estimated the instances of
antenna site sharing to be approximately 100 or fewer
per operator in the Middle East and Africa, and virtually
Operator A Operator B Operator A Operator B
unheard of in North America and Europe. At the same
time, co-siting individual antennas is a common practice in Multiport antennas Low loss combiners

both North America and Europe, illustrating the economic

Multiport antenna sharing Combiner sharing
issues driving the continued global rollout of 4G/LTE.
• Multi BTS RET control after mods
• Normal PIM and VSWR risk Normal antenna size and tower load
Sometimes, however, economy is not the only factor PROS
• Lower RF path losses for all bands
to consider. In some countries, such as Brazil, Canada, • Can re-allocate bands in future
• Higher PIM and VSWR risk
Jordan and Egypt, aesthetic, environmental, health or Increased antenna size and tower loading • Increased RF path losses
CONS
safety regulations force antenna sharing into play as a for low bands • Does not support multi BTS RET control
• LLC fixed for existing bands
condition of the operators expanding their networks.
4.10: Multiport antennas and MBCs/SBCs allow for antenna sharing where it is required.

52 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 4 Working within the limits: Co-siting solutions

MNOs can also choose to deploy multiband or same- Antenna sharing capable antennas Remote electrical tilt (RET)
band combiners as an alternative to multiport antennas. So how can an operator ensure it maintains control The capacity to remotely adjust the
This reduces the required number of antenna arrays and aim of an antenna’s beam to optimize
of its own traffic on a shared antenna? In most cases,
its efficiency. RET uses actuators built
enables the operator to minimize the antenna size and multiport antennas will provide the required flexibility, into the antenna to adjust the beam
tower loading. This type of solution is often used to RF performance and pattern control. However, to realize up or down relative to the horizon.
deploy an LTE overlay onto a network’s legacy services. these benefits, the antenna must provide independent Antenna Interface Standards
However, this approach also has drawbacks. Operators remote electrical tilt (RET) control for each operator— Group (AISG)
a capability not inherently available with all multiport AISG is composed of representatives
give up independent RET control and risk higher
from the world’s leading wireless
incidences of passive intermodulation (PIM) and VSWR. antennas—so operators must either purchase new
equipment manufacturers and service
There are also greater RF path losses and, in order to multiport antennas equipped with independent
providers, including CommScope.
add or change frequency bands, combiners may need RET control or, in some cases, implement using
to be replaced. external hardware.

While either multiport antennas or combiners can be RET uses an open platform developed by AISG. AISG’s
used to enable antenna sharing, the best solution may standards have led to improvements in RET control
be a combination of both. Using a combiner for the and monitoring, as well as reporting alarms and other
low bands and a multiport antenna for the high bands important advances in remote management. Operators
takes advantage of the strengths of both technologies sharing antennas need to independently control their RETs
while minimizing the weaknesses. Certain antennas are through separate AISG inputs, as shown in Figure 4.11.
available with factory-integrated combiners—reducing For non-sharing applications, antennas may be shipped
interconnections, allowing individual RET control and with all RETs assigned to AISG input port 1, as shown
saving space on the tower but also offering less flexibility in the diagram on the left of Figure 4.11. Through
as to the bands that can be combined. reconfiguration at the site, specific RETs can be assigned
to AISG input port 2 to allow a second AISG controller
to have independent control through this separate
connection.

53 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 4 Working within the limits: Co-siting solutions

After an antenna sharing configuration has been To ensure equitable antenna sharing, the antenna’s
completed, a specific RET can be controlled only through RET solution should work with the multiport antenna
the AISG input port to which it is assigned. The diagrams involved and offer independent control for each
shown in the middle and on the right show example operator through their BTS management software.
configurations with the AISG input ports shaded the It should also be scalable to accommodate network
same color as the RETs that will be controlled. growth and the addition of more antennas.

R1 R2 R3 R4 R1 R2 R3 R4 R1 R2 R3 R4

AISG in AISG in AISG in AISG in AISG in AISG in

Non-sharing (default) Antenna sharing example Antenna sharing example

configuration configuration 1 configuration 2

4.11: Various independent RET configurations

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 4 Working within the limits: Co-siting solutions

A closer look at active sharing • Multi-operator core network (MOCN)

Active sharing is drawing a great deal of interest as a As with MORAN, RAN components are shared while
means of dealing with the high rollout costs of new core networks remain separate. The difference here is
and overlaid networks (such as 4G/LTE and 5G), as well the addition of spectrum pooling to the mix. It allows
as the constant need to conserve available spectrum. each cell in the shared RAN to broaDCast all sharing
Operators are currently experimenting with several operators’ identities and other relevant information,
different active sharing arrangements involving various including their NMO (network mode of operation) and
RF path components, spectrum assets and core network common T3212 (location update timer). Participating
components. operators in this arrangement tend to be similar in
terms of market presence and spectrum assets in order
Viewed as a continuum of complexity, one finds there is a
to create an equitable arrangement.
clear tradeoff involved between efficiency and flexibility.
Here are three examples of arrangements, arranged in • Gateway core network (GWCN)
increasing degrees of sharing, summarized in Figure 4.12 This goes even further, sharing infrastructure,
(on the following page): frequencies and core network elements such as the
mobile switching center (MSC), serving GPRS support
• Multi-operator RAN (MORAN)
node (SGSN) and—in some cases—the mobility
Here, only the RAN components of the RF path are management entity (MME). This configuration enables
shared; specifically, the base transceiver station (BTS), the operators to realize additional cost savings
base station controller (BSC), node B and radio network compared to the MOCN model. However, it is a little
controller (RNC) are split into multiple virtual radio less flexible and regulators may be concerned that it
access networks, each connected to the core network reduces the level of differentiation between operators.
of the respective operator. Operators continue to use
their own dedicated frequency bands.

55 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 4 Working within the limits: Co-siting solutions

5G LTE

MORAN MOCN MORAN MOCN

on single baseband on single baseband

PDN GW, HSS

UDM
and applications

SMF/UPF SGW

AMF MME

eNodeB
baseband unit
gNodeB
eNodeB
radio unit

Cell Cell

Nodes or resources of Operator A Control plane and user plane

Nodes or resources of Operator B User plane only

Shared nodes and resources

MOCN
4.12: Active sharing models applicable to co-siting situations, showing increasing degrees of sharing

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 4 Working within the limits: Co-siting solutions

Making the most of available space and power Chapter 4 summary

The design of a cellular communications system reflects
• Network sharing includes
passive and active sharing,
many choices and compromises. The result is that no two
national roaming and
deployments are exactly alike, and every decision is based antenna sharing practices.
on a unique balance of benefit and cost. • Co-siting allows more
Co-siting is an advantage to many and a necessity for performance in less space.

some; as global demand rises and available spaces

• Co-siting strategy is driven
by amount, weight and
disappear, co-siting will become more common all over
cost of base equipment
the world. With the right strategy and solutions, the and antenna-mounted
opportunity can outweigh the costs—ensuring better equipment
service for users and better efficiency for operators. • Multiband combining
leverages feeder cable’s
capacity for multiple
frequencies—with guard
bands.
• Same-band combining
includes hybrid combining
(inexpensive but lossy)
and low-loss combiners
(efficient but with limited
frequencies).
• Independent RET control
makes antenna sharing
more practical.

57 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 Chapter 5
Getting from the air to the network: Cables and connectivity

58 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
11
5 The energy
Getting fromofthe
communications:
air to the network:
powering
Cableswireless
and connectivity
networks

Look around your home and office and you’ll switching center, on a cell tower or connected to the Transmission line
see wires, cords and cables everywhere. In your modem inside your home, cabling is an indispensable The physical medium that conducts
part of the RF path. RF power from one point to another,
office, network cables connect your computer usually between a base station and
to the outside world. In your living room, coaxial Much more than power alone an antenna.

cables bring in premium programming and high- Long ago, transmission lines were primarily used
definition video cables feed it to your flat-screen to provide electrical connectivity. Multi-conductor
TV. Even in homes that have replaced land lines transmission lines could efficiently connect a power
with mobile phones, getting a strong mobile source (like a generator or battery) to a device that
signal relies on the coaxial cables or optical would consume that energy. This kind of simple circuit
configuration is common even today; you use it every
fibers running up the nearest cell tower. These
time you plug an electrical device into a wall socket.
connections manage the flow of information
that drives our daily lives. CommScope is The same idea was also used to bring telephone voice

dedicated to the continuous improvement of signals into the home and business. But telephone
technology evolved and its limitations became more
cable technologies that have an impact on every
apparent. When passing multiple circuits along a single
life, every day.
transmission line, the signals proved highly vulnerable to
external interference that negatively affected call clarity.
Whatever its composition or size, every cable performs the
same simple functions: the reliable transmission of power To address this problem, Bell Telephone Laboratories
or patterns of information (or both!) from a transmitter to developed a new type of cable in the 1930s. It was
a receiver. Even in a wireless network, this cabling—also a shielded cable consisting of an inner conductor
known as a transmission line—plays an indispensable surrounded by nonconductive material called a
role, connecting the wired network to the wireless world, “dielectric.” This nonconductive material was then
enabling you to communicate and share with people surrounded by an outer, sleeve-shaped conductor, and
and devices around the world. Whether it’s in a mobile the whole assembly was finally encased in an insulating

59 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
11
5 The energy
Getting fromofthe
communications:
air to the network:
powering
Cableswireless
and connectivity
networks

cover. This design may sound familiar to you, since it Signals pass along a coaxial cable by riding the outer Coaxial cable
represents the first coaxial cable, which is little changed surface of the interior conductor—and the inner surface A transmission line built to prevent
even today for data transmission (Figure 5.1). of the outer conductor—with a nonconductive dielectric interference while carrying
multiple signals. It consists of an
layer between them. As a result, the only escape points
In RF applications, coaxial cable is used as a transmission inner core conductor and an outer
for the energy carried on the line are at either end— sleeve conductor, separated by a
line for radio frequencies. One reason is something known
exactly where they’re needed for clear transmission. nonconductive dielectric layer.
as the “skin effect,” which happens when conducting
an alternating current like an RF signal. When traveling
through a coaxial cable, these types of signals ride along
the outermost part of the solid inner conductor. The
benefit of this arrangement is that it allows the outer
surface of the outer conductor to be grounded.

Outer conductor

Nonconductive dielectric layer

Outer insulating jacket

Inner conductor

5.1: The basic construction of a coaxial cable

60 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
11
5 The energy
Getting fromofthe
communications:
air to the network:
powering
Cableswireless
and connectivity
networks

Coaxial cable types

Modern coaxial cables used in RF transmission can be
grouped into three main categories: solid dielectric, air
dielectric and foam dielectric. The construction of each
category makes each of them suited to particular uses.

CABLE CROSS SECTION CABLE TYPE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Solid dielectric cables employ a flexible inner conductor (stranded • Flexible • High signal loss
or woven, as opposed to a solid wire), covered by solid extruded
• Easy to install • Prone to deterioration
polyethylene insulation. The outer conductor is braided, and multiple
• Inexpensive • RF signal leakage through
layers can be stacked with shielding foil between them. The outer
• No pressurization required outer conductor
insulation is a polyethylene jacket.

Air dielectric cables are similar to the solid variety except that they • Low signal loss
• High initial costs
employ open space as the inner nonconductive layer. This cavity • High power and frequency
• Pressurization logistics
is supported with small insulating spacers that maintain the open capacity
channel and are pressurized to keep out moisture. • Vulnerability to moisture
• Long operational life

Foam dielectric cables employ a solid (as opposed to stranded)

copper wire core. The outer conductor is generally smooth aluminum, • Reduced power loss
corrugated aluminum or corrugated copper. The inner nonconductive • No pressurization required • Slightly more loss than air
layer is made of polymer foam, which combines several key dielectric
• Moderately priced
advantages from both solid and air dielectric cable varieties. Its power • More expensive than solid
loss and cost characteristics lay between the two other options, but • Long operational life dielectric
foam also offers practical advantages that make it the preferred choice • Enhanced crush resistance
in many modern two-way RF applications.

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The mechanical elements of coaxial cable dielectric design. For high-power applications with higher
Several material choices are available for both the operating temperatures, Teflon® may be substituted
conductive and nonconductive elements of coaxial cable. because of its high melting point. The tradeoff is that
The specific needs of a particular use determine which Teflon is more expensive. Lower cost alternative materials
combination is most efficient and affordable. Figure 5.2 are available, which offer temperature resistances
shows one of the many variants available. between those of polyethylene and Teflon.

Signal energy is carried along the inner and outer

conductor. You will notice that, in both cases, the
surface area of the outer conductor is much greater than
that of the inner conductor. Therefore, the conductive
properties of the inner conductor must be as efficient as
possible. That’s why highly conductive copper is almost
universally preferred.

Braided copper is the most commonly used outer

HELIAX® low-density HELIAX superflexible
conductor on solid dielectric cables. It offers conductivity foam coaxial cable, foam coaxial cable,
corrugated copper, corrugated copper, 1/2
and its braided design improves its flexibility. Solid copper
black PE jacket and in, black PE jacket and
or aluminum material, either corrugated or smooth- halogen-free jacketing halogen-free jacketing
walled, is most often used for foam or air dielectric cables.
The choice between aluminum and copper often comes
down to cost; aluminum is less expensive than copper but
it also has lower conductivity.

Polyethylene is the preferred dielectric material for RF 5.2: Corrugated copper coaxial cables
transmission because of its low loss characteristics and
long life span. It can be used in either solid or foam
dielectric constructions, or as the spacers in an air

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Electrical properties of coaxial cable earlier, air dielectric offers the lowest insulation loss, Attenuation
Signal loss, or attenuation, is a significant consideration in while solid dielectric comes with the highest loss. Measured in decibels (dB), this is
the loss of power experienced by
the design of a cable. The loss occurs in three ways: Assigned frequency. All three types of attenuation an RF signal as it moves from one
1. Conductor loss: Signal loss that occurs due to the directly increase as a function of the frequency of the point to another. Transmission line
cable’s signal. The higher the frequency and the shorter attenuation is expressed in either
conductive properties of the cable’s materials.
decibels per 100 feet (dB/100 ft) or
the wavelength, the greater the loss in any given cable.
2. RF leakage: Loss of signal through a cable’s shielding. meters (dB/100 m) of cable length.
3. Insulation loss: A fixed degree of attenuation caused This complex balancing act of performance, ease of Ohm
by the cable’s dielectric layer. handling, and cost means no single transmission line The unit of electrical resistance,
design is ideal for all, or even most, circumstances. or impedance. In terms of RF
Attenuation in transmission lines is expressed in decibels
Each application demands its own unique compromise transmission lines, ohms refer to
per 100 feet (or meters) of cable length.
the inherent, or characteristic, loss
between these factors.
How well these losses are managed depends on over a length of cable.
Another compounding factor that is becoming more
such factors as the size and length of the cable, the
urgent is the environmental impact of higher attenuation,
conductivity of the cable materials, the frequencies
in all its forms. Signal loss weakens the overall RF gain,
traveling along the cable and the effectiveness of its
and that loss needs to be compensated for if your
shielding. There are general physical rules governing
coverage and capacity are to be met. Typically, that
how these factors impact attenuation, such as:
involves turning up the power on the radio. Over time,
Cable size. As a rule, a cable’s conductor loss will running radios at these higher power levels puts more
decrease as its size increases. The larger the cable’s pressure on the power grid and compounds the resulting
cross section, the more conductive area is available. environmental impacts.
Cable design. Solid outer conductors allow less RF
Characteristic impedance
leakage than braided ones, though at the expense
Characteristic impedance, commonly called “cable
of flexibility.
impedance,” is a measurement of the electrical resistance
Dielectric material choice. Each dielectric material of an RF transmission line as measured in ohms. The
exhibits a predictable level of insulation loss. As explained figure is derived by a complex formula involving the ratio

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between the cable’s two conductors. As a general rule the Power handling capability
industry standard impedance for RF cable is usually The amount of power a transmission line can handle
50 ohms (though some applications require 75 ohms). depends on the ambient temperature and the operating
The expected degree of impedance can be affected by temperature of the cable.
imperfections or damage in the cable itself. For example, As we’ve seen, power loss is inherent in any cable design
a deep dent in the outer wall of a coaxial cable can and depends on the kind of dielectric used in the line.
cause its impedance to vary from its standard level. This This power loss takes the form of heat; the greater the
disruption is called a “discontinuity,” or a change in the attenuation within a cable, the more heat it will generate
distance between the inner and outer conductors, as from that lost energy. Likewise, the greater the frequency
you might see from a squashed cable. The signal reflects passing along any given cable, the more heat it will
within the cable, creating the same loss of performance as generate as a function of loss.
a mismatch between cable and antenna (Chapter 3).
Heat resistance is a critical factor in cable design.
This is one reason a cable’s flexibility and crush resistance For instance, foam dielectrics begin to soften near
are such crucial factors—damage during installation is a 180 degrees Fahrenheit. Ensuring the combined internal
frequent source of discontinuity and can be expensive and and ambient temperatures won’t exceed 180 degrees
time-consuming to remedy. is critical in selecting the right type of transmission line.
If the cable exceeds this limit, the softened dielectric
Velocity of propagation
will allow the inner conductor to shift, creating a
The velocity of propagation within a coaxial cable is
discontinuity. If it should contact the outer conductor,
the speed at which a signal can travel along that cable.
the result would be a shorted cable. To help engineers
Velocity is governed by the amount and type of dielectric
make the right choice and prevent such failures, cable
used; it is expressed as a percentage of the speed of
manufacturers like CommScope rate each type of cable
light, from 67% for solid dielectric cables up to
for certain power levels at certain ambient temperatures.
92% for air dielectric cables. Since the speed of light is
more than 670 million miles per hour, velocity is rarely
a concern. However, there are exceptions when velocity
becomes relevant, such as when phasing is required.

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RF leakage Cable life expectancy Environmental factors

As its name suggests, RF leakage is a function of The expected useful life span of a coaxial transmission The climate and setting of a cable
installation dictates what kind of
the physical ways an RF signal can “leak” out of a line depends largely upon environmental factors. Since
cable should be used. Considerations
transmission line. In the case of a cable with a braided engineers have little control over these factors, they must include:
outer conductor, there are countless tiny openings in the compensate by choosing the right design with the right
• Sunlight UV exposure
cable. As with a leaky garden hose, the more power (or materials to assure the longest possible life span.
• Humidity and moisture
pressure) you apply, the more significantly those leaks
The composition of the cable’s outer jacket is one of • Temperature extremes
affect performance.
the more obvious considerations. Most flexible and
In addition to attenuation, RF leakage causes another semi-flexible coaxial line jackets use polyethylene, Passive intermodulation (PIM)
challenge when several high-power braided coaxial cables polypropylene, or polyvinyl chloride (PVC). All three PIM is interference that occurs
at a system’s non-linear points—
are arrayed in close proximity to each other. The leakage options are vulnerable to long-term sun exposure, so
such as junctions, connections or
can create interference between the cables at their manufacturers incorporate carbon black into the resin to interfaces between dissimilar metal
endpoints. Common points of leakage include antenna improve the jacket’s resistance to aging under ultraviolet conductors—creating interfering
connections, multi-couplers and duplexers (see Chapter 7 light, which can extend their operational lives. This frequencies that can decrease
for more information). Faulty connections can make this improvement is the reason coaxial cable used in most efficiency. The higher the signal
amplitude, or power, the greater
problem worse. applications is black—particularly outdoors.
the effect.
As with power handling, RF leakage is included in a Moisture and humidity are important factors as well.
cable’s specifications to help engineers choose the best While water can infiltrate through tiny nicks, cuts or age
option for a particular configuration—especially where cracks in the cable, the most common form of moisture
many cables terminate close together. infiltration is through improperly sealed connectors
on the ends of the cable. Even humid air inside the
connector can condense as temperatures fall, resulting in
liquid water that wicks deeper into the cable along the
outer conductor’s braid. This can potentially corrupt the
entire cable and short the inner and outer conductors—

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particularly in the connectors themselves. The result is Coaxial connectors

increased signal reflections within the cable and degraded The high costs of PIM make connector technology a
performance due to passive intermodulation (PIM). critical part of efficient connectivity, since connectors
are one of the most common sources of this crippling
interference. As the number of modern RF applications
Longer lasting cables = greener networks has grown, the technology used to connect a cable to its
In 2021, CommScope conducted life-cycle assessments
terminus has evolved. The simple designs created in the
(LCAs) on all our copper cable products. An LCA
1940s for military uses have diversified and improved into
quantifies the total environmental effects of the cable,
from the extraction of the raw materials to its use in a variety of types (Figures 5.3 through 5.11 on next page).
operation and the end of its usable life.
UHF connectors are the oldest and most popular type
By developing longer lasting, less impactful products, still in use for two-way communications. They are rugged,
we are able to extend the purchasing cycle and reduce
reliable and easy to install, which is why they are the
the environmental strain of frequent production cycles.
preferred choice for applications with frequencies up to
Through initiatives like our ReelSmart® recycling
300 MHz.
program in which we pick up and recycle used
CommScope (broadband) cable reels, we help
customers further reduce waste.
Quality connectors combat climate change
Overall, in 2021, CommScope successfully eliminated
Transportation is the largest contributor to climate change in the U.S., according to the EPA, accounting for
87.8% of nonhazardous waste from landfills.
around 28% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. With thousands of truck rolls per network each year, mobile
operators are in a prime position to help reduce GHG emissions and help stem the tide of climate change.

PIM and moisture buildup are two of the most common reasons for poor performing networks. In both cases, the
root problem can often be traced to faulty or poorly installed connectors.

Making sure you’re using quality RF connectors and installing them properly, the first time, can make a significant
difference in reducing the number of truck rolls and your network’s carbon footprint.

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BNC connectors are small and feature a bayonet-style lock 5.3: 4.3-10 connectors, the newest
5.4: DIN coaxial connector 5.5: Type N connector
coupling that makes it easy to disconnect. BNCs are often industry standard

used on narrow cables connecting equipment.

TNC connectors are similar to BNC connectors but

include threaded connections that keep them secure in
environments where vibration is a concern.

Type-N connectors are an industry favorite for RF

applications with frequencies above 300 MHz, where
UHF connectors are not suitable. Type-N connectors may 5.6: BNC coaxial connector 5.7: TNC coaxial connector 5.8: EIA flange coaxial connector
be rated to perform at 10 GHz or even higher.

EIA flanges are primarily used on pressurized air dielectric

cables operating above 450 MHz. These connectors offer
the standard 50 ohms of impedance and typically offer
higher voltage characteristics than Type-N connectors.

DIN (Deutsche Industrie Normenausschuss) connectors

are available in several sizes and have been a preferred 5.9: NEX10 coaxial connector 5.10: 2.2-5 coaxial connector 5.11: Ganged connector
connector due to its large cross section, which is greater
than that offered by Type-N connectors. However, due to
increasing PIM concerns and higher connection densities
on antennas and other RF equipment, DIN is giving way to
the newer 4.3-10, Nex10, and 2.2-5 connector types.

4.3-10 and other new small form factor connectors

like Nex10 and 2.2-5 are quickly becoming the industry
standard RF connector for 4G/5G and small cell networks
because of their ability to mitigate PIM interference.

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They feature a radial contact and low coupling torque and eventual replacement. We may also consider a less
requirements, making it easier to ensure a proper expensive option with a higher rate of loss. If we can
installation and solid contact. The separation of their compensate for the loss with greater RF power generation
mechanical and electrical planes offers superior PIM on one end or increased antenna gain on the other, this
characteristics compared to DIN equivalents, and their may be a good solution.
smaller footprint allows for more connections in crowded
Installation step 2: Field testing
interfaces—a very useful benefit for more sophisticated
multiport antennas being used today. Once you have selected and installed the cable that best
performs to your application’s priorities, the process of
Installation step 1: Cable choice fine-tuning that performance can begin. There are three
When it comes to the practical process of planning a tests you would likely perform: inner and outer conductor
cable deployment, we’ve shown that there are many continuity, shorts between conductors, and a voltage
variables that must be anticipated and balanced for the standing wave ratio (VSWR) test.
best result. As discussed above, choosing an appropriate
The first two tests are simple and direct measurements
cable depends on knowing:
of impedance in the cable, performed with an ohmmeter.
• The frequencies it must carry Any physical disruption of the cable’s integrity would
• How much loss is tolerable show up as a nonstandard level of impedance. You
would then begin inspecting the cable for the source of
• The environment where it will be installed
the problem.
• What kind of budget limits exist
In most cases, there will be more than one acceptable The third test (VSWR) is an indirect but ultimately more
cable solution for any one of these four criteria, but the revealing measurement of overall line performance.
key is to get the greatest possible balance of benefits Basically, the VSWR test measures the amount of signal
among all four factors. In the real world, the best decision reflection within the cable. Measuring both forward and
may be based on dollars as much as wattage. reflected power with a wattmeter, you can compare
the values against the cable manufacturer’s conversion
For instance, while smaller-diameter cables may cost less chart for that particular type of cable. If everything is
to purchase and install, they may need more upkeep functioning correctly, the observed amount of reflected

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energy should fall within expected limits. Poorly made Water infiltration. As discussed earlier, water is perhaps
connections or connections with mismatched impedance a cable’s greatest enemy. Checking connectors for signs of
will quickly become obvious. This process is explained in moisture, double-checking their seals, and examining the
more detail in Chapter 3. cable itself for any new damage will help confirm whether
water is a cause.
Installation step 3: Troubleshooting
Whatever the cause of the performance drop, if damage
Reduced RF communication performance can be rooted in
is identified in a transmission line, it cannot be repaired or
any number of problems and occur in any component in
taped. It must be replaced completely. Long-term system
the system. When the antenna and transmitter have been
performance degradation without an obvious proximate
ruled out as potential trouble spots, it’s time to examine
cause can be just as serious. A common culprit is cable
the transmission lines—because a lot of things can go
aging. While metal-sheath cables are almost impervious to
wrong with cables.
aging when properly installed, inferior cables can age and
Here are just a few things that can impact transmission crack with extended exposure to the sun’s UV rays and
line performance and cause network efficiency to extreme temperatures.
drop suddenly:
Localizing the problem
Weather. A bad storm, lightning, hail or high winds can
If your VSWR measurements reveal a high level of
damage cables and loosen connectors. Visit the site and
reflection—say, 20% above the level indicated by the
speak to those familiar with recent weather trends.
manufacturer’s table—the cable likely is experiencing
Local phenomena. In addition to weather, other local an open, a short or a partial short somewhere along its
events can impact performance. Explosions from nearby length or in a connector.
mining operations, small earthquakes, and even a stray
To confirm this, you could perform the following tests:
bullet from a hunter’s gun have been identified as culprits.
To get a better understanding of the extent to which the • Open the top of the cable, remove the cable ground,
site is subject to such phenomena, speak with the local and short the inner and outer conductors. Measure
maintenance engineering team. impedance between the conductors with an ohmmeter.
An intact cable will show low impedance between the

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two, while high impedance will reveal damage to installation is realigned or painted, it’s smart to inspect
the outer conductor. This kind of damage is hard to the cables and connectors. Identifying small problems
locate. If economically feasible, replacement may be before they become big problems can save a great deal
the best option. of time and money and minimize lost performance.
• Remove the short between the conductors and test In summary, a solid understanding of the construction
impedance again. In this instance, an intact cable of cables helps you understand their best applications,
will show high impedance, while low impedance where they may be vulnerable, and where to look when
may indicate damage to the inner conductor that a fault is suspected.
creates a short somewhere within the cable. The
Fiber-optic cable in the RF path
damage required to cause this kind of fault often
leaves more obvious traces on the outer jacket and The role of fiber-optic cable at cell sites is growing quickly.
is easier to identify. It is steadily displacing copper coaxial cable, as it can
provide faster speeds, greater bandwidth and increased
• Examine the connectors themselves. Type-N connectors
electrical efficiency. This is particularly true where sites
(and, to a lesser extent, DIN connectors) are particularly
have adopted remote architectures, placing radios,
vulnerable to misalignment and pin breakage, which
amplifiers and other components on top of the tower
can result in a short. Also, as the primary source for any
near the antennas, as we will see shortly.
potential water infiltration, it’s a good idea to examine
all connectors for signs of moisture. For best results,
check connectors during cool weather or at night,
where any trapped vapor will have condensed into
more visible droplets. As mentioned above, the new COATING
CLADDING
4.3-10 connector type is designed to avoid installation
CORE
errors and incorrect torque applications, making it less
vulnerable to these kinds of problems.
• Practice good preventative maintenance. Proper
installations reduce the need for ongoing maintenance,
but vigilance is always to your benefit. Any time an 5.12: The structure of a simple fiber-optic cable

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The structure of a fiber-optic cable is simple. It efficient way to move network traffic from the
consists of a light-conducting glass core surrounded tower-mounted components down to the base
by cladding and a protective coating (Figure 5.12). station at the bottom of the tower. FTTA cabling
Signals propagate through fiber-optic cable as serial runs up the tower from the enclosure at the bottom.
light pulses rather than electrical patterns used in Once on the tower, the cabling can be broken out to
copper cabling. connect one or more remote radios and antennas.
Multiband
Because fiber-optic cable uses light pulses instead of The fiber-optic cable below can be installed either antenna system

changing electrical currents, it is much more energy as separate runs or as a single trunk with a breakout
efficient than copper cable and generates no internal system that feeds fiber to the radios. Additionally,
heat. Signals also propagate at virtually the speed of hybrid (fiber and power) cable is gaining popularity
light, making it faster than copper; by using multiple in some regions. Bundling fiber and power in a single
wavelengths (colors) of light, many signals can be cable or assembly, hybrid cabling helps accelerate
sent simultaneously without creating interference installation. Breakout system options for FTTA
with each other—increasing available bandwidth. deployments may include a junction box, plug-and-
Remote
play assemblies or other structures. Figure 5.13 radio heads
However, fiber-optic cable must be handled differently
below shows an example of individual fibers joined
than coaxial cable, and installers new to fiber will
into a single multifiber cable running down to the HELIAX FiberFeed®
need training on how to properly install it. All fiber- jumpers
base station. The antenna connects to the radio via a
optic cable specifies a maximum bend radius—a
short RF jumper.
measure of how sharp a turn it can make before the
core is subject to damage. In crowded deployments, Junction box
with OVP
it’s possible to accidentally exceed this limit, damage
the cable and cause optical power loss.
Baseband unit

Fiber-to-the-antenna (FTTA) 5.13: An example of the structure of an FTTA

One of the fastest growing fiber optic applications deployment, with copper cable between antennas and
radios, and radios linked by fiber-optic feed cables to the
is fiber-to-the-antenna (FTTA). FTTA is an extremely base station on the ground

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Hybrid cable
Since fiber-optic cable uses light, not electricity, to
propagate signals, it cannot be used to power remote
Outer jacket
radios. A power cable must be added; this can be done
Overlap tape (optional)
by adding a separate power cable alongside the fiber, Corrugated aluminum shield
or through a hybrid cable that contains both power and Water blocking tape Corrugated laminated
fiber under a single sheath. A cutaway illustration of this aluminum tape

construction can be seen in Figure 5.14. PVC outer jacket

18 AWG copper conductor

Hybrid deployments are now the preferred method for pairs (QTY-9)
new and upgraded sites for a number of technological,
logistical and economic reasons. Chief among these are:

• It is slimmer and lighter than two discrete cable runs,

reducing tower weight and wind load.
• It is available in multiple architectures designed to
support a range of FTTA site configurations (see
Figure 5.15 on next page).
Ripcord (2)
• It reduces the complexity of site infrastructure and THHN/THWN copper conductor

reduces SKU count for operators. Fiber-optic cable subunit

• It is quicker to deploy than discrete runs. Dielectric central member

24-fiber indoor/outdoor cable
• It offers the fiber bandwidth operators need for current
6 AWG concentric copper conductor (QTY-6)
and future network capacity needs.
Ripcord (2)
• It reduces the amount of material used in production
and the associated environmental impacts. 5.14: The internal structure of a hybrid cable

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There are several ways hybrid cable can break out to components at the top of the tower, depending on the operator’s needs
and the number of radios involved. Some of these configurations are shown in Figure 5.15.

HELIAX® HELIAX HELIAX

Discrete Modular with optional SkyBlox™ Trunk-to-breakout box
Separate fiber and power cables run from shelter/cabinet to Modular fiber, power or hybrid trunk with optional SkyBlox Hybrid fiber/power trunk terminates at the breakout box.
tower-top equipment. plug-and-play breakout.

Applications
Tower, rooftop and small cell deployments requiring design flexibility and Installations requiring customizable and accelerated deployment, Excellent balance of deployment speed, flexible design and
lower initial cost. Highly customizable with familiar installation process. top-of-tower space efficiency and frequent equipment upgrades. upgradability; one trunk supports up to eight RRUs and/or antennas.

Features and benefits

Reduce cost and time: Reduce cost and time: Faster installation:
• Cables precut to length reduces material cost, speeds ground prep • Modular preconnectorized/preconfigured design requires less time • Only one cable to prep and pull, one installer
and only one installer Future ready:
Customize solution:
• More connector options, best-fit solution
Future ready: • Single, lighter trunk lets you add more equipment without over-
• 6:1 fiber-to-conductor ratio; works with SkyBlox plug-and-play loading the tower; add/replace jumpers to upgrade capabilities
Flexible upgrades:
and stackable breakout module and trunk-to-breakout box • Moderate labor intensity
• Enables a pay-as-you-grow approach
Sustainable design: Sustainable design:
• Less SKUs reduces package waste; SkyBlox is the first 100% • Streamlined design minimizes packaging, production,
recyclable breakout box; add network capabilities without transportation and materials use
replacing the trunk

5.15: Examples of FTTA configurations using various breakout methods to bring hybrid cable’s data and power connectivity to the tower top

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Optical and hybrid cable assemblies

As Figure 5.16 shows, FTTA installations can be
accomplished by running only one or two trunk cables
up the tower, with some examples supporting a dozen or
more individual radios at once. Splicing or connectorizing
fiber-optic cable is much more demanding than it is for 12-pair fiber
copper, and much less forgiving of imperfections. Even
a speck of dust trapped inside an optical connection can
cripple a cable’s throughput.

To simplify the work done in the field, CommScope

manufactures cable assemblies for fiber-optic and
hybrid cable applications (Figure 5.16). These ensure
Low-inductance
factory quality, less work required on-site, and reduce power conductors
Power Identification
the likelihood of installer error, which would otherwise pair color -48V RTN

necessitate a return trip up the tower.

x1

x2

x3
Twisted-pair
alarm conductors
x4

x5

x6

5.16: A hybrid cable assembly for a six-radio installation, featuring 12 pairs of fiber-optic cable, six
power cables and a host of alarm-conducting wires

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Fiber-optic and hybrid connectors • LC connectors—duplex uniboot for 2 mm, 3 mm,

Connectors are also an important part of fiber-optic 3.6 mm, 5 mm, 5.4 mm, and 6 mm OD subunit
infrastructure—particularly in FTTA deployments. • Radial outdoor ruggedized connector (ODC style two
to four fibers)
Connectors are often located outdoors, so they must
• OVDA outdoor connector with LC duplex interface
be rugged enough to withstand the elements without
allowing any deflection of the optical signal. Because • Outdoor ruggedized MPO connector (12 and 24 fibers)
there are so many ways fiber-optic and hybrid cable can • Standard MPO connectors (12 and 24 fibers)
be used at a site—and such a variety of architectures and • SC/APC and SC/PC connectors
RF components—there is a wide variety of connector • Hybrid connector (power/fiber with LC interface)
types (Figure 5.17). These include:
• HMFOC 2-12 fiber connections
• Hardened SCAPC connectors
• LC simplex and duplex connectors (900 um, 2 mm and
3 mm subunits)

LC uniboot Outdoor ODC Outdoor ODVA MPO Outdoor hybrid HMFOC Hardened SCAPC
equivalent (radial) LC and MPO

5.17: Some of the many different kinds of fiber-optic and hybrid cable connectors currently available

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Fiber-optic enclosures
Connectors are not the only way to connect or break weatherproof package that can also include storage for
out fiber-optic cable. Fiber enclosures can be located extra cable, eliminating the need for additional cutting
almost anywhere on the tower or at the base and and termination (Figure 5.18). Power cabling can also be
allow the neat and orderly connection and/or breakout interconnected through these boxes, with optional over-
of fiber-optic cable. Enclosures provide a compact, voltage protection (OVP).

5.18: Different kinds of fiber-optic enclosures that weatherproof complex cable breakouts

76 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
11
5 The energy
Getting fromofthe
communications:
air to the network:
powering
Cableswireless
and connectivity
networks

Other fiber-optic cable accessories

Because of the special handling requirements of fiber- 4. Management shelves for fiber optic patching
optic and hybrid cable, there exists a broad ecosystem 5. MPO cassettes that provide easy connectivity
of accessories designed to make installations simpler, 6. Fiber plug-and-play box offering a 6RRU solution in
quicker and less prone to mistakes (Figure 5.19). These convenient storage box
accessories include:
7. Fiber management device securely stores up to 5
1. Hangers designed to meet the specified hang meters of excess 7 mm fiber cable
distances allowed by the manufacturer There are many other related accessories and parts. As
2. Hoisting grips to allow safe, damage-free the use of fiber-optic infrastructure increases at cell sites,
cable handling this ecosystem of solutions is also sure to grow.
3. Grounding kits that prevent electrical damage

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5.19: Some of the accessories used to support fiber-optic infrastructure

77 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
11
5 The energy
Getting fromofthe
communications:
air to the network:
powering
Cableswireless
and connectivity
networks

PIM has nowhere left to hide: The PIM-Guard family includes a full range of cable support
PIM-Guard® accessories brackets, hangers, RRU mounts, roof mounts, cable bands,
As MNO macro networks grow more complex and cable ties and tower adapters. From materials selection and
crowded, the risk of PIM (passive intermodulation) corrosion resistance to the exterior contours and profile,
grows as well. PIM-Guard components are optimized to reduce PIM while
maximizing structural integrity.
A major cause of PIM is loose or corroded metal
connections that are in imperfect contact with each When combined with CommScope’s PIM-fighting RF path
other or the tower. Metallic non-RF path accessories like components, PIM-Guard accessories provide an end-to-end
brackets, hangers and mounts are some of the most strategy that enables network contractors and installers to
PIM-Guard accessories:
common culprits. As more RF-path components are improve the RF efficiency in their customers’ evolving and
PIM-Guard components are
added to the tower, the PIM risks from these accessories complex networks. optimized to reduce PIM while
increase. That’s why CommScope developed PIM-Guard. maximizing structural integrity.
Learn more here.

PIM mitigation installer best practice

Replace metal cable istallation Avoid metal as much as Ensure high contact force Keep cable routing and management neat
hardware with CommScope’s possible, especially metal-to- between components. and clean.
PIM-Guard solutions. metal junctions.
Always follow manufacturer’s Remove any unused hardware and materials
Use polymer cable hangers, installation torque values, using from tower and site.
tower adapters, snap-in callibrated tools.
hanger isolators
Tighten all nuts and bolts.

1 2 3 4
78 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
11
5 The energy
Getting fromofthe
communications:
air to the network:
powering
Cableswireless
and connectivity
networks

Communication depends on connectivity Chapter 5 summary Fiber cable:

While so much of modern RF communication is composed
• Fiber-optic cable is seeing
RF transmission lines:
increasing use in cell sites
of radio energy radiated through the air, the critical • The bridge between base station
• Hybrid cable adds a power line to
links on either end depend on having the right kind of and antenna
the fiber optics
transmission line cable and the right connectors between • Adapted from designs once used
• FTTA connects radios and base
base station and antenna. This connectivity is what binds just to carry electricity
stations with increased bandwidth,
thousands of cell towers into a network that can instantly Coaxial cable: speed and efficiency
connect two users on opposite sides of the globe. • Characterized by insulated inner • Fiber-optic cable is delicate and
and outer conductors requires its own mounting and
As a physical link, these cables must be able to flex where interface solutions
- Solid dielectric
they’re needed, withstand the punishing elements, and
- Air dielectric Accessories:
faithfully carry the frequencies that eventually reach you
- Foam dielectric PIM-Guard components are
as your internet connection, land-line call, or mobile
optimized to reduce PIM while
phone call virtually anywhere in the world. Mechanics and materials:
maximizing structural integrity.
• Copper used for inner conductor
The same type of connected ecosystem exists in your
• Copper or aluminum used for outer
home, only on a smaller scale. From the USB cord on conductor
your computer mouse to the century-old design of your • Polyethylene used for dielectric
telephone’s wall cord, each cable is designed to carry insulation
specific frequencies over specific lengths. • 4.3-10 connector is the emerging
standard for its superior PIM
As a leading provider of coaxial and fiber-optic products performance and small footprint
for networks all over the world, CommScope is at the
forefront of the race to develop innovative solutions that
will push the limits of speed, capacity and efficiency in
RF networks.

79 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 Chapter 6
The impact of PIM on mobile networks

80 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 6 The impact of PIM on mobile networks

Passive intermodulation (PIM) has been a PIM: Public enemy #1 for uplink performance Learn more about PIM theory
major source of performance degradation in PIM is a source of unwanted interference in mobile For more on the background and
theory of PIM, we recommend
mobile networks for years. As mobile networks networks. It attacks the network’s most vulnerable spot:
the white paper: Analysis and
grow more complex, the risk and damage of the uplink path, used to transmit data from the user simulation of broadband and
equipment (UE) back to the serving cell site. cross-band PIM in base station
PIM continue to increase. As a result, network
antennas
operators and their RF path solution vendors As in any communication link, interference degrades
must invest more time and dollars to test, certify, the distance at which the link can operate at a low bit
identify and remove potential sources of PIM or block error rate. Thus, PIM not only degrades the
coverage of the mobile network; it also impacts several
from their networks and products.
underlying network performance key performance
With PIM on the rise, much has been written about the indicators (KPIs), such as uplink throughput, dropped call
mathematics and theory behind it; therefore, we will not rates, handover failures, network accessibility and others.
spend time in this chapter on the background of PIM. In other words, PIM can significantly impact the quality of
Instead, this chapter focuses on: the user experience.

• Impact and types of PIM

• PIM testing: component-level vs. network-level
approaches
• Product designs for excellent PIM performance
• Site troubleshooting to overcome PIM

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 6 The impact of PIM on mobile networks

Intra-band vs. crossband PIM components or structures in the field of view

PIM can be generated in many ways. One of the most of the antennas).
common scenarios is when a high-power transmission Crossband PIM is much more difficult to isolate and
signal interacts with an object that behaves in a nonlinear control than intra-band PIM. It is generated from signal
manner, like a low-pressure contact junction between interactions across multiple frequency bands, including
two metal objects, corroded or rusty metallic objects, or a high-power RF signals that interact with objects that are
poor-quality solder joint. This interaction can result in the external to the cell site equipment. The extraordinarily
generation of two different types of PIM: high number of scenarios that would need to be re-
• Intra-band PIM occurs when combinations of two created in the lab makes crossband PIM testing extremely
or more signals are transmitted in the same band on difficult during product manufacturing.
a common physical path through an RF device like a To help visualize PIM interactions, CommScope developed
coaxial cable, filter, or antenna a 3D PIM Calculator that not only calculates frequency
• Crossband PIM is created when two or more signals ranges for PIM interactions, based on transmit signal
in different bands are transmitted on different paths definition and combinations, but also estimates PIM
that converge on an object with nonlinear behavior (as levels—enabling the user to understand the severity of
described above). a particular scenario on network performance.
In trying to eliminate these potential PIM sources, vendors
of RF transmission path products typically focus on
mitigating intra-band PIM (multiband combiners, which
are designed to combine separate bands into a common
path, are one notable exception). Use of PIM-certified
products helps reduce intra-band PIM, although cell sites
can still be impacted by intra-band PIM if poor installation
practices are followed (such as improperly torqued
connectors, poor connector cleanliness, and metallic

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 6 The impact of PIM on mobile networks

Modeling intra-band PIM

50
In Figure 6.1, the 3D PIM Calculator models an intra-band 30W 30W
30 B25-G
B25-B3
PIM scenario involving two 30-watt (W) carriers in the
10
PCS band (3GPP Band 25). The carriers occupy blocks B3

Spectrum Density (dBm/30kHz)

-10

and G in Band 25; as they are transmitted through the -30

antenna, they combine to create third- and fifth-order -50

PIM responses that degrade the sensitivity of the G-block -70

(uplink) receiver by 5.9 decibels (dB). This alerts the -90

5.9dB
desence
network designer to the risk of combining B3 and G block -110
0.3dB
desence B25-G NF:-126.2dBm/30kHz
-130
carriers on the same RF path. B25-B3

-150
1,830 1,848 1,866 1,884 1,902 1,920 1,938 1,956 1,974 1,992 2,010
A second intra-band PIM scenario is shown in Frequency (MHz)

Figure 6.2. Here, two carriers are generated from a dual-

6.1: Intra-band PIM modeling using multiple carriers on the PCS band (3GPP Band 25)
band radio—one carrier in Band 12 and one in Band 14.
This is considered an intra-band PIM scenario because
50
the antenna connected to the radio supports both bands
30 60W 60W
B12 B14
on a given port. The modeled results from the 3D PIM
10
Calculator indicate that this carrier combination
Spectrum Density (dBm/30kHz)

-10

results in a significant desense of the uplink channels -30

for both carriers. -50

-70

-90
7.8dB 8.2dB
desence desence
-110
B12 B14
NF:-126.2dBm/30kHz
-130

-150
660 678 696 714 732 750 768 786 804 822 840
Frequency (MHz)

6.2: Intra-band PIM scenario involving dual-band radio

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 6 The impact of PIM on mobile networks

Modeling crossband PIM

Figure 6.3 presents a crossband PIM scenario that may be
familiar to many North American operators; it involves one
group of carriers in the PCS band (Band 25) and a second
group in the AWS band (Band 66). The spacing between
the two carrier groups causes a third-order PIM interaction
that falls in the Band 66 uplink blocks, near 1739 MHz.
Even if these two carrier groups are transmitting on 50
16W
separate antenna arrays, a PIM object (external to the 30 40W B25-B 40W 30W
B66-A B66-B
B25-A
site) can generate this level of passive interference and 10

Spectrum Density (dBm/30kHz)

-10
degrade Band 66 uplink performance.
-30

-50

-70

Component-level vs network-level testing -90

9.2dB
desence
6.3dB B66-B 0.1dB
desence desence
Component-level PIM testing
-110
B66-A B25-B
0.1dB NF:-126.2dBm/30kHz
-130 desence
The increasing impact of PIM on mobile networks has -150
B25-A

led most operators to demand that, before deploying 1,690 1,739 1,788 1,837 1,886 1,935
Frequency (MHz)
1,984 2,033 2,1082 2,131 2,180

any RF path product, it must undergo PIM testing as

6.3: Crossband PIM example; PCS and AWS carriers
part of the manufacturing process. Most vendors now
conduct this testing on 100% of products shipped.
The PIM testing methodology used by RF component
vendors was standardized under IEC 62037 to ensure
that a common test approach is used across the industry.
The standardized methodology utilizes two 20 W CW
test tones that are designed to stimulate a third-order

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 6 The impact of PIM on mobile networks

PIM response. The test tones can be generated at fixed

frequencies or swept across a specified frequency band.
For swept frequency testing, one tone is held at a fixed
frequency while the second tone is swept; fixed and
swept tones are typically alternated during the test.
Additionally, the unit under test is subjected to a vibration
profile during the test to expose any manufacturing
defects associated with the product’s assembly or poor
soldering processes.

Product specifications for PIM use the IEC 62037

standard; the PIM level is expressed as a minimum dBc
value (relative level referenced to a defined carrier power
level) and assumes 2x20 W or 2x43 dBm test tones. For
example, a PIM spec value of -150 dBc is equivalent to
an absolute level of -150 + 43 or -107 dBm; the measured
PIM response across the specified band cannot exceed
this value.

Figure 6.4 shows the results of a failed test performed

on an antenna using standard PIM equipment. The test
was run on the antenna’s low band (700 MHz) port using
a fixed tone test. Many outdoor tests opt for fixed tone
testing (vs swept testing) to avoid corrupting the test
with external interference or user traffic. The maximum
6.4: Example of a failed component-level, fixed-tone PIM test
response of the port measured in the plot below was
-134.6 dBc (-91.6 dBm)—well above the -150 dBc
specification.

85 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 6 The impact of PIM on mobile networks

Many mobile operators today are foregoing component-

level PIM testing by site construction teams prior to
product installation. Instead, they are relying more
on the vendor’s factory testing to ensure in-spec PIM
performance while charging the construction team with
site quality assurance. So, what happens if PIM issues are
detected on site, once product installation is complete?
This is where network-level testing comes into play.
-118 -100
-95
Network-level PIM testing -90
-85
In network-level testing, operators typically employ -80

Downlink PRB Load Level (%)

-75
various Operations Support System (OSS) features to -70

Uplink noise (dBm)

-65
simulate site activity and collect data to verify if the site -60
-55
-119
is being impacted by PIM. These OSS features—such as -50
-45
Air Interface Load Generator and Orthogonal Channel -40
-35
Noise Simulation—simulate maximum traffic levels on one -30
-25
or more bands, forcing the assigned radios to transmit -20
-15
at maximum power. The receive bands of one or more -10
-120 -5
radios are then monitored to see if the uplink noise floor
Time
is degraded enough to indicate a PIM issue. Downlink: PRB Load Level Branch 1 Branch 2 Branch 3 Branch 4

Figure 6.5 shows an example of a network-level test in

which no PIM issues were detected. The red “square
6.5: Example of a passing network-level PIM/uplink test
waves,” indicating the percentage of traffic loading on a
particular carrier or set of carriers, show when maximum
traffic levels were turned on and off for several cycles. The
test measured uplink channel levels across all four of the
radio’s receive ports. Readings in the -118 to -119 dBm
range are considered good levels; this range is the noise

86 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 6 The impact of PIM on mobile networks

floor of the radio in a 180 kHz bandwidth—the size of CommScope is committed to working closely with
one resource block. customers to better understand the correlation between
network-level test results and component-level test
While network-level testing can validate site uplink
results. The goal is to diagnose under-performing
performance, it does not replace component-level PIM
components more quickly and effectively and eliminate
testing as a means to verify whether a single component,
them from the network.
like an antenna or RF jumper, is defective.

One reason for this is that the two test methods utilize
vastly different test simulation levels and signal types. A Designing products for excellent PIM
failed network-level test does not necessarily mean the performance
product’s PIM performance is out of spec. Remember,
Base station antennas
component-level testing uses a standard two-tone test
at 20 W per tone. Network testing, however, uses up to CommScope’s base station antennas are designed to

four modulated high-power radio outputs, each utilizing ensure excellent PIM performance throughout their

orthogonal frequency domain modulation (OFDM) operational life. PIM performance is a key focus that

generated from hundreds of individual subcarrier tones. impacts every step of the design process: component-
level electrical design, mechanical design, assembly
A second commonly used network-level testing approach and product qualification. Our technical expertise—the
substitutes the uplink measurements collected through product of decades of practical experience—has led to the
the OSS with direct measurements from the fronthaul development of design rules and process controls that are
common public radio interface (CPRI) channels between now industry standards. Among these is a high level of
the radio and the baseband unit. The data collected is process automation that enables us and our customers to
similar to that shown in Figure 6.5; the major difference achieve a superior level of PIM control.
is the amount of time required to receive the test results.
Using data from the CPRI fronthaul provides results in Additionally, CommScope has developed innovative

near-real time, while waiting for an OSS-generated report techniques to make our antenna products less susceptible

takes time. to environmental PIM. They include automated testing

87 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 6 The impact of PIM on mobile networks

using our proprietary PIM 3D Heatmap to provide a three-

dimensional visualization of an antenna’s PIM susceptibility.
Figure 6.6 compares conventional PIM susceptibility testing
and the CommScope PIM 3D Heatmap approach.

Traditional PIM Susceptibility Test CommScope PIM Susceptibility Test

Traditional test method is putting an external PIM source at fixed locations of antenna CommScope developed an efficient test method which can test the PIM susceptibility in
back side and measure antenna in band PIM directly to check the sensitivity of antenna to wide band frequency with high speed and high resolutions.
environment PIM. Data visualization (heatmap) is applied to make antenna PIM susceptibility performance
display more straightforward and easy for analysis.

Limitations Advantages
• Low test efficiency and low data sampling (resolution). • Data visualization
• Frequency range and band is limited by PIM test instruments. • High test efficiency with high data sampling
• External PIM source level is hard to control (hard to reproduce same test data • Full frequuency bands
on a different bench). • Be able to get the PIM sensitivity of different environment PIM levels
• Results may be corrupted by internal PIM in the antenna. • Not impacted by antenna internal PIM

6.6: Conventional PIM susceptibility testing (left) vs PIM susceptibility testing with CommScope’s 3D Heatmap (right)

88 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 6 The impact of PIM on mobile networks

Figure 6.7 further illustrates the benefit of using the 3D PIM

Heatmap technology during the antenna design process to make
the final product more immune to external PIM.

One example to show how the visualization of PIM susceptibility performance guide the new platform design

With the heatmap to visualize the PIM susceptibility performance, it’s more efficiency and straightforward to guide our antenna design. Below two heatmap shows the PIM
susceptibility performance improvement when CommScope implement different design concept to make the antenna more immune during new platform design. Booth
concepts work well for pattern, return loss, isolation, but different PIM immunity per the heatmap test.

Design Concept 1
PIM Immunity Heat Map

600 –

– 130
500 –

– 140
400 –

300 –
– 150
Band VS PIM
PIM
-138 dBc -139.9
200 –
-147.2
– 160 -140 dBc
100 –
Design Concept 1
– 170 -145 dBc
0– -146 dBc
1,400 1,600 1,800 2000 2,200 2,400
-156.2
-152 dBc
Design Concept 2 Design Concept 2
PIM Immunity Heat Map
-158 dBc
600 –
-161.6
– 130 -164 dBc
500 –
0

0L

0
60

70

80

85
0
70

80
400 – – 140

FFHH-65C-R2-UPM - 22CNEP1000150 - P1 Time:2022-08-01 15:57 FFHH-65C-R2-UPM - 22CNEP1000150 - P1 Time:2022-08-02 08:51

300 –
– 150

200 –
– 160

100 –

– 170

0–
1,400 1,600 1,800 2000 2,200 2,400

6.7: PIM Heatmap use for design optimization

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 6 The impact of PIM on mobile networks

RF conditioning products • Material quality: Quality materials ensure the right

When designing RF conditioning products for excellent surface finish and correct plating layers and thickness
PIM performance, it is important to recognize and develop are used.
techniques and processes to avoid the most common • Process control: This ensures the correct solder
sources of PIM: joint quality and component cleanliness to eliminate
fingerprints or dust contamination during assembly and
• Areas where non-symmetric current flow is created:
tuning.
This includes junctions or sharp edges where current
density can rise to very high levels, making them prone All finished RF conditioning products are tested under
to corona discharge and micro-arcing. Poor, cracked dynamic conditions, as shown in the example below in
or cold solder joints, or loose mechanical junctions can Figure 6.8.
also create high non-symmetric current flow.
• Non-conducting substances, like dirt or oxidation, on
surfaces where current flow is present
• Metallic particles that may cause locally high fields
• Poor/contaminated plating, or poor plating design
• Ferromagnetic material, like fixing screws, in critical
areas
To mitigate PIM risk, CommScope focuses on
three main areas:

• Predictive design: Using electromagnetic and

mechanical simulation data, CommScope has developed
a customized PIM predictor simulation tool that helps
our engineers identify critical areas during the design
6.8: RF conditioning products undergoing dynamic PIM testing
phase, including feature geometry, contact pressure,
and the number, spacing, and torque of fixing screws
used in the assembly of the product.

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 6 The impact of PIM on mobile networks

RF coaxial jumpers Important characteristics of the Sureflex process include:

Coaxial cable has been used for decades to provide • Automated cable preparation: In a factory-controlled
connectivity between radio transceivers and antennas environment, the jacket is removed from the cable end,
in mobile networks. PIM requirements have had a and specialized machinery cleans the cable surface and
significant impact on the way these coaxial products preps the cable for connector attachment.
are designed, manufactured, and tested. Achieving • Solder connection: A 360-degree, lead-free solder
excellent PIM performance requires focusing on key areas
joint is used to physically bind the connector to the
within the coaxial jumpers and assemblies. They include
cable on the inner and outer contact surfaces using a
connector selection, connector attachment technology,
continuous bead of solder. This prevents water ingress
weatherproofing, process control, and test methodology.
and degradation of performance due to tower vibration.
CommScope’s patented Sureflex® cabling shows how • Pin depth: The depth of the center conductor is
paying careful attention to these elements can improve carefully monitored in real time to ensure consistent 6.9: Sureflex cable assemblies with integrated
PIM performance. Its design focuses on excellent physical voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) and PIM SureGuard weather protection

bonding between the cable and connector—guaranteeing performance.

overall cable assembly performance and offering superior CommScope’s SureGuard® weather protection boots are
protection against environmental degradation. added to the finished jumper assembly to provide superior
long-term protection of the connector attachment to the
radio or antenna equipment.

The finished Sureflex jumpers are 100% tested for PIM

performance under dynamic conditions.

REUSABLE PROTECTION PREVENTION

HELIAX® cable and matching Sureflex connectors are

specifically engineered to be used together—optimizing
RF performance and extending long-term reliability.

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 6 The impact of PIM on mobile networks

PIM-Guard accessories
During LTE deployment, mobile operators quickly learned PIM-Guard family of accessories, which are manufactured
the importance of good PIM hygiene when mounting largely from non-metallic polymer materials. Accessories
and attaching the equipment, antennas, and cabling that that continued to incorporate metal were redesigned where
connects all the RAN elements. The main focus of PIM necessary to ensure they cannot generate PIM. The result is
hygiene is to remove low contact-pressure, metal-to-metal a robust and flexible series of accessory products that help
junctions in and around the antenna and radio equipment. operators minimize the impact of PIM on their sites.
To address this challenge, CommScope introduced the

6.10: SnapTak™ polymer hangers and adapters 6.11: PIM-Guard cable support bracket

92 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 6 The impact of PIM on mobile networks

Structural steel solutions Site troubleshooting to overcome PIM

Antenna mounts play a critical role in the overall integrity When diagnosing PIM issues in the field, it is important
of a cell site—connecting the antenna to the supporting to understand whether the PIM is being generated within
structure, such as a tower or rooftop. However, the site or is coming from an external source. Resolving
inadequate antenna mounts can introduce or exacerbate external PIM issues can be very difficult and costly as
PIM-related problems. Here are some key considerations they can be hard to isolate and their impact can change
regarding antenna mounts and their impact on PIM: dynamically over time.

Material selection: Choosing the right materials for Getting to the bottom of an on-site PIM issue is often
antenna mounts is vital. The materials should possess easier. If an RF path component is suspected to be the
excellent electrical conductivity, corrosion resistance and root cause, it should be removed from the site and tested
mechanical stability. Galvanized steel or other suitable using calibrated PIM gear, according to the industry-
metals are commonly used to ensure a reliable and standard two-tone, 2x20 W test process previously
durable connection, minimizing the risk of PIM due to defined. However, removing the suspect component isn’t
material degradation or contact resistance. always practical, as this requires a service interruption.

Mechanical integrity: Antenna mounts should be Instead, the common practice over the past several years
structurally robust to withstand environmental conditions, has been to utilize network-level testing to try and isolate
including wind, temperature fluctuations and vibrations. the PIM. Once identified, the site is taken off-line as the
Any movement or flexing in the mount due to inadequate offending component is replaced. The network-level
mechanical integrity can create intermittent contacts or testing approach was discussed earlier in this chapter
metal-to-metal interactions that contribute to PIM. (reference Figure 6.5).

Rigorous testing and validation: CommScope subjects RF path vs external PIM

sector frames to comprehensive testing and validation
One way to isolate whether a PIM source is within the RF
to ensure these products meet the highest standards for
path or external to the site is to look at the uplink noise
performance, reliability and PIM mitigation.
floor across all receive branches (typically, either two or
four, depending on whether the radio configuration is
2T2R or 4T4R). Monitoring the uplink noise floor can be

93 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 6 The impact of PIM on mobile networks

done either through the OSS or by using a CPRI analyzer Chapter 6 summary To drive out PIM from its HELIAX
connected to the fronthaul fiber connection of the radio SureFlex coaxial cables, assemblies,
Passive intermodulation (PIM) has jumpers and connectors,
of interest. been a major source of performance CommScope focuses on automated
degradation in mobile networks cable prep, solder connections and
If the PIM is found to be internal to the RF path, one of
for years. It attacks networks in a pin depths.
the RF branches will generally be impacted more than the variety of ways: intra-band PIM and
others. You can also look for correlation between a high CommScope’s specially engineered
crossband PIM—PIM generated inside
antenna mounts and PIM-Guard
noise level on the branch and a high traffic level that is the RF path and outside of it.
polymer adapters, hangers and cable
turned on for the carrier of interest (e.g., as during the peak New modeling technologies and support brackets help eliminate PIM
portions of the square wave plot shown in Figure 6.5). techniques like CommScope’s PIM issues on and around the antenna
3D Heatmap and 3D PIM Calculator and radios.
A second method for isolating external vs. internal PIM is enable OEMs and MNOs to better
to place an RF absorbing blanket over the aperture of the Isolating network-level PIM—
anticipate and mitigate PIM issues.
especially if it is external to the site—
impacted antenna* Once the RF blanket is in place, enable PIM exists at the component level can be difficult and time consuming.
the high-traffic simulation and observe the uplink noise floor and the network level; OEMs
One way to tell if PIM is internal or
of the receive branches. If the high noise level on one or take responsibility for controlling
external is to look at the uplink noise
more branches persists, then the PIM issue is likely occurring component-level PIM while MNOs
floor across all receive branches.
focus on network-level PIM.
within the RF path. Use additional troubleshooting to further A second method is to use an RF
isolate the bad component. Controlling component-level PIM absorbing blanket placed over the
involves analyzing every step of the aperture of the impacted antenna.
If the uplink noise levels improve significantly, then the design process—electrical design,
PIM source is likely external to the RF path. In that case, mechanical design, assembly and
a tool like a spectrum analyzer with a PIM probe can be product qualification—as well as
predictive analysis, material quality
used to isolate an out-of-spec component. As noted earlier,
and process control.
identifying a PIM source external to the RF path can be time
consuming and expensive; PIM levels can change over time,
making the task even more difficult.

* Take care to limit the time that the radio is energized during testing,
per the manufacturer’s instructions.

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 Chapter 7
Spectrum management: Getting the most from every cycle

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7 Spectrum management: Getting the most from every cycle

Of all the materials that go into creating a Spectrum

wireless network, the rarest and most precious The electromagnetic (EM) radiation
covering particular frequencies.
isn’t the copper in the transmission lines, the As it relates to wireless systems or
fiber optics in the backhaul or even the land devices, spectrum is the range of

where cell sites are located. In fact, it’s not radio frequencies used by devices to
communicate.
a material at all—it’s spectrum: the “air” that
networks breathe. NTIA spectrum allocation chart showing spectrum
allocations from 1 KHz to 300 GHz
Spectrum is, by nature, a limited resource. You can’t
manufacture more of it simply because demand has
increased, or because more wireless operators have
entered the market. Most available spectrum is already
assigned and in use all over the planet, and regulatory
releases of additional spectrum are few and far
between—and can also be very expensive.

Therefore, wireless network operators everywhere have

a deep and vested interest in managing the spectrum
they have in order to provide the best wireless service
and experience to their customers.

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7 Spectrum management: Getting the most from every cycle

What does the RF spectrum look like?

All radios, including those used for wireless communications, rely on the availability of specific frequencies to operate.
For this reason, the licensing of spectrum—from operator to operator, and area to area—is strictly regulated to prevent
radios from interfering with one another. So what does the spectrum look like? Radio frequencies include a wide range
of the EM spectrum, as you can see in Figure 7.1.

Wavelength 1000m 100m 10m 1m 0.3m 0.1m 0.01m

Frequency 300 kHz 3 MHz 30 MHz 300 MHz 3 GHz 30 GHz

540 kHz 1700 kHz 88 MHz 108 MHz 1.0 GHz

MF HF VHF UHF SHF
VLF, LF
AM LOW FM HIGH
BAND BAND BAND BAND Cellular: 600 MHz— 4 GHz mmWave

RADIO FREQUENCY SPECTRUM

X-RAY
LIGHT
AUDIO GAMMA COSMIC
VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF MICROWAVES INFRARED VISIBLE ULTRAVIOLET RAY RAY

100 102 103 104 106 108 109 1010 1012 1014 1017 1018 1019 1021 1022 1024
1 Hz 1 kHz 1 MHz 1 GHz 1 THz 1 PHz 1 EHz

(Kilo) (Mega) (Giga) (Tera) (Peta) (Exa)

Frequency-Hz 7.1: RF frequencies within the

electromagnetic (EM) spectrum

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7 Spectrum management: Getting the most from every cycle

Getting licensed spectrum

To secure the legal right to use parts of the RF
spectrum in a particular market, the wireless operator
must acquire the relevant license. This can be done
several ways. One way is to apply to the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) for a license to
use specific frequencies—for example, licensing for
microwave backhaul. Another way to acquire spectrum
is to participate in a spectrum auction managed by the
regulating government agency. In the United States,
that agency is the FCC. Other countries have their own
regulatory agencies.

Because spectrum is a finite resource in an age of

skyrocketing demand, the winning bids for such
auctions can range in the hundreds of millions to
billions of dollars. In auctions that ended in February
2021, the FCC netted a record-breaking $81 billion
for the 3.7 GHz band covering 3700 to 3980 MHz.
This total was composed of 21 bidders winning 5,684
licenses overall. AT&T’s spectrum acquired is shown in
Figure 7.2.
7.2: AT&T spectrum acquired in the 3.7 GHz band

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7 Spectrum management: Getting the most from every cycle

Other recent LTE FDD/TDD auctions auctioned for next-generation wireless networks. Sharing LTE bands:
The total amount of spectrum available in these FDD and TDD
Other auctions have been held for the Citizens Broadband
To allow full duplex—that is, two-
Radio Service (CBRS) in 2020, the 3.45 GHz band in bands is 4.95 GHz. In addition, the terahertz bands
way—communication, LTE
2022, the 2.5 GHz band in 2022, plus many others all (300–3000 GHz) are also being studied for their ability
to support next-generation wireless networks. It’s worth bands employ two main methods.
over the world.
They are frequency division duplexing
noting that the FCC’s table of frequency allocations stops
(FDD) and time division duplexing
Upcoming spectrum auctions at 275 GHz; significant work will be required to open (TDD).
The next bands that could be made available through those bands for commercial use. Propagation limitations
FDD works by using separate
auction include 3.1 GHz (3100–3450 MHz), 4.4 GHz above 95 MHz will have a direct impact on how this frequency bands for base station
(4400–4940 MHz) and 12.7 GHz (12.7–13.25 GHz). The spectrum is ultimately used. downlink transmission and uplink
3.1 GHz and 4.4 GHz band have been identified by CTIA reception, while TDD refers to
Buying or swapping spectrum duplex communication where the
as key for the spectrum pipeline ([Link]
Just like managing a baseball team, different wireless downlink is separated from the
news/three-mid-band-spectrum-bands-offer-greatest-
uplink by assigning different time
potential-to-meet-5g-demand-in-the-us-study-finds). operators have unique network needs and resources
slots in the same frequency band.
The FCC has also indicated their interest in studying how available to them. It can be mutually beneficial for TDD requires precise synchronization
to make the 12.7 GHz band available ([Link] operators to purchase, sell or lease licensed spectrum as a of base stations to avoid passive
means of improving service and profitability. Such leases intermodulation (PIM) interference.
gov/public/attachments/[Link]). These
bands comprise up to 1300 MHz of spectrum that could may be for an individual market or multiple markets.
be made available in the next few years to accommodate Such swaps must be approved by the governing
next-generation wireless systems. regulatory agency.

Millimeter wave bands

High-frequency millimeter wave bands provide a
substantial amount of spectrum for wireless networks,
albeit for short-distance communications (due to
propagation limitations). Spectrum in the 24 GHz,
28 GHz, 37 GHz, 39 GHz and 47 GHz bands has been

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7 Spectrum management: Getting the most from every cycle

Unlicensed spectrum Spectrum Access System (SAS) that manages spectrum Unlicensed spectrum
Unlicensed spectrum is available to users without having assignments across commercial spectrum users. The SAS Ranges of the EM spectrum that
gives first priority to military and other incumbent users; do not require a license to use.
to secure a license from controlling regulatory agencies.
Unlicensed spectrum can be
Applications using these frequencies include such second priority to priority access license (PAL) users, who
accessed by anyone but introduces
everyday uses as Wi-Fi, microwave ovens, baby monitors, acquire licenses to use CBRS spectrum through an auction; challenges of interference when
security cameras, wireless headsets, heart monitors, and, finally, third priority to general authorized access competing signals occur nearby.

cordless telephones, key fobs, smart suitcases and even (GAA) users. This spectrum management scheme is called
smartphones. The Consumer Technology Association “dynamic sharing,” as it apportions spectrum assignments
estimates that unlicensed spectrum generates $95.8 among users on a dynamic basis. The CBRS spectrum
billion in sales value for unlicensed devices ([Link] was auctioned in 2020 for a broad range of uses, from
[Link]/Resources/Newsroom/Media-Releases/2022/ traditional wireless carriers to local private networks.
January/Unlicensed-Spectrum-Generates-95-Billion- Dynamic sharing is also being used in the 6 GHz bands
Per-Year). Unlicensed spectrum can be accessed by (5925–7125 MHz) through an Automated Frequency
anyone, but interference is managed through power Coordination (AFC) system to allow unlicensed devices to
limitations, spectrum usage etiquette and technology share spectrum with incumbent microwave systems.
considerations rather than licensing specific frequencies.
Both SAS and AFC enable spectrum sharing where
Because licensed spectrum is so hard to obtain, wireless
relocation of incumbent systems is not feasible.
network operators have turned to using unlicensed
spectrum on a limited basis. Managing what you have

CBRS and dynamic sharing As difficult as it is to obtain spectrum—whether bought at

auction, traded from another network or approved to run
Another spectrum option in the United States is the
on unlicensed bands—the real challenge is managing it for
Citizens Broadband Radio Service (CBRS), which operates
maximum utility. To do that, you must know the strengths
in the 3.5 GHz band (3550–3700 MHz). This spectrum
and weaknesses inherent in the bands you’re using.
had traditionally been used by the U.S. military for
operation of shipborne radar, among other uses. To For instance, higher-frequency bands generally support
tap into this spectrum, an operator must employ a wider channel bandwidths, which provide greater capacity.

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7 Spectrum management: Getting the most from every cycle

However, their propagation characteristics limit them to depends on a low-interference RF path. Interference
nearly-line-of-sight configurations and shorter distances mitigation filters (IMFs) are small devices inserted into
depending on the frequency. Lower frequencies with the RF path that allow only specific frequencies to pass
narrower channel bandwidths travel farther and are less through. IMFs can help mitigate interference in both
affected by obstacles, but generally don’t provide the the uplink and downlink—maximizing the potential
capacity modern networks (particularly 5G) require. throughput.

This introduces related challenges in how to construct or

• PIM is generally caused by discontinuities in the RF path.
upgrade cell sites to use broad ranges of spectrum. For These may be caused by moisture in a transmission
example, when building a new site, its location becomes line, an improperly torqued or corroded connector,
increasingly important due to the propagation limitations or a crushed coaxial cable. Interactions of different
of higher frequencies. When upgrading existing sites, frequencies operating nearby can also cause such
adding larger, lower-band antennas to the tower discontinuities.
introduces wind and weight load concerns. Multiplying challenges

Interference and filters PIM can also be caused by combining two or more
frequencies that multiply and create new interfering
New sites are hard to secure and expensive to build.
signals. These mathematical combinations of two or
An attractive alternative is to upgrade existing sites to
more frequencies—PIM products—can cause interference
support more spectrum or add new infrastructure to a co-
not only in their own band, but also in multiples of that
sited arrangement with another network. In both cases,
band. They are often referred to as second-order PIM,
interference can be a significant challenge. We cover
third-order PIM and so forth. Higher orders create less
common interference challenges in Chapter 5 (isolation)
interference but cover a wider swath of spectrum. You
and Chapter 6 (passive intermodulation, or PIM).
can learn more about PIM in Chapter 6.
• Interference caused by external sources, however, can
come from just about anywhere: other cell networks,
radar, motors, spark plugs, nearby high-voltage lines
and other sources. Interference robs capacity from
any given signal, so successful spectrum management

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7 Spectrum management: Getting the most from every cycle

Planning a successful site upgrade

To avoid or overcome these challenges, it’s important to consider many factors when planning a site.

Antenna considerations:

· Spectrum support. Most antennas support more than one band. Adding it’s critical to ensure adequate backhaul capacity—either by fiber-optic cable or
new spectrum to an existing site requires a replacement antenna that microwave. We cover site power in Chapter 10 and backhaul in Chapter 8.
supports both current and new frequencies, so the network must ensure it
can provide enough capacity on both the transmit and receive paths. It is also
· NOTE: More than creating cost and complexity issues, adding more radios
increases the network’s carbon footprint. One way to partially offset this is to
essential to perform a PIM analysis that includes the existing new bands.
ensure the new radio/antenna system is right-sized for the estimated capacity and
· TDD or FDD? As explained above, to maintain a duplex connection, the coverage demands of the site. (Reference to Omdia white paper on 8T8R: https://
network must split the signal, either by separating them into two frequencies [Link]/intelligence/supporting-service-providers-on-their-journey-to-net-
or two time division schemes. (It is worth noting that TDD is not truly duplex; zero/)
it emulates duplex signals by dividing the transmit and receive paths into two
different timing schemes.) Regulatory licenses typically specify which method
· Weight and wind load. Additional antennas, filters and radios needed to
support new spectrum can add a great deal of weight to a cell tower, as well
should be used.
as introduce greater wind loads. These must be checked against specifications
· Beamforming. As networks deploy more sites and more antennas, there is a before deployment of additional tower-top infrastructure.
corresponding need to mitigate interference between sectors. Beamforming
helps concentrate coverage and reduce overlap with adjacent cells.
· To reduce tower stresses, using diplexers and triplexers can reduce the number
of cables needed to connect tower-mounted radios and the baseband
· Vertical vs. horizontal separation. As we covered in Chapter 5, equipment on the ground by allowing each one to carry more than one signal
horizontal and vertical separation can help isolate antenna signals and avoid at a time. This also further minimizes the network’s environmental impact.
interference.
· At higher frequencies, tower-mounted amplifiers (TMAs) can overcome the
uplink coaxial cable losses; however, being mounted atop the tower, they
Other site logistics:
mean more weight and wind load to contend with.
· Sufficient power and backhaul. Adding radios to support additional
spectrum means the site will draw more power, so adequate available DC · New structural steel solutions provide more robust, rigid and durable mounting
power must be ensured. Also, since more traffic will be using the RF path, structures for additional components (see Figure 7.3).

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7 Spectrum management: Getting the most from every cycle

For all wireless operators, small cells are a vital Chapter 7 summary
component to using spectrum in the higher frequency Gaining spectrum
bands—exploiting the bands’ strengths and mitigating • Regulatory auctions
their weaknesses. The use of higher-frequency bands - High prices, low availability
will only increase as time goes on and next-generation - Several recent auctions and upcoming
networks become a market reality. auctions putting more spectrum in the
pipeline
Get the most from your spectrum • Spectrum can be bought from or
Available spectrum is scarce and getting scarcer, even swapped with other networks

as demand continues to rise. This means wireless • Unlicensed spectrum

operators must squeeze every last bit from their - Free to use but of limited utility due to
lower powers
networks.
- Not yet a reliable cellular alternative
Managing spectrum starts with understanding it— • Infrastructure-level spectrum
how different bands offer unique advantages. There management
is more than one way to acquire spectrum, but none - CBRS requires SAS to utilize
of them are easy or inexpensive, and deploying new - IMFs reduce interference
or additional spectrum comes with an environmental - PIM is an internal and internal
7.3: CommScope’s high-capacity Atlas Monopole Platform,
cost. Whether won at auction for millions or billions of designed and tested for 180 mph wind loads and rated up to challenge
M2200R(1700)4-[6] per TIA-5053
dollars, leased, or used in unlicensed bands, operators - Power, backhaul, weight and wind
must ensure that every bit of spectrum they use is load considerations all affect how one
adds spectrum
working its hardest and delivering the most revenue
possible.

CommScope has long been at the forefront of the

industry as a trusted partner with the technology
and expertise to put valuable and limited spectrum
resources to their best use.

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 Chapter 8
The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

Imagine two kids, each standing in their This is the role of the core network behind hundreds Backhaul
own backyards, talking to each other on of thousands of distributed cell sites. Of course, The process of connecting two
being orders of magnitude more complex, it requires ends of a transmission through
soup cans connected by a string. This is
a correspondingly robust infrastructure to move a central routing point.
the simplest of connections: nothing more
that much information up and down in a fraction
than two users on a direct, point-to-point, of a second—allowing for smooth and natural
dedicated line. This same simplicity applies if communications even when the two ends are
we replace the cans with walkie-talkies—the thousands of miles apart. “Backhaul” is the collective
communications system is still reliant on just term for this part of the RF path.
two points of contact.

Once the system becomes more complex—like

modern distributed communications networks with
millions of users—these simple connections are no
longer practical or possible. A centralized processing
point is needed to route many conversations
simultaneously just to make the correct phone
ring when you dial its number.

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

The process of routing network traffic for a cell 6. The regional network broaDCasts Mary’s call from
phone call requires many steps to complete, and looks the nearest cell tower
something like this: 7. Bill’s cell phone rings, he answers, and the call connects
1. Mary makes a call to Bill on her cell phone
Backhaul is the process of routing Mary’s cell call—along
from her office with thousands of other simultaneous connections—up and
2. Mary’s outbound call is picked up by the down from the core network. This includes steps 3, 4 and
nearest cell tower 5 in the example. Obviously, this kind of data aggregation
3. The tower routes Mary’s call to the area’s requires high speed and high bandwidth in order to route
regional network connections, and there is more than one way to provide
backhaul. The two most commonly used forms of backhaul
4. The regional network sends Mary’s call to the
in modern cellular networks are fiber-optic backhaul and
national network
microwave backhaul. Each offers specific advantages for
5. The national network routes Mary’s call to different kinds of installations, locations and requirements.
Bill’s regional network

Backhaul

MARY’S PHONE
NEAREST CELL TOWER REGIONAL NETWORK NATIONAL NETWORK REGIONAL NETWORK NEAREST CELL TOWER BILL’S PHONE RINGS
CALLS BILL

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

Fiber-optic backhaul On one end of the link, WDM combines multiple Wavelength division
wavelengths of light onto a single strand of fiber, multiplexing (WDM)
Fiber-optic backhaul uses high-speed, high-
The practice of sending multiple
bandwidth, fiber-optic cable to move network traffic creating independent pathways that increase the
wavelengths of light down a single
up and down the core network to individual cell sites data-carrying capacity of the fiber strand. The same
fiber-optic cable, making each
where mobile users connect. Fiber-optic backhaul WDM components can also separate the combined fiber carry two or more parallel
infrastructure allows the nearly-instantaneous wavelengths (de-multiplexing) on the other end. WDM communications that are separated
modules are designed to easily integrate into existing out at the other end.
movement of massive amounts of voice and data
traffic over long distances. Like all fiber-optic telecom equipment. The result is a simple and efficient
infrastructure, it uses light pulses rather than electrical solution that addresses capacity shortages without
signals to move information. For this reason, it offers spending more on power.
significant space to grow as new applications and As sustainability and environmental impact play a greater
cellular technologies emerge. Its capacity can be role in network design, the ability to support growing
magnified by a practice called “multiplexing,” in capacity needs without increasing the carbon footprint
which different wavelengths of light—different colors, has become a bigger benefit of multiplexing.
essentially—move multiple data streams down the
same fiber without interfering with each other.

Multiplexing is particularly useful when trying to get

more capacity from an existing fiber-optic installation
without laying additional cable. All it takes is the right
solutions, such as CommScope’s passive wavelength
division multiplexing (WDM) module, to retrofit an
existing cable.

SPEED OF LIGHT

FIBER WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

C-RAN: the evolutionary future of cellular networks C-RAN

Two related cellular network
The incredible capacity of fiber-optic backhaul is driving
architecture evolutions that are
another important trend in cellular architecture: currently in development:

C-RAN. C-RAN actually denotes two distinct but related Centralized radio access networks
concepts: centralized radio access networks and cloud radio use fiber-optic cable to relocate
the baseband units to centralized,
access networks. The former lays the foundation for adoption
remote locations far from their towers
of the latter. and radios, using backhaul-style
infrastructure to support fronthaul
The evolution toward C-RAN began with the decoupling
traffic between the radio and the
of the amplifiers and radios from the baseband units. The
baseband unit.
amplifiers and radios moved to the top of the tower while
Cloud radio access networks
the baseband units remained at the bottom, connected to
replace the baseband units with
the core network. The next phase will see the movement of virtualized baseband functions in a
the baseband unit as well—not up the tower, but away from centralized location for even more
it. Thanks to fiber-optic efficiency and speed, the baseband efficiency and scalability.
unit can be located miles away, sharing space and processing
power with other units from other sites. The pooled resources
of the network can all be neatly located in a shared central
office space that’s not only easier to maintain, but also Cloud RAN as a green game-changer?
more efficient, both operationally and environmentally. In Beyond the cost advantages of pooling and virtualizing dozens of physical baseband units, cloud RAN
this scenario, fiber-optic backhaul technologies can also be offers significant environmental benefits. Base stations today consume more than 70 percent of the total
used to enable fronthaul in the RF path as well. This is the energy used in mobile networks. Much of that power is used to fuel the cooling equipment within each
centralized version of C-RAN. base station. Pooling the baseband resources in a centralized location would greatly increase the network’s
cooling efficiency. And that’s just for starters.

Moving the baseband units and their support systems into centralized locations would enable networks
to significantly reduce (or, in some cases, eliminate) the need for the traditional base station. This means
reducing or eliminating the power requirements, non-recyclable waste, CO2 and greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions required to build, operate and service millions of base stations.

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

Once the centralized RAN becomes reality, and the fiber- physical BBUs with virtualized BBUs, pooledMARY’S
and operating
PHONE
optic fronthaul to remote sites is in place, the next step is CALLS
in data center-style cloud environments (Figure BILL
8.1).
to eliminate the physical baseband units altogether. This This technology offers cellular operators unprecedented
is the vision of cloud RAN. Cloud RAN would replace the flexibility, scalability and efficiency.

Conventional C-RAN C-RAN centralized Cloud RAN

Standard BS BBU remoted BBU centralized Inter BBU pooling + CoMP

Remote head Phase 1 centralization Future C-RAN

Traditional site site (RRU)
30 or > cells 30 or > cells 30 or > cells
3 cells per BBU 3 cells per BBU
per BBU per BBU per BBU

BS
Coax

Radio
Radio Radio
BS
Fiber

Fiber fronthaul Fiber fronthaul Fiber fronthaul

Radio
CPRI/OBSAI

CPRI/OBSAI
Fiber
BBU BBU BBU POOL
fronthaul
Switching layer
BBU Pool
vBBU 1 vBBU 2 vBBU 3
Backhaul Backhaul BBU 1 BBU 1
fiber/M-Wave fiber/M-Wave

Core network Core network Backhaul Backhaul Backhaul Backhaul Backhaul

to core to core to core to core to core

8.1: The evolution from RAN to centralized RAN to cloud RAN

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

Fiber isn’t always the right solution Microwaves comprise a discrete range of the Line of sight (LOS)
Despite its speed and flexibility, fiber-optic backhaul isn’t a electromagnetic spectrum in the super high and extremely The unobstructed space between
high frequency bands. Like other bands, microwaves are transmitter and receiver. Longer hops
universal solution. Factors like economics and logistics can
must even account for the obstructive
make fiber-optic backhaul impractical or even impossible expressed in hertz (Hz), a measurement of a particular
effects of the Earth’s curvature
for particular cell sites. For example, running fiber radiation’s frequency. Most frequencies used in electronics
backhaul underground can be costly and time-consuming are expressed in thousands of hertz, or kilohertz (KHz);
depending on the location and local regulations. The flip millions of hertz, or megahertz (MHz); billions of hertz,
side, however, is that, in some locations, the ability of gigahertz (GHz); or even trillions of hertz, terahertz (THz).
fiber-optic backhaul to maximize a site’s revenue potential Some of the more familiar types are listed in Table 8.2.
can justify these additional investments. As you can see, microwaves are among the higher
frequencies used in communications.
The bottom line is that fiber backhaul does have many
strategic advantages, particularly its vast capacity. In
locations where it can be installed or connected to an
existing fiber-optic network, it is considered the go-to
solution. But that is not always the case. In the next
section, we will see how a complementary technology,
microwave backhaul, also fills an important role.

Microwave backhaul
Microwave backhaul accomplishes the same function as
fiber-optic backhaul, but without the fiber-optic cables.
Instead, it utilizes a network of powerful and precise
point-to-point microwave antennas to link cellular traffic
between sites and the core network.

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

Microwave backhaul is an attractive alternative to fiber- Typical maximum hop Typical minimum hop
Frequency band Frequency (GHz)
optic backhaul when site locations are particularly remote length (km) length (km)
0.9 (unlicensed) 0.902–0.928 100 –
or inaccessible—or where permits cannot be secured to
lay fiber-optic infrastructure. It moves aggregated traffic 2.4 (unlicensed) 2.4–2.5 100 –

from one antenna to the next, where it can be routed to a 4 3.6–4.2 70 24

third, then a fourth or as many “hops” as it takes to reach 5 4.4–5.0 60 16

the designated core network access. 5 (unlicensed) 5.3, 5.4 and 5.8 50 –

L6 5.925–6.425 50 16
Globally, around 65 percent of all mobile data traffic is
U6 6.425–7.125 50 16
transported using microwave backhaul at some point on
L7 7.1–7.75 50 10
its journey. In some cases, it may be a simple hop from
the cell site to the nearest fiber access point. U8 7.75–8.5 50 10

10 10–10.7 20 10
These hops are also called “links,” and they can be many
11 10.7–11.7 20 10
miles long. As a line-of-sight (LOS) solution, microwave
13 12.7–13.25 20 6
backhaul antennas can direct a concentrated beam of
15 14.4–15.35 20 6
information to a similar receiving antenna as long as
18 17.7–19.7 20 2
there exists direct, unbroken clearance between the
23 21.2–23.6 20 2
two antennas. For this reason, microwave antennas are
mounted high enough on the tower to “see” their distant 26 24.25–26.5 20 2

reception points. 28 27.5–29.5 15 2

32 31.0–33.4 10 1.5

38 37.0–40.0 10 1

42 40.5–43.5 10 1

60 (unlicensed) 57.0–66.0 1 –
71–76/81–
80 5 –
86/92–95

8.2: Typical hop lengths for microwave frequency bands

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

Microwave advantages Duplex communications

The microwave band possesses characteristics that make it A transmitter and receiver
that work in different time
a flexible solution, lending itself to multiple environments:
slots or frequency slots on the same
• The low end of the band (below 11 GHz) propagates device.

over long distances, making it ideal for long-haul

connections to users in remote locations.
• The higher end of the band (above 11 GHz) propagates
over shorter distances, making it ideal for short-haul
connectivity required in urban locations.
Microwave backhaul in action
In addition to their technical characteristics, microwave
TLet’s revisit Mary’s cell call to Bill described at the
links offer practical and financial advantages over cable
beginning of this chapter. Mary calls Bill and the
solutions. These advantages have made them a popular
cell phone connects with the nearest cell tower,
alternative for modern communications networks:
operating on the network’s radio frequencies (within
• They are less expensive to install than fiber-optic the 700–2700 MHz part of the spectrum). The cell
solutions, and less expensive to operate than copper- tower hands off the call to a microwave transmitter
based backhaul infrastructure. (typically operating in the 6–40 GHz bandwidth). The
• They can be quickly deployed with less zoning and microwave transmitter beams the call wirelessly to
regulatory overhead than digging to install any kind of a collection or aggregation center, which connects
backhaul cable. to the mobile network’s core network. The traffic is
• Modern microwave backhaul solutions offer bandwidth then routed across the network to the region closest
that approaches that of fiber-optic backhaul—and to the receiver’s location, to be transmitted again by
far exceeds anything possible with earlier-generation microwave to the nearest cell tower.
copper infrastructure. The receiving cell tower station down-converts
• They are scalable and highly reliable when quality the microwave signal back to the network’s radio
antennas are properly installed. frequencies for its final journey to the target cell phone.

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

The process is reversed for traffic moving in the opposite Network capacity and demand management
direction. This two-way, or duplex, microwave backhaul Simply put, capacity is a network’s ability to handle
generally uses a frequency-division duplex (FDD) system transmission traffic. In the case of cell communications, this
that allocates frequency channel pairs for simultaneous traffic means voice and data—often a great deal of data. As
two-way, or duplex, communication (Figure 8.3). capacity demands continue to rise with the wide adoption
Another way to achieve duplex communication is via of 4G/LTE/5G devices all over the world, smart spectrum
a time-division duplex (TDD), which achieves the same planning becomes even more important to assure headroom
goal by switching the required direction of transmission for tomorrow’s data-hungry applications. There are a
in a very fast, precise manner (Figure 8.4). While a more number of critical tools at the network planner’s disposal.
efficient option, TDD requires very careful timing control Modulation. One way to boost microwave capacity is
and is not the preferred system for microwave use. by adjusting the “modulation.” By employing different
modulation schemes, more traffic can be squeezed
f1 into the limited bandwidth. The tradeoff is that higher
modulation schemes require higher signal-to-noise
performance to maintain the integrity of the data. This
f2
increases power requirements and the associated operating
and environmental costs. Modulation is also subject to
8.3: Frequency-division duplex (FDD) system with environmental effects, which we will explore later in
separate go/return frequencies
this chapter.
Adaptive modulation. Adaptive modulation scales the
amount of signal modulation as link conditions change. For
example, if rain or other factors are present, modulation is
f1
dialed down to maintain error- free (if somewhat slower)
traffic rates. When the link condition improves, modulation
is automatically increased to take advantage of prevailing
8.4: Time-division duplex (TDD) system using just one
go/return frequency conditions. Adaptive modulation has been universally
adopted as operators seek to balance increasing traffic and
reliability needs.

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

Co-channel dual-polar operation. Another capacity-

boosting technique, called “co-channel dual-polar” (CCDP)
operation, leverages the polarization characteristics of
microwaves. It enables two streams of traffic to travel the
same bandwidth at the same time—one vertically, one
horizontally. CCDP is often used in short-haul antenna
systems where an integrated dual-polarized antenna
featuring an ortho-mode transducer (OMT) connects two
outdoor unit radios to a single antenna. This arrangement
maintains a high level of isolation between the two signals
for maximum clarity (Figure 8.5).
Millimeter wave spectrum. To gain even more capacity,
operators are using higher and higher frequencies. At
the millimeter wave (mmWave) bands, above 70 GHz,
bandwidths are ultra-wide—enabling fiber-like capacities of
10 Gbps and higher. However, at these higher frequencies,
the range is limited (see Figure 8.2). After about 3–5 km,
link availability falls below acceptable levels.

8.5: An example of an integrated dual-polarized antenna

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

Microwave link aggregation to the rescue The downside of this solution is that it requires an
So, what if you want the high capacity of mmWave and antenna for each link and the available tower space to
the longer link lengths of the lower microwave frequency mount them. Definitely not ideal. Therefore, to make link
bands? This is one of the major benefits of microwave link aggregation faster, easier and more cost-effective to deploy,
aggregation. It essentially creates two links. One uses a CommScope developed a dual-band antenna designed
traditional lower microwave frequency like 23 GHz, and for link aggregation. It effectively combines two frequency
another uses an mmWave band such as E-band (70 GHz). bands into a single antenna. Additionally, CommScope’s
By aggregating the capacity of these two links, operators comprehensive [Link] microwave link design software
can achieve the maximum throughput of the E-band link includes all the features necessary to design and manage
in good weather conditions, while maintaining the reliable link aggregation, presenting the availability and capacity of
connection of the 23 GHz link (at a lower capacity) when the links—both independently and as a combined solution.
poor weather takes the E-band link offline.

8.6: Source: RCR Wireless,

August 28, 2019 E-band Microwave

99.99
Microwave
1.6 Gbps 0.8 Gbps 2.5 Gbps w/RTA link backup
10 km
364 days and 9 hours 2 hours 12 hours

Distance (km)
5.8 Gbps 4.3 Gbps 1.6 Gbps 0.8 Gbps
6 km
364 days and 18 hours 3 hours 1 hr 1 hr
0.8 Gbps (1/4 QPSK)
1.6 Gbps (1/2 QPSK)
10 Gbps 8.6 Gbps 5.8 Gbps 2.9 Gbps (QPSK)
3 km 4.3 Gbps (8 QPSK)
364 days and 19 hours 3 hours 1 hr 5.8 Gbps (16 QAM)
7.2 Gbps (32 QAM)
8.6 Gbps (64 QAM)
10 Gbps (128 QAM)
Zone E/60 cm Antenna/2 GHz CS+ABMR

0 99.9 99.95 99.99 100

Availability (%)

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

Typical microwave deployments Split-mount radio system

For best LOS clearance, microwave antennas are often A two-stage connection that lets
microwave radios located in an
mounted on towers or at the top of high buildings. To
indoor unit (IDU) receive and transmit
maximize the value of these choice locations—and to through an antenna fitted with an
reduce the costs for leasing these locations—microwave outdoor unit (ODU).
backhaul antennas are often mounted adjacent to base
station antennas, which also rely on altitude for efficient
operation (Figure 8.7).

Many short-haul installations, typically those operating

above 11 GHz, use a split-mount radio system, which
divides the radio into an ODU and an indoor unit (IDU).
The ODU houses the microwave circuitry, including the
go/return signal-separating diplexer and the up/down Base station
antenna
frequency converters. It is mounted in an enclosure
adjacent to the antenna—or more frequently integrated
into the antenna assembly itself (Figure 8.8).

The IDU contains the modulator/demodulator (a.k.a.

Microwave
modem) and the control circuitry that translates the backhaul
cell phone traffic into a form suitable for microwave antenna and
outdoor
transmission. unit (ODU)

8.7: Typical microwave backhaul antenna integrated into a base station antenna location

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

For high-density traffic and long-haul hops, multiple Connections between the antenna and the radios are
radios are typically housed in a remote radio room made by coaxial cable or elliptical waveguide, depending
adjacent to the base of the tower. Generally, these on the frequencies involved (Figure 8.10). For tower-
hops use larger antennas operating at frequencies mounted outdoor radios, fiber-optic jumper cables
under 11 GHz (Figure 8.9). carry the data stream straight to the radio on the back
of the antenna.

Outdoor unit Antenna

Flex twist or elliptical W/G Antenna

I.F. cable Elliptical W/G

Radio room
Indoor unit

8.8: Typical split-mount microwave radio 8.9: A typical lower frequency 8.10: Connections between remote microwave
system showing IDU and ODU aggregation point radios and a microwave antenna

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

Planning a microwave link 0 0

Envelope for a horizontally

When considering a new microwave backhaul path, 10 10
polarized antenna (HH, HV)

interference is a major concern. The planned link must

not interfere with adjacent links or other operators in the 20 20

dB down from main lobe

area. To prevent conflicts and other problems, you must Envelope for a vertically
30 30
consider: polarized antenna (VV, VH)

• Frequency coordination with other links in the vicinity 40 40

• Radio and radiation characteristics of the antenna 50 50

• Transmission power levels

60 60

To avoid these issues, industry standard software tools,

such as [Link] from CommScope, can smooth the 70 70
Expanded Scale
planning process and assist in providing a regional
80 80
overview of active area networks. Antenna manufacturers 0 5 10 15 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

offer assistance as well, providing planners with the 8.11: A typical radiation pattern envelope (RPE) document
radiation pattern envelope (RPE). An RPE document
includes a performance summary and the key
specifications related to antenna gain, beamwidth, cross-
Away from the main beam, the directionality quickly
polar performance and radiation patterns (Figure 8.11).
decreases. This corresponds to a drop-off in antenna
The chart describes the directional properties of the sensitivity, whereby signals transmitted or received
antenna by mapping its directionality (in decibels) against away from the on-axis direction reduce rapidly. The link
its azimuth angle. As this chart shows, the envelope has planner uses this information to determine how much
a main beam area at zero degrees, corresponding to the of their new proposed link signal will deviate from the
electrical axis of the antenna. This is the line-of-sight intended direction and assess whether this is likely to
direction where the directionality is at its maximum. present interference problems.

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

Because of their importance in the planning process, RPE enables the radio to maintain the highest modulation
documents are strictly regulated. In Europe, the European states for longer in adverse conditions, maximizing
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) publishes capacity over the link.
several classes of envelope standards that all antennas
Depending on the characteristics of the link and the
must satisfy. A Class 2 antenna may be permissible in
unique low sidelobes, it may be possible to deploy a
locations where interference is not an issue, but it cannot
smaller diameter Class 4 antenna than would be needed
be used where a stricter Class 3 standard is required.
if a Class 3 antenna were used—reducing tower loading
There is a growing trend to the more stringent Class 4 and saving lease costs.
specification, which represents a significant advance over
earlier standards.

Sidelobes, reuse, and the Class 4 advantage — REP: e217v121R3C2 41

0

— REP: e217v121R3C3 41
Class 4 antennas feature lower sidelobes than Class 3 — REP: e217v121R3C4 41

alternatives. This means more of their signal energy is -20

directed at its target, and less “leaks” around the edges

of the beam or behind the antenna. Sidelobe (along with Amp (dB) -40

sidelobe suppression) are important metrics of efficiency

that allow a Class 4 antenna to support much higher link
-6-
densities than a Class 3 antenna (Figure 8.12).
8.12: RPEs of Class 2, Class 3
Because their low sidelobes create so little interference, and newest Class 4 microwave
-80 antennas
Class 4 antennas—for example, CommScope’s Sentinel® -180 -150 -120 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180

solution—can provide 40 percent greater spectrum reuse, Azimuth (dgs)

essentially creating capacity simply by using available

spectrum more efficiently. Adding adaptive modulation

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

Protecting microwave systems from the elements Rain and snow Signal polarization
Like every step along the RF path, backhaul must be As mentioned earlier, lower-frequency microwave bands The orientation of a signal’s electric
field relative to the
always reliable and available. Downtime means lost propagate very well across long distances, allowing hops
ground. It may be horizontal
revenues, irritated customers and expensive repairs. In of 50 kilometers or more. So, distance is not the most or vertical.
practical terms downtime is measured as a percentage significant limiting condition; atmospheric conditions
Automatic transmission
of time or in minutes per year (Table 8.13). A detailed are, with rain being a chief culprit. Rain falling through power control (ATPC)
explanation of reliability predictions and measurement the signal path reduces signal strength—an attenuating A system that dynamically raises
can be found in Chapter 11. phenomenon known as “fade.” transmission power to overcome the
effects of interference.
In frequencies above 11 GHz, rain-induced attenuation
Downtime, minutes per year Availability
becomes more pronounced, reducing hop distances
525.6 99.9000%
accordingly. Rain—and, to a lesser extent, snow—can
52.56 99.9900%
26.28 99.9950%
scatter signals in these frequencies. The degree of impact
5.256 99.9990% depends on the rate of precipitation, the frequency
involved and the signal’s vertical or horizontal polarization.
8.13: Downtime in minutes per year and corresponding
availability percentages Horizontal signals are more adversely affected by rainfall
due to the shape of raindrops as they fall. This makes
As an outdoor wireless network is continuously exposed
vertical polarization the preferred orientation. Fortunately,
to the elements, certain reliability-limiting factors are
it is possible to mitigate rain’s effects by using the
unavoidable:
calculations of rain outage models and building enough
• Precipitation and moisture safety margin into the transmission power levels to
• High winds compensate for expected loss. This will ensure a reliable
hop between stations. Modern microwave radios will even
• Temperature variances
adjust power on the fly when needed, using an automatic
• Lightning strikes
transmission power control (ATPC) system.
• Atmospheric refraction

Fortunately, each challenge to reliability has an available

mitigating measure.

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

Precipitation also interferes with polarized transmissions levels, adaptive modulation adjusts the amount of
through an effect called “polarization rotation.” This modulation in response to any link impediments. The
phenomenon essentially rotates the signal polarity enough result is that adaptive modulation can dynamically reduce
to interfere with other signals. To counter this effect, a traffic to compensate for the impaired signal level while
cross-polar interference canceller (XPIC) samples signals still maintaining the link, albeit with lower capacity.
in both polarities, producing a wave that cancels out the
Rain mitigation methods can also be built into the link
interfering, “rotated” part of the signal.
designs. In multiple-hop situations, for example, mesh
Adaptive modulation and ring topologies provide alternative signal paths that
bypass problematic hops by rerouting around them. Path
Another technique with widespread acceptance in
selection is dynamic and adapts on the fly to changing
microwave backhaul applications is called “adaptive
conditions (Figure 8.14).
modulation.” In addition to compressing, or modulating,
network traffic into smaller bandwidths at higher signal

8.14: Network topology with dynamic routing paths

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

Fog Wind load Radome

Fog presents a challenge only to the highest frequency The force of wind on an antenna (wind loading) can A wind- and water-proofed fabric or
plastic cover that protects an antenna
microwave bands (above 60 GHz). Unlike rain, snow and present a serious threat to tower-mounted equipment
from the elements.
other precipitation, fog presents no real obstacle to lower and the tower itself. Wind speeds rise with altitude, so a
and more commonly used microwave frequencies. breeze at ground level can become a gale at the top of a
tall tower or building. This is why antennas are designed
Temperature to ensure mechanical integrity under all anticipated
By itself, temperature has little effect on microwave environmental conditions—up to their survival rating. In
signals. However, if water vapor is present in transmission the case of CommScope’s Class 3 ValuLine® antennas and
lines, it can condense and impede performance when the Class 4 Sentinel antennas, survival rating is a minimum of
temperature drops. The effect is similar to the attenuation 200 km/h (125 mph) or 250 km/h (155 mph).
caused by rain.
Antennas also have an operational wind speed limit.
Snow and ice accumulation It compares the antenna’s allowed deflection under
Antennas must be designed to withstand accumulations wind loading to its beam width. This ensures that link
of snow and ice (Figure 8.15) without deflecting or performance can be maintained so long as the wind
becoming misaligned. Fabric radomes on long-haul speed does not exceed the antenna’s operational wind
antennas prevent ice buildup that could otherwise impede speed limit.
the signal path; however, antennas are still vulnerable to
Lightning strikes
damage from ice falling from higher up the tower and 8.15: Ice accumulation on a
Installed in open, unobstructed locations, microwave radome-protected installation
causing physical damage to the antennas. Ice shields fitted
antenna towers are natural targets for lightning strikes.
above the antenna offer robust, low-cost protection.
A direct strike to the antenna would cause serious
damage to sensitive components. To avoid this danger,
low-resistance earth-paths—in effect, lightning rods—
are installed to direct lightning strikes away from critical
components. For a full exploration of how to guard
against lightning, see Chapter 11.

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

Atmospheric effects Option 2: Frequency diversity. Frequency diversity is

The atmosphere itself can also disrupt reception. This another means of combating atmospheric or dispersive signal
loss. A secondary, standby channel operates at a different
typically occurs at higher microwave frequencies where
frequency from the main channel. Since different frequencies
RF signals can be absorbed or attenuated by atmospheric
propagate differently, two signals of different frequencies
gases such as oxygen and water vapor.
don’t experience the same attenuation—doubling the
Under some circumstances, a signal may essentially be chances of clear reception.
received twice—first by its intended LOS connection
and then again as a slightly delayed echo of itself—a
Ducting atmospheric layers
result of atmospheric refraction or ground reflection. The
tiny timing difference can mean the signal arrives out
Refl
of phase, in effect interfering with itself. This effect is ecte
dw
ave
known as “multipath fading” or “dispersive fading,” as
illustrated in Figure 8.16. There are several ways to deal
wave
Direct
with this challenge.

ve
wa
Option 1: Space diversity. To counter the effects of

ed
ect
dispersive fading, we can add a second, uncorrelated

Dir
parallel microwave transmission path, separated vertically
(Figure 8.17) or horizontally. This separation is called

e
av
w
“space diversity.” Because the two paths don’t share the

ed
ct
fle
exact same space, their signals don’t encounter the same

Re
exact fading effects. The practical result is that the receiver
has the option of accepting its signal from the path that 8.16: Dispersive fading creating out-of-phase signal 8.17: A typical vertical space
is less disrupted at the time. echoes—delayed signals bounce off the ground and diversity arrangement
vertical obstacles, and also
refract in the atmosphere

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

Flat fading Noncompliant antennas may also introduce design Flat fading
Flat fading is another atmospheric hazard for low- problems that can spell trouble from day one (Figure Total signal loss caused by
8.18). Some of the more common issues of noncompliant atmospheric refraction. It is the result
frequency signals. Unlike dispersive fading, the entire
of a signal being bent completely out
channel is attenuated because refraction has disrupted antennas are that they are often:
of its LOS connection with its receiver.
the link’s LOS connection, so it misses the receiver entirely. • Untested and feature nonrepeatable designs
Using a second, uncorrelated microwave path or increased • Prone to deteriorate too quickly, resulting in RF leakage,
power via ATPC can counter this effect.
moisture ingress and metallic components degradation

The importance of compliance • Used with third-party add-ons for normal operation,
which introduce new opportunities for corrosion,
Some of the factors limiting the reliability of a microwave
vibration and other loss of integrity
link can be avoided by using standards-compliant
antennas from a reputable manufacturer. With the
pressure to minimize total cost of ownership, it is
tempting to purchase the lowest price antenna, but
you must also consider ongoing operations expenses in
budget calculations. An inexpensive antenna may end up
costing far more than a more expensive one that offers
better characteristics for your application.

8.18: Example of RF leakage in a noncompliant

microwave antenna

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

The hidden costs of noncompliant antennas • Put the burden of proof on your supplier to
CommScope recently conducted a study to measure the demonstrate the structural integrity of the antenna
cost and benefits of using lower-quality, noncompliant under all anticipated environmental conditions.
antennas. In this study, we examined three types in the • Review the supplier’s antenna interface design data and
15, 18 and 23 GHz bands. In actual operation, the true test range facilities for each integration type.
costs began to emerge: • Avoid third-party add-ons that don’t qualify at the
integration level; the third-party supplier won’t have this
• Network failure of 19 percent in the 15 GHz band
information, but your antenna supplier should.
• Network failure of 29 percent in the 18 GHz band
• Network failure of 21 percent in the 23 GHz band This basic due diligence will pay off in reliability, speed
and a lower total cost of ownership over the long term.
Obviously, these failure rates are unacceptable for most
applications. Choosing a compliant antenna— even
a more expensive one—offers benefits that can save
money and hassles once the antennas are in operation.
The value of reduced interference, longer links, reduced
tower weight and wind loads, more capacity and more
efficient spectrum reuse is significant. These benefits are
all particularly pronounced in ETSI Class 4 solutions such
as CommScope’s Sentinel solutions.

To ensure your microwave antennas meet specifications

and your backhaul network performs as expected,
there are common-sense steps you can take to avoid
noncompliant antennas.

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

The techniques of tomorrow the short-link option enables high data rates and low
In addition to high-performance fiber-optic and interference as signals move from one pico cell or micro
microwave backhaul technologies that make C-RAN cell to another.
possible, there are other exciting technologies waiting With so many advances in recent years—and so many still
in the wings. Non-line-of-sight (NLOS) schemes using to come—this is truly an exciting time in communications.
unlicensed bands offer one method of small-cell
backhaul—allowing signals to turn corners and avoid Backhaul makes modern communications
obstacles in urban environments where LOS systems are possible
far less effective. The ever-increasing complexity of modern communication
networks demands more efficient and innovative ways
The deployment of E-band spectrum (71–76 GHz and
of managing backhaul. Both fiber-optic and microwave
81–86 GHz) has opened new avenues for high-
technologies offer solutions with exceptional capacity,
capacity microwave backhaul. Operating under varying speed and reliability.
licensing regimes (depending on the country in which they
Backhaul is evolving to embrace fronthaul functionality as
are deployed), very wide channel assignments (n × 250
centralized RAN gains adoption and will support the cloud
MHz) are available to operators—making multi-Gbps data
RAN deployments of the near future. This can be achieved
rates a real possibility. Combining E-band technology with
mainly through fiber but also through high-capacity
conventional lower frequency microwave bands into a
microwave.
dual-band solution can provide very high-capacity, reliable
links over a significant distance. At the same time, microwave backhaul is evolving to meet
higher standards—with lower sidelobes, tighter RPEs and
There also may be promise in the recently opened 60 GHz
better interference discrimination. This maximizes the uses
unlicensed band. At such high frequencies, the oxygen in
of existing spectrum andallows ever denser networks to
the free air space itself can absorb signal power, making
be deployed. Plus, the availability of new spectrum for use
this band suitable only for short links—often less than
in these applications means microwave backhaul will only
a kilometer. Far from a limitation, however, the limited
grow as a powerful tool for the latest and next generation
range is an advantage in urban environments where
of cellular communications.

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 8 The infrastructure behind the call: Backhaul

Chapter 8 summary • To overcome environmental

The key takeaway is that fiber-optic and microwave
• Backhaul moves traffic on and off challenges, there are many practices
backhaul solutions are complementary, not competitive, and solutions available for microwave
the core network.
technologies. Any large-scale network will need to employ backhaul antennas.
• This is most commonly
both—fiber-optic for its vast capacity, and microwave for accomplished with fiber-optic cable
• Class 4 options offer improved
its flexibility in remote or cost-limited areas. Together, they or microwave antennas. efficiency, capacity and reliability.
can provide the wide pipeline needed by today’s most • Fiber-optic alternatives are efficient
• Noncompliant antennas are subject
to reduced performance and more
advanced wireless networks. and open the door for new
architectures. interference.

• Centralized RAN uses fiber-optic

• New microwave technologies are
cable to move baseband units from emerging to expand backhaul
multiple sites to a shared central capacities.
location.
• Cloud RAN will virtualize baseband
functions in data centers for even
more flexibility and efficiency.
• Microwave antennas use LOS
to link sites to the core network
affordably and flexibly.

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 Chapter 9
The next RF architecture evolution: C-RAN

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 9 The next RF architecture evolution—C-RAN

Thus far, many of the recent RF network Distributed radio access networks (D-RAN): Centralized radio access
status quo network (C-RAN)
innovations described in this eBook relate to
A wireless network architecture that
more efficient transport of signal and/or power; What most would consider a “conventional” modern RF
separates a site’s antenna and radio
network architecture. In general, it features antennas
improving coverage and capacity; or expanding from its baseband unit (BBU) by
and radios connected to baseband units (BBUs), with all relocating and pooling BBUs from
the RF network in a practical, cost-effective
RF equipment located at the cell site. BBUs then connect multiple sites at a single centralized
manner. However, there is another innovation off-site location where they can be
to the core network via fiber-optic or microwave radio
poised to revolutionize the very architecture backhaul—allowing traffic to switch and move freely
more easily managed. BBUs connect
to their respective sites predominantly
of RF networks—C-RAN, or centralized radio from any point on the network to any other point. via fiber-optic fronthaul.
access networks. Figure 9.1 provides a basic schematic of this design.

We discussed C-RAN briefly in the last chapter. But, The D-RAN architecture has served mobile operators

due to its game-changing potential, it deserves a closer well for the past 30 years and more. But the world

look. Before defining what C-RAN is, let’s first define the is not the same as it was when the first commercial
Distributed RAN (D-RAN)
conventional architecture of modern RF networks; then, it D-RAN networks were being rolled out en masse in

will be easier to see how C-RAN changes that model. We the 1990s. The global appetite for mobile services has

can also look ahead to the next stage beyond centralized skyrocketed since then. In addition to building out more

radio access networks into the emerging realities of cloud network capacity, network owners are also looking to

radio access networks—which, confusingly enough, are better control operations and maintenance costs at an
increasing number of mobile sites. RRH RRH
also known by the shorthand term “C-RAN.”
BBU BBU
At the same time, there has been a tremendous shift
in global consciousness regarding the environment
and the existential threat of climate change.
Backhaul
This has led governments, NGOs and businesses
communities—including mobile network providers—to
rethink “business as usual” and how we can reduce Core network
greenhouse gas emissions, heavy metal extraction, and
our reliance on fossil fuels, single-use plastics, etc. 9.1: Distributed RAN

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 9 The next RF architecture evolution—C-RAN

These large global trends have coincided with exciting The beauty of this design is that the wireless operator
technology breakthroughs in mobile network designs. Distributed RAN (D-RAN) C-RAN centralized
can now co-locate baseband units from many sites in
Such advances include next-generation fiber-optic a single centralized location. The design saves cost and
transmission to enable ultra-low latency fronthaul makes maintaining and operating the BBUs easier and
and backhaul, the emergence of network function more efficient.
virtualization and the continued disaggregation of
network components (remote radio heads, for example). Key advantages of C-RAN RRH RRH RRH RRH
C-RAN is an attractive network architecture
BBU for BBU
Centralized RAN and beyond wireless operators for several reasons, all related to the Fronthaul

The result of these trends and changes has been a performance of the network and the cost of operating
radical reimagining of mobile network architecture, that network. Backhaul BBUs
which has opened exciting new opportunities for
Backhaul
Efficiency
operators to significantly reduce cost, improve the user
experience and address the threat of global warming. C-RAN deployments require less equipment at
Core network Core network

individual cell sites. In addition to saving on hardware

The basic architecture, shown in Figure 9.2, represents a 9.2: Centralized RAN
costs, the C-RAN model can create savings in terms
significant departure from a traditional distributed
of power, cooling and site leasing costs. By locating
RAN model. It moves the BBUs from multiple individual
BBUs in a single, secure and controllable location,
cell sites to a centralized location, sometimes referred to
as a BBU hotel, which can be located several miles from
the sites being served. Meanwhile, the antennas and
radios remain on-site and connect to their respective
BBUs via fiber-optic cables. BBUs in each hotel connect
back to the network core via fiber or microwave
backhaul.

COST POOLING REPURPOSING

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 9 The next RF architecture evolution—C-RAN

operators improve their CapEx. Reducing on-site network Sustainability Advanced coordinated
requirements, in turn, reduces space leasing costs and multipoint (CoMP) send
It’s currently estimated that telcos are responsible for and receive
power consumption—helping minimize ongoing OpEx. 1.6–3.9 percent of global GHG emissions;1 without The process by which signals from
The bottom line is, it’s more cost-efficient to maintain immediate action, this figure will continue to grow. In multiple antennas are pooled to create
order to keep in line with the Paris Agreement, telcos additional capacity where interference
a pool of BBU hardware in one location than to
would otherwise occur.
service them spread across dozens or hundreds of must reduce their emissions by 45% before 2030, or risk
distributed sites. contributing to the irreversible effects of climate change.2
Centralized RAN and its potential successor, cloud RAN
Performance (see below), enable network operators to continue
C-RAN also offers wireless operators a significant progressing toward net zero emissions. Reducing the
advantage in terms of how their network’s capacity is amount of baseband processing equipment needed across
utilized. Because BBU functions are pooled in a single the network effectively removes mined materials and
location, it becomes possible for them to share and the environmental impacts of converting them from raw
balance traffic loads across the network. As demand shifts materials to finished products.
from one location to another, BBUs can help each other
At the same time, centralizing equipment in BBU hotels
process the load, ensuring that operators are getting the
as opposed to maintaining individual baseband solutions
best performance (and value) from their infrastructure.
at each cell site reduces the network’s overall cooling
C-RAN also enables multiple cell sites to handle the same and power requirements. It also enables service teams
signal at the same time, essentially “repurposing” the to make a single trip to a BBU hotel in order to service,
interference that would normally occur. This capability, upgrade or repair multiple baseband units—reducing fuel
known as “advanced coordinated multipoint (CoMP) consumption and CO2 emissions.
send and receive,” uses a complex software algorithm to
pool signals from multiple antennas—creating additional
capacity where intercell interference would otherwise
occur. It is made possible by the extremely low latency
times afforded by high-speed fiber fronthaul.

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 9 The next RF architecture evolution—C-RAN

Going beyond C-RAN hundreds of sites. Centralizing base station processing Blurring of networks—and
with cloud-based RAN or vRAN simplifies network expectations
As attractive as C-RAN is for many deployments, some
Modern wireless subscribers see little
view it as just a stepping stone to an even more efficient management and enables resource pooling and
distinction between the networks
architecture—cloud RAN, a.k.a. virtual RAN (vRAN). coordination of radio resources.
they use at home, in the office, and
on their mobile devices. They expect
Cloud RAN (Figure 9.3) takes the C-RAN concept to the Why C-RAN—and why now? a seamless and speedy internet
next level. Here, selected network functions are virtualized The arrival of C-RAN (and the promise of cloud RAN) onramp from their phones, laptops
in a cloud infrastructure, essentially replacing much of the couldn’t have come at a better time. As demand for and desktops. C-RAN helps make
costly and specialized baseband processing equipment this possible.
wireless services continues to break records, operators
with commercial off-the-shelf servers. Although the face tremendous cost pressures. To satisfy the growing
virtualized BBU functions could still reside on site, the demand, they must expand their network footprint and
larger benefits are achieved when the workloads are capacity; yet, at the same time, average revenue per
executed in centralized locations that can serve tens or user (ARPU) shrinks year after year. With few options
to increase subscriber revenue, operators must look to
Cloud RAN with network functions
alized reduce costs if they are to improve profitability.
virtualization (NFV)
Current trends point to increased utilization of C-RAN
as operators densify their networks and roll out small
cells—especially in densely-populated areas. Yet small
cell deployments are notoriously regulated, subject
RRH RRH RRH to some of the most stringent municipal zoning laws.
C-RAN can help mitigate these issues as centralizing and
Fronthaul
l
sharing baseband processing equipment reduces the
Cloud functions number of BBUs and aesthetic concerns. The centralized
may be co-located
with Cloud RAN
approach also has the added benefit of reducing the
ckhaul cooling requirements.
Backhaul

ork Core network

C-RAN also makes it easier for operators to deploy
smaller, more zoning-friendly sites that operate on lower
9.3: Cloud RAN power than large macro sites.

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 9 The next RF architecture evolution—C-RAN

The challenges of C-RAN

As with every innovation described in this eBook, C-RAN faces some
considerable challenges in its deployment as a practical solution. None
are insurmountable, but they can alter the calculus involved in deciding
where and when to deploy C-RAN architecture in a wireless network.

Fiber-optic fronthaul requirements

Owing to the enormous amount of bandwidth required by current-generation LTE/5G networks, the fiber-optic fronthaul infrastructure linking a site’s
radios to the remote BBU must meet high performance standards. 10 Gbps speed is required, often as a minimum, along with extremely low latency.
For many operators, this means adding or upgrading existing fiber-optic installations, which means boosting their investment in fiber infrastructure.

Reliable baseband interconnectivity

Pooling multiple BBUs in a centralized location can also introduce vulnerability in the network. In the event a BBU unit (or multiple BBU units) fails, the
C-RAN hub itself must be equipped with a high-speed, low-latency fiber-optic switching infrastructure. Without this, a failure in one unit could not be
efficiently compensated by other units. It’s also important that the hub’s switching network provides the flexibility and scalability to grow and adapt as
the network’s needs change over time.

Advanced coordinated multipoint (CoMP) transmission and reception

Described above as a means to reduce interference between cells and improve network capacity, CoMP send and receive requires an advanced interface
between BBUs and the capacity to jointly schedule radio resources. This requires BBUs capable of providing the throughput speed and low-latency
performance needed to process channel information and end-user data in near-real time. It also means the backhaul at the other end must deliver
equally fast, low-latency performance.

Hub locations
Finding the best location for a C-RAN hub (Figure 9.4) can be something of a balancing act. Placing it closer to the network core enables you to
consolidate more sites. On the other hand, placing it closer to the edge could help you better utilize and repurpose existing facilities. Additionally,
available space is getting harder to find. In many dense urban environments, the ideal location may be difficult or impossible to secure.

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 9 The next RF architecture evolution—C-RAN

MTU

C-RAN
node On-prem FDH

Small FPX
cells
MHT MST
SC
FO
C-RAN
hub
st
Ea

Small Common
cells MHT cable
est sheaths
W
C-RAN
node

STRIP MALL S C
FPX FO On-prem FDH
Small cell and
on-prem FDH
FL1

MST

Dark fiber
Feeder fiber
Distribution fiber
Drop cables

9.4: A single centralized RAN hub (center) manages traffic from multiple locations across a city

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 9 The next RF architecture evolution—C-RAN

Welcome to the age of C-RAN Chapter 9 summary

• Centralized RAN relocates multiple
C-RAN is among the most exciting developments in the
BBUs from their individual cells
wireless industry over the past 20 years. It represents a sites to centralized locations whose
radical, fundamental re-imagining of the way wireless fronthaul connects back to each site
networks are designed and built—a necessity considering via high-speed, low-latency fiber.
how we are constantly re-imagining what we expect our • Cloud RAN virtualizes BBU
wireless networks to do. functionality in the cloud, allowing
virtualization of BBU operations.
Both in its centralized and cloud-based implementations, • Co-located BBUs, whether C-RAN
C-RAN will answer operators’ calls for a more efficient, or cloud RAN, are more efficient to
more powerful network at a time when subscriber operate, cool and maintain.

expectations far exceed their potential incremental • Benefits include greater efficiency,
load sharing and reduced
revenue value.
environmental impact, as well as the
In this way, C-RAN represents as fundamental a change to possibility of improved user QoS.
the business model of the wireless industry as it does to • Challenges to C-RAN deployment
include fiber fronthaul capacity;
its architecture.
hub location and infrastructure; and
C-RAN is indeed the network of the future—and it’s advanced CoMP send and receive
already here. interfaces.

1
The real climate and transformative impact of ICT: A critique of
estimates, trends, and regulations; Science Direct, journal article;
10 September 2021

² ICT industry to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 45 percent

by 2030; ITU, press release; 27 February 2022

135 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 Chapter 10
The energy of communications: Powering wireless networks

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

Every year, our reliance on always-on deployment times by a day or two. On the revenue side,
we know the effect that network outages have on churn
technology grows. We expect to be able to place
rates. With the vast majority of cell sites relying on older
a call or surf the internet with our cell phones at power grids for primary power, the need for reliable
any time, under any circumstances. However, backup power is more important than ever.
the electrical infrastructure that powers our
wireless networks has not kept pace with the
demand for more macro cells and small cells.
The challenge goes deeper than powering
additional cell sites. The architectures of cellular
access are changing dramatically. Customer
demand is pushing 5G rollouts which, in turn,
require more RF equipment. Additional radios,
more frequencies and increasing use of remote
radio units, plus an entire small cell layer that
still needs to be built out are pushing outdated
power systems to the brink.

What’s at stake from a business perspective? Plenty. A

reliable power infrastructure has significant implications
for both cost and revenue. Running power to thousands
of small cells will be expensive. Cutting cost by even a
point or two can generate major savings, as can reducing

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

Powering today’s macro site This begs the question: If the power mains feed is AC, Volt (V)
Site architectures are quickly changing, with more active why is the cellular equipment designed to operate off DC? A measure of electric potential
There are several reasons. difference between two points in a
and passive RF components being moved to the top of
path. Voltage is sometimes referred
the tower. This shift is affecting tower loads and creating First, most communications equipment includes to as “pressure” because it shares
additional congestion at the top. Bringing power to a semiconductors and other integrated circuitry that are many characteristics with pressure in
network’s macro sites is the biggest challenge, literally and designed to operate specifically with DC, such as: a water pipe.

figuratively. So, let’s dive in. • Telephone switches Direct current (DC)
An electrical current that runs
Power types—DC vs. AC • Microwave transmitters
continuously in a single direction,
The core technology that drives modern communications • Fiber-optic transmitters making it well suited for use in
runs on direct current (DC) electricity, as opposed to motors and electronic components
• Mobile radio and cellular systems
such as semiconductors. Batteries
the alternating current (AC) that powers our homes and
Another reason DC power is preferred for communications also produce DC current.
offices. But the electrical power sent across transmission
systems is reliability. Even the most advanced electrical grid Alternating current (AC)
lines from power plants to the cell site is AC. Before it can
can fail from time to time, and power interruptions may An electrical current that changes
be used to power the on-site equipment, AC power must
last for hours or days. When the outage occurs at a cell polarity (direction) 50 to 60 times
be converted to DC using a rectifier. The rectifiers’ output
station, shutting down is not an option. So, cell sites rely per second. It offers significant
is fed to the radio and RF transmission equipment—the
on battery backup and generators to augment the rectifier efficiencies when transmitted across
current “load”—and the backup battery equipment power lines—making it the standard
plant and ensure continuous operation. And, you guessed
(Figure 10.1). current for household use.
it, the battery backups and generators are both DC.

Electricity generation, Transformer steps up Neighborhood Transformers on

voltage for transformer steps poles step down
transmission and distribution electricity before it
transmission down voltage
enters houses

10.1: Electricity generation, transmission

Power plant
and distribution
Transmission lines carry electricity Distribution lines carry
generates electricity long distances electricity to houses Source: adapted from National Energy Education
Development Project (public domain)

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

DC power by the numbers

Communication equipment requires specific voltages of DC
power. Most commonly, the requirements are positive 24
volts (+24 V) and negative 48 volts (–48 V). The higher
–48 V value reduces associated current—enabling the use
of smaller and less expensive fuses, circuit breakers and
cables. Therefore, –48 V has become the dominant power
supply voltage for communication equipment.
– DC

R
Going beyond the basics
– DC
As mentioned above, the basic core components of a
communication system’s power connection are the rectifier R R B D
E E A I AC AC
L
(which converts AC power to usable DC power) and the C C T S inverter out
To O
Utility T T T T misc A
batteries (which assume the load when external power is AC
CD DC loads D
converter out S
interrupted). Once DC is online, however, we must consider
the specific power needs, or loads, of different equipment
+ DC + DC
and have a way to distribute the correct voltages to each
piece of equipment. This is where DC-DC converters come
into play.
10.2: A block diagram of a basic telecommunications power system
DC-DC converters modify the primary DC voltage to suit
the varying voltage needs of the equipment. For equipment
requiring AC current, an inverter is used to change DC
back to AC. Because this happens behind the station’s
main rectifier, the reconverted AC power isn’t subject to
interruptions from the external power supply. A sample
diagram showing all these components appears in
Figure 10.2.

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

The chemistry of batteries

At its most basic level, a battery is an electro-
chemical device that stores and releases electrical
energy. A battery contains chemicals that react with
one another, producing DC electrical current as a
byproduct. The specific chemicals and processes
may vary—we will examine some common varieties
below—but, on a fundamental level, all batteries
operate on this core principle.

Cell site battery backup requirements usually range

from two to eight hours, depending on the load.
Since telecommunications providers must be able to
specify expected operational times, choosing the
best type and configuration of batteries is critical. However, they demand a great deal of costly
So, what are your options? maintenance, such as water treatment, spill
containment and forced-air ventilation. These
• Lead-acid batteries drawbacks make them less suited to remote
These are commonly used as backups for telecom cell base stations.
power systems. They are compact relative to their
- Valve-regulated lead acid (VRLAs)
output and are similar to the battery under the
hood of your car. They are available in vented and batteries are relatively new for wireless
valve-regulated forms. telecom applications. Unlike VRLA batteries,
- Vented (also known as wet or flooded) which are composed of four 12 V DC batteries
batteries are a mainstay of telecom central per string, lithium-ion batteries are packaged
offices and switching centers. They can in a single rack-mounted module that provides
maintain a charge for 20 years or longer. –48 V DC output. These batteries are highly
compact (50 percent of the volume of a
comparable VRLA battery).

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

• Lithium-ion batteries are relatively new for wireless the system altogether. By connecting in parallel, the Voltage polarity: positive (+)
and negative (–) voltage
telecom applications. Unlike VRLA batteries, which are spare capacity is already online and ready to maintain
The + and – designations of +24 V
composed of four 12 V DC batteries per string, lithium- the current for its rated length of time. A diagram of
and –48 V refer to which polarity
ion batteries are packaged in a single rack-mounted sample parallel battery strings rated at 240 amp-hours of the battery circuit is measured; in
module that provides –48 V DC output (Figure 10.3). appears in Figure 10.4. Note that, if a battery fails in any terms of actual power produced, the
These batteries are highly compact of the three series strings, the remaining two strings will distinction is meaningless.
(50 percent of the volume of a comparable
continue to supply steady power at 160 amp-hours.
VRLA battery).
The arrangement of these batteries in series determines This configuration also provides a convenient means of
the voltage polarity. If each of the 12 V batteries is rated maintaining the batteries. Often, these strings will be
for 100 amp-hours, then each series string could be installed with separate disconnection breakers—making
expected to produce 100 amps of current for one hour. it easier to locate failures and isolate problems that could
Capacity is directly related to the size of the battery otherwise cripple the entire system.
but, rather than spending more on larger batteries, we Lithium-ion batteries are packaged in rack-mounted
can achieve the same capacity boost by adding more –48 V DC modules in parallel. Should an individual
battery strings in parallel as opposed to in series. This module fail, the remaining modules will continue to
option also safeguards against the failure of an individual provide backup power.
battery, which would otherwise remove its string from

–48 V at 240 Ah
–48 V at 240 Ah

Li-ion, 80 Ah

Li-ion, 80 Ah

Li-ion, 80 Ah

10.3: VRLA lithium-ion batteries configured in series 10.4: A VRLA multi-string battery configuration offering
for –48 V applications additional redundancy

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

Generators: the first line of defense

If batteries are the last line of defense against service
interruption, generators are the first. Since batteries alone
can maintain operations for only a few hours, longer
AC service interruptions require a longer-term solution—
and that means generating our own power. Unlike
batteries, generators provide power by burning fuel. Like
batteries, there are different types and configurations
available. Which one you install depends on factors like
space, cost and service expectations.

Since they operate outside the base station’s internal

DC system, generators aren’t considered part of that
system. Because they supply the DC system’s rectifiers
with the AC they need, however, they’re a vital link in
assuring reliable operation. In the event the station must
switch from external power to generator-supplied power,
an electrical device called a “transfer switch” shunts the
load to the generator, such as the one shown in
Figure 10.5.

10.5: AC permanent generator

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

Rectifiers: the AC-DC interface

Once we move beyond the external source of power— power to the rest of the system. When external AC power
whether commercial AC service or an AC generator— is restored, the rectifiers re-engage, and the batteries return
the rectifier is the core of the system’s DC power to their trickle-charging state (Figure 10.6).
distribution needs.
Typically, multiple rectifier modules are required to
The rectifier provides an output DC voltage level that supply power for the station’s load. Rectifier modules are
maintains the battery charge. This level is called “float connected in parallel, letting each one share an equal part
voltage,” and it supplies the equipment load as well of the load—a practice known as “load sharing.” With load
as a trickle charge to the battery. When AC power is sharing, operators can incorporate redundancy into the
interrupted, the rectifiers go offline and the batteries design to guard against individual rectifier module failures.
automatically kick in to provide the required level of

AC power on AC power off

DC
AC Load AC Load
DC
DC
Battery battery
Battery charger Battery charger

10.6: External AC power on (float mode) and off (discharge mode)

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

Redundancy = reliability
Choosing the right rectifier Distributing the power For a –48 V application with 200
amps of load, an operator may choose
The first consideration in deciding which rectifier will Once power is converted by the rectifier, it must be
to install five 50-amp rectifiers. Why
best suit a given installation is the type of AC power it distributed to the many component loads within the add a fifth, when four would provide
will receive. Switchmode rectifiers (Figure 10.7) are the system. As mentioned, these loads include core elements the requisite 200 amps? To ensure
preferred choice for cell and microwave sites since they like the radio, transmitter and battery backup, as well N+1 redundancy. Arranging multiple
can support multiple AC inputs and have a broader as secondary systems like lighting, security networks rectifiers in parallel allows load sharing
to even out and shift the load.
operating range—from single-phase to three-phase and HVAC systems (Figure 10.8). In the most complex
inputs. This flexibility means fewer rectifiers are required— installations, there may be so many components that up
saving money, space and maintenance costs. to 80 circuit breakers are required to manage them.

Your choices impact more than your network

When designing and deploying a macro site, every choice has
an impact that goes beyond the network. For example, selecting Charge (+)
switchmode rectifiers not only reduces your CapEx and OpEx, but
LVD -48
it also reduces your embodied carbon by reducing the number of panel breaker
panel
rectifiers needed, along with the CO2 they emit when operating.
Think about it. Breaker LOADS
alarm

Temperature
Batteries comp sense probe
(electrically isolated
from battery)
Charge (–)
Modular rectifier shelves Shunt
N+1 parallel modules

Controller
Return

Ground bar

Charge/discharge panel
83A switchmode (Terminal panel)
6.3 in H x 3.4 in W x 11.8 in D

10.7: A typical switchmode rectifier 10.8: A diagram of a typical –48 V DC power distribution system (Images and illustration courtesy of GE)

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

Fuses vs. circuit breakers

While both fuses and breakers provide overcurrent current. In this case, a cell site’s SPD operates on the same
protection, they do it in different ways. Fuses are designed principle a surge protector does in your home—safeguarding
to melt under unsafe currents—physically breaking the expensive electronics from lightning-induced surges.
connection between the power source and the load.
Circuit breakers have internal switches that pop to the
“off” position under unsafe conditions—again providing
a physical break in the circuit.

Sensitive wireless equipment requires “fast blow” fuses

or short delay curve breakers to provide the needed
protection. Fuses are generally used for lower loads and
offer the advantages of lower cost, greater flexibility
and fast action. Circuit breakers are preferred for larger
loads and do not require replacement every time they are
tripped. Some typical examples are shown (Figure 10.9).
10.9: Common types of telecom fuses and circuit breakers
Surge protection
Typical variations in AC power are not the only threat to
a cell site. Electrical events like lightning can also produce
excessive voltages and currents—“electrical surges.”
Surge protection devices (SPDs) are incorporated to
reduce the effects of these surges on sensitive electronics
(Figure 10.10).

An SPD features a non-linear voltage-current characteristic

that reduces unsafe voltages by increasing the conducted 10.10: Typical surge protector devices (SPDs) (image courtesy of Raycap Corporation)

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

Bus bar conductors Low-voltage load disconnects (LVLDs) can disconnect

The cell site’s power distribution system is supported by individual loads, while low-voltage battery disconnects
the bus bar conductors, which physically connect the (LVBDs) can disconnect a fully discharged battery. LVDs
rectifiers to the batteries and DC loads. There are two bus serve three main protective functions:
bar connectors: the charge bus and battery return bus. 1. Prevent damage to sensitive electronics caused by
• The charge bus is a current-carrying conductor that low-voltage (hence, high-current) conditions
connects the rectifier’s output to the battery string. 2. Prevent permanent damage to the battery from
For instance, in a –48 V system the negative rectifier over-discharging
lead terminates on the charge bus along with the 3. Prioritize which components are disconnected, and
corresponding negative lead of the battery. in which order—preserving limited function when
• The battery return bus provides a common return necessary
point for the loads connected to the power system. This Supervision, monitoring and control
common point is grounded to provide a low-impedance
Modern telecommunication power plants are equipped
path for transients and noise and offers a ground
with electronic monitoring and control systems, generally
reference to all connected equipment.
called controllers (Figure 10.11). They track system
Battery disconnects voltages, currents, temperatures and other key indicators.
Battery disconnects are switches installed on a battery They also allow operators to make adjustments to the
string that enable easy disconnection for maintenance system from a central monitoring point—usually the
or replacement. Some disconnects incorporate safety distribution cabinet or in a rectifier slot located in the
measures such as overcurrent fusing or breakers. power plant. The controller enables technicians to
monitor and adjust a wide range of system variables and
Load disconnects processes. Here are just a few:
Low-voltage disconnects (LVDs) are designed to respond
• Plant control. Control functions are extended from
to low-voltage conditions in the circuit. There are two
the supervisory panel to control other power system
types of LVDs typically used in cellular communications.
components. These panels communicate directly with

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

the rectifiers and, in some cases, can coordinate the • Battery diagnostics. The controller can estimate the
sequenced restart of all rectifiers to prevent power “health” of the battery and predict how long it will
surges during switchovers from external AC to a backup provide power based on its charge status.
power source. • Alarm monitoring. The controller monitors critical
• Manual equalizing. This allows a user to functions like distribution and battery fuse alarms,
simultaneously engage all rectifiers in equalize mode. rectifier failures, converter failures and more. It uses
This is useful for maintenance on VRLA batteries— network backhaul interfaces and LED indicators to
equalizing cell voltage within a battery string. report these alarms. Some units include audible alarms
• High-voltage shutdown/overvoltage protection as well.
(HSVD/OVP). Controllers can automatically shut down • Status monitoring. The controller can measure and
rectifiers when DC output overvoltage conditions are compare the battery charge to the system load via an
detected—avoiding costly damage to load components. external shunt.
• Low-voltage disconnect (LVD). If a low-voltage • Plant history. Controllers can log power system details
condition is detected in the backup batteries, the over a span of time, including such statistics as thermal
controller can open additional contacts to equalize performance of outdoor enclosures, battery cell states
voltage and close them again when levels equalize. or variations in AC input experienced by the rectifiers.
• Battery temperature compensation. The controller
can adjust rectifier output to meet the temperature-
driven voltage needs of the batteries.
• Charge current control. This feature limits the current
flow to a battery when it begins recharging after
a power interruption. By keeping the battery from
recharging too quickly, it prevents overheating and
10.11: A system controller interface
prolongs life. displaying voltage, amperage and alerts

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

DC-DC power conversion Pros and cons of converting voltage

Some wireless sites require multiple DC voltage Modern DC-DC converters are essentially “plug and play”
outputs, such as +24 V DC and –48 V DC. While you devices designed to fit in the racks alongside rectifiers and
could simply install a second rectifier plant, that would other converters. This approach offers network operators
require a second battery backup array as well, which the greatest flexibility in adopting next-generation
consumes considerable space and adds cost. Instead, technology—offering new services while maintaining
many networks use a DC-DC converter system that older standards.
changes one DC input voltage to a different DC
The disadvantage of converting to a given voltage is that
output voltage.
it is inherently less efficient than drawing the voltage
A DC-DC converter system is actually multiple DC-DC directly from the rectifiers. The more DC power that is
converters arranged in parallel. It may also incorporate converted away from the primary voltage, the greater the
many of the same functions as the primary DC power power signal loss.
system, such as distribution. Dedicated fuses or circuit
Mapping the positions
breakers isolate it from the rest of the system.
Since a single power plant can generate varying amounts
Since a DC-DC converter system does not have an
of primary and secondary voltages, we must be able
associated battery connected to its output, it isn’t
to assign numbers to the distribution positions of each
bound by a battery system’s requirement for precise
voltage. A selectable voltage distribution panel makes this
output voltage. However, since it is necessarily
organization possible.
energized by the primary DC power system, that
demand must be figured into the power system’s
initial design.

Utility
AC

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

Integrated power systems DC-AC inverters Integrated power systems

So far, we have focused on the individual components As mentioned earlier, some of the equipment operating at Space-saving combinations of
related components built into a
that compose a cell site’s power system. With so many a cell site may also require AC current from battery backup
single device for easy installation.
components, you can imagine how quickly the available supplies. Since the entire system is built around DC power,
space inside the base station shelter or cabinet fills up. To a DC-AC inverter is needed to provide the necessary AC
address the space issues, CommScope engineers integrated voltage (Figure 10.13). There are two basic types of inverters:
power systems that combine multiple components into a • Offline inverters feature an AC input and an AC output
single device that can be installed in a single rack.
with a connection to a standby DC line available. This is
A typical integrated cell site power system includes one or the type generally used in cell site applications.
more shelves of rectifiers along with one or more shelves • Online inverters feature a DC input and an AC output
of DC-DC converters. This integrates power conversion and with an optional AC standby line available.
power distribution functions—connecting them with bus
Like DC-DC converters, the input for a DC-AC inverter is
conductors. The distribution system contains an integrated
supplied by the primary power plant. Like converters and
DC bus, fuses or breakers and cabling tie-downs to
rectifiers, inverters are often installed and configured for
distribute power to the load (Figure 10.12).
redundancy. A static switch maintains equalized voltage
This approach not only enables network operators to the load by automatically switching between external
to conserve space, but—by eliminating the need to AC power and the inverter’s AC power. The switching is
manufacture multiple components—it also reduces the instantaneous—assuring no interruption in operation.
environmental impacts such as the power consumed during
production and the associated CO2 emissions. The space-
efficient design and reduced carbon footprint have helped
make integrated power systems increasingly common in
10.12: A DC-AC inverter system
modern cell sites. connected in series to a cell site’s
power system

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

AC power sourcing flexibility

As utility costs rise and public demand for greener options (Figure 10.13). This hybrid power solution is one way
increases, network operators look to augment traditional networks can begin to move toward a greener, cleaner
utility power with power from renewable sources. To operating model without completely overhauling their
address this, some rectifiers are now able to accept power management and distribution systems.
AC power from attached solar panels or wind turbines

Batteries

Utility grid

ac 10
ac 30

ac or dc generator
dc fuel cell

10.13: Power source flexibility lets

rectifiers draw from conventional or
renewable sources

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

Remote radio head (RRH)

Architectural improvements to power management system, we can power the RRHs by simply replacing the A feature of base station architecture
Significant RF power losses occur as the signal moves from coaxial cable with a power conductor (Figure 10.14). that separates a cell site base station’s RF
and baseband functions by locating the
the radio transmission equipment in the base station shelter But what happens when the power feed goes down and the
radio on the tower, near the antenna,
to the antenna atop the tower. These losses are a natural site switches to backup battery power? Ensuring a steady and for improved energy efficiency.
consequence of traversing long stretches of coaxial cable. sufficient voltage from the backup batteries poses a different
However, the simple architectural change of moving the challenge. Each RRH needs a battery backup to ensure
radio’s transmitter and amplifier—known collectively as the operation in case of a power failure. Because of weather
“radio head”—from the shelter to the tower eliminates risks, locating the battery on the tower isn’t feasible, so it
these losses and reduces power requirements. This design is must be housed in the shelter, far away from the RRH. Due
called the “remote radio head” (RRH). In an RRH deployment, to a phenomenon known as “voltage drop,” a heavier gauge
the baseband equipment remains on the ground and is fed power conductor is needed to sustain the RRH’s required
by external AC power that enters at the cabinet or shelter. voltage. This adds significant weight onto the already-
Moving the radio transmitter and amplifier onto the tower overloaded tower.
creates more space and less heat inside the shelter. The RRH
The alternative is to find a way to convert the battery power
design delivers significant efficiencies across the board—
to a higher voltage on the ground, then convert it to the
reducing power, cooling and space requirements. As a result,
needed voltage (+24 V or –48 V) at the RRH itself. This is
it is quickly becoming the accepted architecture for many
the operating concept behind CommScope’s PowerShift®
macro site installations.
solution. For information regarding PowerShift, see page 155.
Getting backup power to remote radio heads
Prior to the introduction of RRHs, all radio equipment was
located in the base station shelter or cabinet where there was
Battery plant Remote...
ready access to the backup batteries. All we had to worry
DC IN
about was bringing the RF signal from the radio up to the
AC IN
antennas. Easy enough—just use a coaxial cable. Moving Battery storage –48 V DC DC OUT
DC electronic
load
the radio transmitter and amplifier to the top of the tower, DC OUT

however, meant we now had to get power up the tower as

well. So long as the site is operating from the main power 10.14: DC powering options for remote radio heads (RRHs)

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

Cell site power system configurations Other sites place integrated compact equipment in
Many cell sites house and maintain their power outside plant (OSP) cabinets. This approach offers
equipment in equipment shelters at the base of the less space and fewer opportunities for environmental
cell tower. Inside these climate-controlled enclosures, management, so only components specifically designed
equipment is mounted in equipment racks—with an for OSP cabinet environments can be installed. Because
integrated power system in one rack, battery strings in of their size, often batteries will have a dedicated cabinet
another, and radio equipment in a third. as well. A few examples of OSP cabinets are shown in
Figures 10.15 and 10.16.

10.15: Integrated cell site battery-only cabinet 10.16: Integrated cell site power and battery cabinet

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

Powering tomorrow’s wireless networks voltage the higher the current needs to be to maintain
As 4G/LTE wireless networks mature and rollout of 5G the output power level. Voltage delivered to the
networks continues, powering the most cutting-edge tower-top equipment will depend on the power plant
technologies and architectures has emerged as a macro- voltage, the size of conductors and the length of
scale strategic challenge. The following are some issues the conductors.
to consider. • Design case. The critical factor when sizing conductors
to connect tower-top electronics is the power plant
Increasing power demands on the tower voltage when primary power is lost and the site
As wireless networks evolve, their power demands switches to battery power. The battery starts at
continue to increase. Dual-band remote radio heads 48 V and will drain down (Figure 10.17) until the battery
(RRHs), higher power carriers, and massive multiple- disconnect is triggered or the electronics reach their
in, multiple-out (MIMO) antenna configurations are low-voltage drop-out value.
some examples of tower-top units that drive DC power
consumption above 1 kilowatt—even approaching
58
2 kilowatts of demand.
56
How much copper is really needed? There is no single
standard for determining the right size of conductors 54
Battery voltage (V)

to use when connecting DC power to tower-top 52

electronics; so, to make a good selection, one must

50
consider several factors:
48
• Voltage drop. As current flows through conductors,
46
there will be voltage drop due to the resistance of
the cable itself. This means the tower-top electronics 44

will always have a lower voltage than the power plant

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
or the ground-mounted equipment. The tower-top
Depth of discharge (%)
equipment is constant power, so, the lower the input
10.17: Integrated cell site battery-only cabinet

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

• Battery backup time. Depending on the reliability • Electrical codes. When the tower-top electronics
needed for a particular cell site, the tower-top operated at just 400 to 500 watts, the input currents
electronics should have enough battery backup time for were so low the conductor amperages for codes were
a technician to reach the site and ensure the generator typically not factors—voltage drop was the only criteria.
has successfully started. This can typically range from As the power requirements increase, electrical codes
two to eight hours. such as the National Electrical Code have become
The rule of thumb is to size the conductors for a a factor since the amperages in conductors can be
5 V drop when the cell site is on battery (48 V). When exceeded for flexible cords.
the battery powers the site, it will provide 48 V. So, the In the U.S., reference the latest NEC table 400.5(A)(1) and
tower-top electronics will initially receive 43 V and will 400.5(A)(3) if using SO type cables and Table 310.15(B)
remain powered until the voltage reaches about 38 V (16) and 310.15(B)(3)(A). Outside the U.S., reference the
(at which point the battery has drained down to 43 V). applicable standard for flexible cable ampacity.
If the conductors are sized based on voltages supplied by • Cost. The initial cost of the cable and installation should
the rectifiers while the primary power is connected, it is
be weighed against battery backup time, tower loading,
likely the tower-top electronics will either drop out when
permit costs, etc., in order to select the optimum
the battery is engaged or there will be little backup
conductor size.
time. Here are some links to tools that will help properly
• Future proofing. Consider the site evolution over the
size conductors.
next few years so an upgrade is not needed soon after
• Power line losses. Energy efficiency really matters the cell site cabling is completed.
for cell sites—more so now than ever before. Power
loss is a function of the cable’s resistance multiplied by
the square value of the current. Use 54 V to calculate
the current for efficiency, since the rectifiers provide
54 V DC power to the RRUs when primary power is
connected.

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

Macro solution
Developed by CommScope as a cost-effective solution
for supporting higher-powered tower-top equipment,
PowerShift® regulates voltage to the RRU by providing a
higher DC voltage at the base (Figure 10.19). This reduces
the current in the long conductors, which enables much
more efficient transmission of DC power. PowerShift will
Traditional setup Setup with PowerShift
also vastly improve battery backup time by maintaining To RRU To RRU

the RRUs at their voltage setpoint—even as the battery

Backhaul Backhaul
drains down to as low as 36 V.
Traditional With PowerShift
• -48 V DC • Deliver the most
to all required efficient voltage
equipment the RRU can
including RRUs receive
• Programmable
-50 to -75 V DC
to power RRU

Power Power
AC to -48 volt AC to -48 volt
DC rectifier DC rectifier

Baseband Battery Baseband Battery

Back-up Back-up

120/220 V AC mains 120/220 V AC mains

10.18: CommScope’s PowerShift solution 10.19: Set up with PowerShift

You can find more information in the eBook Powering

Wireless Networks.

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

PowerShift also eliminates having to oversize the Centralized radio access

Nominal current discharge characteristic
power plant and battery backup to handle a worst-case network (C-RAN)
1.5 Discharge curve
A network architecture that moves
Fully charged voltage Nominal area scenario. So, MNOs can save cost and accommodate
1.4
Exponential area baseband functions from individual
1.3 higher-power RRUs inthe future.
sites to a remote location (a hub)—
Voltage

1.2
Wherever they are located, small cells require both often with baseband units from
1.1
End of exponential zone multiple sites. Connected by high-
1 data (fiber-optic cable) and power (copper) cabling to
End of nominal zone speed fiber, C-RAN networks are
0.9
function. Hybrid cable, containing both fiber and copper, extremely fast and efficient.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (hours)
makes this possible. However, with the proliferation of
new small cells, a new distributed power connectivity
10.20: PowerShift in operation strategy is required to manage it all efficiently.

Powering small cell metro networks

PowerShift® is inserted between the battery plant and
the trunk cable at the base of the tower. The battery Demand for wireless data is exploding, with 5G
output is fed into PowerShift, which adjusts its output deployments increasing daily. To increase network
voltage (VPS) to compensate for the cable voltage drop capacity, wireless operators must increasaec the density
(VC), providing a regulated, programmable voltage to of their networks—adding more antennas and radios
the RRU input (VL). to existing sites and deploying more sites where demand
is greatest. This can mean adding thousands of small
As the battery discharges down to 42 volts, PowerShift cells, up to 10 for every LTE macro site. And they all
continues to boost its output to maintain the need power.
programmed input voltage to the RRU. This effectively
eliminates the RRU dropout voltage as a major concern, CommScope has developed a new approach, PowerShift
ensuring full utilization of backup battery runtime Metro that uses hybrid that uses hybrid cabling to deliver
by the RRU. power and connectivity from a central location to a
cluster of neighboring small cells.

A suitable centralized location can be anywhere that has

access to power and the optical network, such as an
outdoor distribution cabinet, telecom closet or macro

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10 The energy of communications: powering wireless networks

base station location. With DC-DC conversion rates

Chapter 10 summary
now exceeding 95 percent efficiency, higher-voltage
Powering macro sites
power distribution enables longer DC power runs
• DC and AC power
that extend hundreds of meters. This greatly simplifies
• Battery backups engage to bridge
the amount of infrastructure work required to power
generator in the event of line power
small cells without involving the utility providers—a big
failure
advantage for wireless operators. AC
• Modern networks draw more
Cabinet
These deployments are most efficient for new clusters power and can benefit from
intelligent DC power supply such
of small cells. During the planning stages of such
as PowerShift
projects is the best time to incorporate a centralized
Powering metro sites
power source.
10.21: Controlled by the mobile operator, CommScope’s PowerShift • Metro (small cell) sites are located
Metro provides a separate power feed from a central location, on the edge of networks
ac
eliminating the need for an onsite power rectifier and meter, and
relieving equipment congestion at the small cell pole.
• Central to continued 5G rollouts
Learn more
• Unique power distribution needs,
including intelligent DC power
To learn more about the CommScope PowerShift® Metro basic supply
configuration
PowerShift Metro solution, watch this
brief video and see how PowerShift Metro
small cell small cell small cell
can help you take control of your small
Power Power Power
cell networks. node node node

Cabinet or shelter

Battery cluster 1 Hybrid Hybrid Hybrid

backup closure closure closure

cluster 2
Rectifier Power Hybrid cable fiber + copper
cluster 3
supply
cluster 4
AC

10.22: A cluster of small cells working off a central, higher-voltage

power source

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 Chapter 11
Successfully planning against failure:
Reliability in wireless systems

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11 Successfully planning against failure: Reliability in wireless systems

By now, assuming you’ve read some of the continued drive for more bandwidth, faster throughput Reliability
preceding chapters, you’ve picked up on more and lower latency performance is pushing the boundary The probability that an item will
of cellular performance. However, ensuring cellular perform as intended, under given
than a couple of very big and broad themes. conditions and for a stated length
reliability keeps up with accelerating network demands is
Among those are the exponential growth of of time.
difficult. In this chapter, we’ll learn why—and what can
global cell data usage, the increasingly critical be done.
role that mobile networks play in our lives and
Time is short and the topic is huge. Let’s get to it.
livelihoods, and the new and pressing demands
that emerging applications impose on mobile
network infrastructure. Putting reliability in a broader context
Better network uptime, reduced maintenance cost, happier customers—these are all good reasons to work
All three of these factors intersect at the broad issue toward a more reliable mobile network infrastructure. But there’s also something much bigger at stake: the
known as “reliability.” fight to save our planet.

From an engineering perspective, reliability is the Every component, product and system failure carries a high environmental cost. Truck rolls consume fossil
fuels and release CO2. Parts that fail prematurely must be replaced, requiring more mined minerals, more
probability that a component, product or system will
production resources and more carbon impact during transportation.
perform as intended, under given conditions and for
a stated length of time. Simple enough? Not be a It all adds up, making the challenge bigger than dollars and cents.

long shot.

In this chapter, we’ll unpack the challenge of the mobile

network—understanding its component parts, how to
Reliability and reliability engineering in outdoor
measure it, and methods for improving it. By the end, wireless networks
hopefully you will realize just how complex (and, yes,
While it is impossible to eliminate all failures from a
beautiful) a reliably engineered network system is.
design, we can identify the most likely failures and the
The timing couldn’t be better. As demand for 5G services appropriate planning needed to mitigate their effects.
increases, 6G technologies are already making their That’s the goal of reliability engineering. It involves
way from the drawing board to the board room. The systematically applying consolidated engineering

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11 Successfully planning against failure: Reliability in wireless systems

principles and techniques throughout a product

lifecycle—thus, reliability engineering. Physics
Fluid dynamics principles
Evaluating the reliability of a product or process can applications

include a variety of tools used in reliability analyses and

testing which help us understand a product or system’s Math
and
reliability from different perspectives. The objective is to Science Math-simulation for
geometry optimization
identify potential failures and work toward improving
our processes. To achieve this, CommScope uses a strong
multi- and inter-discipline reliability approach. It includes Multiple
Engineering Test procedures for
the various disciplines, procedures and tests used to Disciplines experimental verification
study, measure and improve how well antennas and
passive filters stand up to environmental factors such
Materials
as wind loading and corrosion. Science Bracket material for
granting the robust and
lasting pole fixing

Physics Chemistry
Finishing for bracket
Materials corrosion protection
Science Logistics

Reliability Transportation
Engineering Multiple assessment
Chemistry Engineering
Logistics
Disciplines

Math
Maintenance and Network engineering
Planning Scince Maintenance team supports
Planning maintenance

11.1: Integrated multi-/inter-disciplinary 11.2: An illustration of the various disciplines, procedures and tests used to study, measure and improve how
approach to reliability well antennas and passive filters stand up to environmental factors, such as wind-loading and corrosion.

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11 Successfully planning against failure: Reliability in wireless systems

Understanding failure rates across the

product life cycle
As mentioned earlier, reliability is defined as the probability
(P) that an item will perform its required function under given
conditions for a stated length of time. The non-reliability
probability (also known as “failure rate”) is usually depicted by
the classic bathtub curve (Figure 11.3) which shows higher failure Decreasing failure rate Increasing failure rate

rates at the beginning and end of a device’s life cycle. For any Early life defects from Wear out defects
manufacturing and installation Increased maintenance
given device, this graph provides a general guide as to its rate of
failure—decreasing initially and increasing during end of life.

The bathtub curve can be divided into three phases of the

product’s lifecycle: Constant failure rate

Failure rate
• Early life failures are highly undesirable and are typically Random defects

caused by defects and/or errors introduced during the design,

manufacturing or assembly of the product.
• Steady-state constant failures are normally considered to be
random cases due to the “intrinsic” characteristics of materials
Time
and components.
• End-of-life (wear-out) failures occur due to fatigue or depletion 11.3: The reliability “bathtub curve”
of materials, or components characteristics degradation.
The sum of the duration of these three periods must not be
confused with the product’s useful life, which is limited by its
shortest-lived component. Also, it is important to note that the
bathtub curve does not depict the failure rate of a single item.

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11 Successfully planning against failure: Reliability in wireless systems

Rather, it describes the relative failure rate of multiple design. Design simulation and stress calculation enable
products over time. Additionally, it is purely qualitative. designers to detect weak points in components and
This makes it nearly impossible to model product failure systems before the prototype is finalized. Accelerated life
behavior using a calibrated bathtub curve. testing is used to generate potential failure and provide
data that will help improve the product design.
Addressing the product life failure periods
Steady-state constant failures
Early life
This long, roughly flat portion of the bathtub curve
Failures that occur early in a product’s life are particularly
is known as the “intrinsic failure period.” During this
damaging as they serve to undermine customer
stage of the product lifecycle, failures occur randomly
confidence and, if unresolved, enable an escalation of
and at a fairly constant rate. This is the stage we are
unreliability and further erosion of confidence. Moreover,
most concerned with in this chapter. The worldwide
they carry the highest environmental cost, as a failure
used failure rate metrics in this period are the reliability
early in the product’s life forces the supply chain to re-
predictions based on mean-time-between-failures (MTBF)
produce and re-transport the replacement part earlier
calculations.
than anticipated. These failures are caused by defects
designed (or built) into a product. End of life (wear-out)
CommScope employs a standard design approach During this phase in the product lifecycle, components
that includes a set of engineering reliability standard or materials degrade at an accelerated rate, increasing
practices to prevent/minimize the early life failure. This the failure rate. One of the important goals in design
includes failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA), design and manufacturing is to select appropriate materials,
simulation, part stress calculation and accelerated life designs and processes and verify their reliability. To do
testing. FMEA is used during component, subsystem, this, CommScope utilizes a set of standard reliability
system design, or process development to ensure that engineering practices that include accelerated life testing
potential failure modes and their associated causes have and weathering/aging tests that measure the material’s
been considered and addressed before releasing the resistance to UV aging, corrosion aging, etc.

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11 Successfully planning against failure: Reliability in wireless systems

11.4: Gear materials analysis and selection 11.5: (Middle) and 11.6: (Right) UV aging test and continuous field exposure

Predicting reliability in a wireless network include active and passive electronics, RF components,
mechanical and structural components, as well as non-
System failure rate
structural parts.
Predicting the end-of-life stage for a wireless network is 1 1 ... n

highly complex and requires understanding the end-of-life The classical approach to calculating the failure rate for
(a)
calculations for the main components, such as RET motors such systems consists of the following:

and cabinet fans. These components, in turn, consist of 1

Reliability budget calculation
1 2
multiple sub-components whose moving parts are subject
This calculation is obtained by dividing a system’s 2
to mechanical wear and eventual failure. 1 3
functionality into subsystems and representing them

...
Similarly, electronic components also have life using a reliability block diagram (RBD). The RBD 2 3
expectancies. For example, electrolytic capacitors used in (Figure 11.7) identifies functional blocks and n (c)
wireless electronics are subject to degradation from high redundancies and can be extremely useful in predicting (b)
temperatures and alternating current (ac) ripple currents. system reliability. The shape of the RBD depends on the

Complex wireless systems such as base station antennas, type of system architecture being considered. A typical 11.7: Reliability block diagram

tower-mounted amplifiers and CommScope’s PowerShift® architecture may include both redundant and non-

dynamic power supply solution are all composed of redundant subsystems. Arrows represent the direction of

multiple components or “blocks.” These blocks can

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11 Successfully planning against failure: Reliability in wireless systems

information flow but may not necessarily correspond to multipliers account for specific temperature, electrical
the physical direction of current in the active system. stress, production quality and environmental conditions.

Predicting failure for each block in the RBD Reliability prediction tools enable a designer to compute
a predicted failure rate with 90 percent or greater
Several methods can be used, either separately or jointly,
confidence; at least nine out of 10 times, the actual
to estimate the failure rate of each block:
failure rate will be no higher than predicted. These
• Collection of empirical field data estimates usually reflect conservative numbers, making
• Accelerated life testing data them highly reliable predictors.
• Prediction models based on “parts count” or “part Factors mentioned above are critical for the final reliability
stress” method performance of a device in prediction, better control of
• System availability models for large systems with the very factors will lead to a lower multiplier factors and
internal redundancy lower system failure rate.
Each method offers different advantages. The “parts Stress factor (πSi): This is the ratio of applied voltage
count” method, for instance, is particularly useful for (or power) to rated voltage (or power) expressed as a
new product designs, even before the product moves percentage. Its value is a quantitative expression of the
beyond its design stages. This method applies established effect of stress on failure rate, as listed in Telcordia
life-cycle information for the components used in the SR-332. Component derating design is quite important
design—the steady-state failure rates indicated in for a stable system. A 50 percent stress derating
Table 11.1 below—to create an aggregated model of produces a stress factor of 1 for the component. Derating
potential failures. calculation and design are widely used in CommScope
active devices.
Calculating system failure rates
Calculating system failure rates relies on reliability Temperature factor (πTi): This refers to operating
prediction tools such as Telcordia SR-332 Reliability temperature and represents the sum of the ambient
Procedure for Electronic Equipment. This industry-standard temperature and the temperature of the heat produced
software aggregates individual component failure rates by the component itself. In practice, a 10°C increase in
and applies designer-specified multipliers to produce a operating temperature can double the likely failure rate.
final, steady-state failure rate for the component. The Likewise, reducing the temperature by a similar amount

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11 Successfully planning against failure: Reliability in wireless systems

can reduce predicted failure rates by up to 50 percent.

Temperature factor is 1.0 at a temperature of 40°C, which Failures in time: Computing system failure rates
can be adjusted up and down from this reference point. “Failures in time” estimates the number of expected component failures per billion operating hours.
The total system failure rate is the component failure rate plus the factor multipliers listed above.
Quality factors (πQi): To predict failure rates, Telcordia Failures in time can be derived using the following equation:
SR-332 uses four quality levels for manufacturers. Each
level is assigned a Quality Factor value, which is used as
a multiplier of the basic failure rate. A better-quality level
Where:
classifying will lead to a smaller multiplier quality factor to πSi = Stress factor λGi = Generic steady-state failure rate for each component;
component. Failure rates are improved by manufacturer πTi = Temperature factor values vary by component
efforts to ensure the quality of their devices. Quality πQi = Quality factor λSS = Steady-state failure rate for the total system
πE = Environmental factor N = Number of parts or subsystems used in the system
factor of outdoor wireless equipment is typically 1.0,
which requires a solid system quality control of the device
components. CommScope follows the TL 9000 quality
management system through the entire product lifetime. Failure rate calculation per Telcordia SR-332

Environmental factor (πE): This factor accounts Assembly A

N λGi (FITs) πSi πQi πTi πE λSS
(example)
for variations in temperature, vibration and other
PCB part—1 8 0.2 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.9
environmental variables in an uncontrolled outdoor
PCB part—2 8 0.2 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.9
deployment versus the same equipment in a climate-
Metal part—3 8 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 4.8
controlled enclosure. It can have a significant influence
Mechanical part—4 8 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 4.8
on failure rates. For example, an outdoor environment
introduces a multiplier of 1.2 to 2.0, depending on the Mechanical part—5 8 0.2 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.9

outdoor application. Mechanical part—6 48 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 28.8

Mechanical part—7 4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 4.8

The final product of the reliability prediction tool includes
Subtotal / / / / / / 48.9
detailed, part-by-part information such as shown in
Table 11.1. Table 11.1: Example of part counting method

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11 Successfully planning against failure: Reliability in wireless systems

Measuring reliability Availability

As mentioned above, reliability is the probability that a Availability (A) is the percentage of time the system as a
device will perform correctly under defined operational whole operates normally. When someone refers to “four
conditions over a specific span of time. But supporting this nines of reliability,” they mean “99.99 percent uptime”
general definition are several practical ways of measuring (Table 11.2). Availability is a function not only of how
reliability in real-world applications. often a component fails, but also how long it takes to
restore service when it does fail. Therefore, it is a function
Mean time between failures of both MTBF and MTTR.
Mean time between failures (MTBF) is the time between
Availability is calculated using the equation:
two consecutive failures. This is the most common
definition for reliability. MTBF is expressed as the inverse A = MTBF / [MTBF + MTTR]
of the failure-in-time rate. When describing the reliability of an entire system,
It can be calculated using the equation: availability is a more useful measurement. That’s because
redundancies built into the design may tolerate some
MTBF = 1 / Failure rate = 109 / FITs
individual failures without seriously compromising the
Note: While MTBF is the time between failures and can function of the system as a whole.
be expressed in hours, months, cycles, etc., it does not
represent a duration, but a probability of failure. Unavailability
Unavailability (U) is the flipside of availability; it expresses
Mean time to repair the percentage of time a system is not working properly.
Mean time to repair (MTTR), sometimes called “mean Like availability, it can be calculated as a function of MTBF
time to restore,” is the time needed to repair or replace and MTTR: U = MTTR / [MTBF + MTTR]. As you may
a failed component and restore its function. This expect, A + U always equals 100 percent.
includes procurement and travel time, so the figure is
comprehensive in its scope.

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11 Successfully planning against failure: Reliability in wireless systems

Downtime Budgeting for failure Accounting for ESG impacts

Downtime (DT) is derived from unavailability and is Dividing a system’s functionality into subsystems enables MNOs must also understand how
their “failure budget” will impact
expressed as the average amount of time per year the us to calculate a “reliability budget.” By breaking down
corporate environmental, social, and
system will be in an unavailable state. Since it measures the complex whole into manageable segments, subsystem governance (ESG) measurements
failures that often last only minutes—and expresses them reliability can be more easily modeled based on its parts and goals.
as a percentage of a full year—we simply multiply the count or by another appropriate method. Then the
unavailability percentage by the number of minutes in a likelihood of failure of the entire subsystem can
year, or 525,600. be modeled to learn its effect on the overall function
of the system.
DT = U x 525,600
In a practical example, consider the number of active
Consider a system with 99.99 percent availability, “four
(electronic) components mounted atop a cell site tower.
nines.” Its mathematical value is .9999, resulting in a U
The system can be broken down into subsystems involved
value of .0001. Multiplying .0001 by 525,600 yields an
in the transmit path, receive path, power system and
expected annual downtime of 52.5 minutes per year,
other related functions. Each subsystem is assigned a
or less than a full hour. This is a key indicator in overall
maximum allowable failure rate based on its importance
service quality (Table 11.2).
to the operation of the system. To enable the site’s
designers to plan accordingly, the overall reliability budget
is split up and allocated where it is needed most.

Downtime
Percent availability Number of nines Service quality level
(minutes/year)
99% 2-Nines 5,000 m/y Moderate
99.9% 3-Nines 500 m/y Well managed
99.99% 4-Nines 50 m/y High availability
99.999% 5-Nines 5 m/y Very high availability

Table 11.2: Service quality measured by uptime; more nines means more availability

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11 Successfully planning against failure: Reliability in wireless systems

In practical applications, these models are more have one thing in common: on-demand access to a
concerned with the functioning state of a system or device or service that can assume the function of a failed
subsystem, rather than with the actual hardware or device until it can be repaired or replaced. Sometimes
software itself. At this level of planning, MTBF and MTTR this includes a spare component; other times, it means
become more meaningful descriptors of reliability than shifting load to other systems. Common redundancy
failure rate alone. schemes include:

Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA)

• Active/hot standby: A spare component built into the
system operates all the time and can assume more load
Given enough time, component failure is a certainty.
when needed due to primary component failure.
Where and when it occurs, however, is a variable that
must be modeled to be predicted. That involves running
• Active/cold standby: A spare component built into
multiple what-if scenarios that not only evaluate potential the system but which comes online only in the event of
component failure but the effect of that failure on its failure, with a possible interruption in service.
subsystem and the effect of that subsystem on the system • 1+1 load sharing: Two active communication routes
as a whole. Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) is a are provided to ensure one will be available in the event
simple, table-based method of measuring these variables that component failure causes an outage in the other.
together. The FMEA for a particular system lists each • N+1 load sharing: A standby alternate route for
failure mode and its effect on overall system performance. communications is established to assume the load in the
Failures that result in total loss of service are combined event that component failure causes an outage in any
to calculate the system’s total availability, while failures of the other routes.
that cause only minor effects on service are combined to
Revisiting the reliability block diagram
calculate the system’s partial availability.
Another widely used approach to measuring system
Fault-tolerant design (redundancy design) reliability is the reliability block diagram (RBD). Unlike
Redundancy is the key to boosting system availability the list-based FMEA table, the RBD graphically shows
without requiring the subsystems to be more reliable. the interconnections between subsystems and how
Redundancy schemes vary by application, but they all redundancy measures are integrated. Also, these element

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11 Successfully planning against failure: Reliability in wireless systems

State 1: Both A1 and A2 ok— State 2: Both A1 and A2

“blocks” are described purely by function, not by system is “up” failed—simplex mode
individual component; the system’s reliability depends on
2 x FR 1 x FR
how these blocks are connected.

An RBD is extremely useful in predicting system reliability, 1 2 3

but it does have disadvantages. The main limitation is its 1/MTTR

1/MTTR
static nature; it can only predict individual failures without
accounting for cascading effects throughout the system as
11.8: Markov Model describing the three possible states for a
it continues to operate in a degraded state. two-subsystem design

State transition diagram (Markov Model)

In non-redundant systems, there are two states of being:
working and not working. Transitions between these
two states are defined by failure rates (1/MTBF) and
repair rates (1/MTTR). Between these two measurements,
availability can be easily determined.

However, more complex fault-tolerant systems have

multiple levels of operational efficiency, including
degraded states and states of partial failure. To measure
the reliability of these complex systems, the Markov
Model defines all possible operational states of the system
and maps every transition between operational states.

To illustrate, consider a simple system with two

subsystems, A1 and A2, each with the same failure rate
(Figure 11.8).
11.9: Thermal simulation and tolerance analysis
There are three possible operating states: fully operational,
partially degraded, and completely unavailable. The
arrows indicate potential failure and repair transitions

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11 Successfully planning against failure: Reliability in wireless systems

between states, with the failure and repair rates for Two important aspects to note are the roles played by
each. Different failure rates among subsystems naturally environmental issues and transportation/installation
introduce additional variables, but the computations when dealing with active/passive products designed for
remain the same. outdoor wireless applications. Environmental variables
like temperature variations, moisture, lightning strikes
Markov Models can account for multiple combinations
and other local conditions all play a part in how
of failure conditions and the effect each has on system
reliability is measured and improved. So, too, how
performance. This offers a better view of the comparative
products are packaged, transported and installed can
severity of different subsystem failures and what kinds of
significantly impact reliability. Each consideration should
degraded performance can be expected.
be thoroughly qualification tested and any applicable
Markov Models are very useful in calculating the cost/ industry standards taken into account.
benefit analysis of steps designed to reduce failure rates
at various places within a system—essentially putting a Thermal design considerations

“time and trouble” cost on any possible subsystem failure. Along with the generation upgrading of wireless systems,
This is particularly valuable when considering how difficult more compact design/higher power/integration of
it is to service outdoor wireless network equipment. It can active and passive parts are the tendency of the wireless
also inform design decisions at the planning stage, taking system which is a challenge on reliability, where need to
into account accessibility factors early in the process. The consider:
downside to the Markov Model is that it cannot assign a • Robust margins for thermal tolerance (Figures 11.9
single MTBF value or failure rate to the entire system.
and 11.10)

Improving reliability • Design to conform to outdoor specifications

Integrated thermal protection against over-thermal 11.10: FLIR PCBA thermal imaging
Now that we are able to gauge system reliability, the •

question becomes: What can be done to improve that conditions

reliability? Better reliability begins in the design phase and
must be reinforced at every stage, from production to
installation and maintenance.

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11 Successfully planning against failure: Reliability in wireless systems

Mechanical considerations In the long run, maintenance and troubleshooting—when

• Resistance to high winds and vibrations on rigid performed by trained professionals (Figure 11.13)—are
mounting (Figure 11.11) much easier and less disruptive to your network.
• Accommodation of expansion and contraction Reliability testing
• Mechanical change-induced drift compensation Many reliability tests are designed to improve product
Atmospheric considerations reliability from early design prototype to deployment.
• Resistance to water infiltration These include engineering verification testing (EVT) and 11.11: Wind tunnel testing of a base station
design validation testing (DVT), which take place during antenna
• Resistance to corrosion, fading and peeling
product development. The purpose is to detect potential
• Connectors, seals and gasket design (Figure 11.12)
failures related to the designs, materials or processes
• Proper lightning mitigation (shielding and grounding) during the design phase. This testing provides a thorough
Packing/transportation understanding of the product’s weak points—enabling
product reliability performance to continue improving.
Proper packing design and transportation is required to
protect the product itself. The ISTA standard is commonly Ongoing reliability testing (ORT) monitors reliability
used to simulate and validate the transportation. performance as the product moves into mass production. 11.12: SureGuard weather proofing design
in HELIAX product
Additionally, transportation data tracking and collection At CommScope, ORT involves RF/electrical monitoring,
can help determine a safe and proper severity level. environmental testing, transportation testing, safety and
regulatory testing, and customized special testing to
Installation
improve product reliability from early design prototype
It’s vitally important to work with a competent and to deployment. Most of these tests are standards-
experienced cell site services company with well- based, adhering to protocols and procedures outlined
documented safety records and tower climb-certified in standards such as IEC, EN, ETSI, and ISTA. Additional
technicians to handle both mechanical and electrical standards can also be applied as requested by the
services. Qualified technicians will reduce the chances customer. An RF return loss test is shown in Figure 11.14
of improper lightning protection, poor connections, on the next page.
mishandled feeder cable, and weatherproofing problems.
11.13: CommScope network engineering
team in the field

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11 Successfully planning against failure: Reliability in wireless systems

Robustness and life testing 11.14: (Left) Return

loss test
Accelerated life testing (ALT) evaluates the long-term
11.15: (Right) Salt
reliability of a product. A sample of units is subjected fog corrosion aging
to more severe thermal conditions than would normally test

be experienced in the field. A typical ALT includes high

temperature dwells (excursions) and more frequent
thermal cycling to stress the unit’s electrical components
and mechanical attachments. Testing duration varies
by product but typically last 60–100 days. A salt fog
Recent developments in reliability
corrosion aging test is shown in Figure 11.15.
Thermal design
Highly accelerated life testing (HALT) is designed to expose
latent defects in design components and manufacturing CommScope is always working to develop more thermally
that would not otherwise be found by conventional efficient designs. This includes exploring methods for
test methods. HALT stresses the products to failure in making more effective heat sinks for transferring heat
order to assess design robustness and marginality. HALT from components to the air. We are also a leader in the
regimes may be tailored to the product architecture and field of materials science—developing and experimenting
complexity and can include: with alternative materials that can continue functioning
as needed in extreme conditions. Currently, our use of
• Step temperature stress
thermal simulation tools and reliability experimentation is
• Voltage stress considered an industry best practice. It combines theory
• Thermal dwell stress and real-world situational analysis that help inform more
• Rapid thermal cycling stress innovative thermal product planning and design.
• Random vibration stress
Field data analysis
• Combined thermal cycling-vibration stress
CommScope continuously monitors field returns and
• Other stress tests that may be product applicable performs root-cause analyses on those returns. These
analyses inform our design and manufacturing processes
so we can prevent potential problems at the source rather

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11 Successfully planning against failure: Reliability in wireless systems

than on the tower. Positive field results show continuous Chapter 11 summary Testing regimens
improvement over time—proving that the process works. Reliability in wireless systems
• Engineering verification (EVT)
We’re building a whole new layer of reliability into each • Reliability engineering is multi-
• Design validation testing (DVT)
product. and inter-disciplinary integrated • Environmental testing
approach • Transportation testing
Ensuring a reliable network • Reliability over life span is defined by • Safety and regulatory testing
In outdoor wireless communications, every design choice the bathtub curve • Accelerated life testing (ALT)
involves a tradeoff. In exchange for more efficient use • Life period stage in bathtub curve • Highly accelerated life testing
of power and space in site deployments, there exists a Reliability factors (HALT)
greater risk of component failure. Such failures are a part • Stress factors Reliability improvement
of life, but they have also to be part of the plan. • Temperature extremes opportunities
• Environmental factor • Product simplification
Predicting and measuring reliability can be a complex
• Quality factor • Better thermal design
process with many competing aspects. Determining the
• Better mechanical design
reliability of a component, a subsystem or an entire site Measurements of reliability
• Proper packing/transportation
depends heavily on what matters most: maintenance • Failure rate
• Installation best practices
time and costs, fault tolerance performance and a host of • MTBF
other considerations. • MTTR
• Availability
In modern communications, there are no one-size-fits-all
• Unavailability
solutions. Every step to improve reliability represents a
• Downtime
careful balancing act between performance expectations,
installation, maintenance budgets and risk tolerance. Reliability prediction tools

CommScope helps make those decisions easier with • FMEA

the technology and insight that let you choose the right • RBD

solution from the best available options. • Markov Model

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 Chapter 12
Simplifying RF deployment where it matters

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12 Simplifying RF deployment where it matters

As demand for 5G coverage and capacity True to their name, small cells are downsized versions
rises, spectrum availability—or rather, lack of of macro cell sites. All the required RF equipment—base
it—continues to be a bottleneck for wireless station, radio and antennas—are typically combined in a
single self-contained unit. Each small cell creates a discrete
growth. In response, governments around the
“cell” of coverage. Like macro cell sites, however, traditional
world continue to open up additional spectrum,
small cells also create areas of overlap where their cell
especially in the higher frequencies. As the new boundaries meet. This problem can be mitigated through
spectrum becomes available, mobile network thoughtful design and careful optimization of small cell
operators (MNOs) waste little time building placement and power optimization.
out their networks in order to utilize it. In many
Typically, small cells operate in spectrum above 1700 MHz
cases, the RF equipment needed to support the and cover limited and well-defined areas. Because small
new frequencies is simply added to already- cell deployment scenarios can be wildly varied, selecting
crowded macro cell towers. This approach the right small cell solution for the individual location
is quickly becoming unsustainable. Network requires careful consideration of the performance levels and
planners need other options. Below are a few capabilities available.
options to help simplify and build for the future. Another constant concern for small cell deployments is that
of appearance. Zoning regulations vary from place to place,
Adding small cells to the mix and balancing high performance with small size can be
As discussed in previous chapters, high-frequency signals difficult. CommScope offers a wide variety of concealment
are great for increasing capacity but are limited in terms options for a fully integrated small cell architecture that
of how far they efficiently propagate and what kind of includes power supplies and antennas.
obstacles they can work around. One popular solution for
simplifying RF deployment is to deploy large numbers of
small cells that work together to exploit the advantages of
high-frequency spectrum without relying on large sectors.

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12 Simplifying RF deployment where it matters

Metro Cell solutions

CommScope’s broad portfolio of Metro Cell Full concealment Quasi mmWave Top-of-the-pole
solutions (Figure 12.1) addresses the specific zoning for 5G/millimeter and 4G
wave (mmWave) concealment
and performance challenges that often delay or
equipment,
compromise small cell deployment schedules. The C-band and 4G
diverse portfolio enables operators to grow their 5G
networks and leverage more efficient infrastructure
designs, and municipalities can provide connectivity
to both mobile users and smart devices without
compromising aesthetics in public spaces.

Thus, Metro Cell solutions help MNO providers address Middle-of-the-pole Bottom-of- Integrated Pole
the-pole Solutions
their most pressing network challenges:

• Densification: Easily add network capacity in

high-traffic environments
• Aesthetics: Compact and camouflaged, they satisfy
municipal requirements
• Flexibility: Supports a mix of 4G and 5G mmWave
capabilities
• Coverage: Fills the coverage gaps that macro Cell Sign Concealment Wood Pole Solutions Distributed Power
sites can’t and Cabinets

Metro Cell options include pole top, mid-pole, and

integrated pole products. Customizable options include
multiple colors and heights, decorative bases, poles,
lighting and more. All solutions offer full integration
with new or existing 4G/5G networks as well as smart
12.1: Metro Cell solutions portfolio

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12 Simplifying RF deployment where it matters

city devices such as traffic cameras and other equipment. distributes power (from the grid) and up to 144 fiber strands
These solutions can be paired with a range of supporting to clusters of small cells arranged in a “hub and spoke”
technologies, such as PowerShift® Metro (centralized architecture. The power hub also contains enough battery
power delivery and monitoring), battery backup and backup to deliver full power to the small cells should the grid
fiber backhaul for multiple small cell node clusters. When power fail. The power hub is a fully self-contained power
deployed together, they create a robust, compact and station complete with cooling, power and space for additional
reliable small cell site. gear, so operators can use it to install and house other
components such as virtualized distributed units, baseband
A smarter, easier way to power small cell units, compute and network switches, and more.
networks
As mentioned in chapter 10, PowerShift Metro is an
innovative solution that delivers cost-effective power, fiber
and battery backup to clusters of small cells up to two
miles away.

The heart of the PowerShift Metro solution (Figure 12.2)

is the power hub—alternating current (ac) power supply, small cell small cell small cell
rectifier and battery backup—that can be deployed
from any central location or macro site. The power hub Power Power Power
node node node

Cabinet or shelter
Battery
cluster 1 Hybrid Hybrid Hybrid
backup
closure closure closure
cluster 2
Rectifier Power
cluster 3
supply cluster 4 Hybrid cable fiber + copper
AC

12.2: PowerShift Metro | Source: CommScope

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12 Simplifying RF deployment where it matters

Benefits
By eliminating the excessive time and costs required for Key Benefits:
a utility drop, MNOs can deploy power to their small
cells faster and less expensively in places where power is
Reduce operating costs
not quickly and easily available. It also allows for battery
nad dramatically lower
backups or generators at the centralized location to
installation costs
support busy or mission-critical small cells.

By reducing the number of uncontrolled variables—

scheduling delays, electrician availability, additional Accelerate time
to market
meters—the distributed power connectivity solution
gives operators full control over how, when and where
to add small cell coverage. This enables MNOs to swiftly
Ensure service
respond to new market opportunities and increase
continuity
speed to revenue—capabilities that are critical in an
increasingly competitive marketplace.

The variable-voltage power supply also reduces OpEx by Prepare your power
infrastructure for the
enabling peak shaving across small cell sites. When the
future
demand and cost for grid power are highest, MNOs
can avoid spikes in power consumption by leveling
out peak use of electricity. This not only reduces the
Reduce congestion on
amount of energy purchased, but it also improves the pole
power grid stability.

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12 Simplifying RF deployment where it matters

Passive active antennas Chapter 12 summary

There is also a need to simplify installation on macro As operators continue rollout of their
advanced 5G services, the RF path is
cells. As 5G deployments add more antennas and
growing more complex—making it
radios on the tower, finding space to mount stand- harder to deploy, manage and upgrade.
alone single-band M-MIMO (massive multiple input, Simplifying the complexity at the cell
multiple output) AAS (active antenna systems) becomes site and across the network is critical.
more difficult. One solution is a passive active antenna Fortunately, there are some relatively
easy ways to do this:
(Figure 12.3). This is a passive antenna that combines
active components to support 4T4R or 8T8R radios. • Adding small cells to the mix enables
expanded coverage and capacity.
These antennas are designed to accept an AAS on
• Tougher zoning requirements and
the back of the structure, providing passive and active
local aesthetics threaten small cell
functionalities (on certain frequencies) on a single pipe deployment schedules.
position. The key enabling feature of this design is a • Solutions like Metro Cell help
window on the passive structure that allows the AAS meet zoning requirements while
frequencies to pass through, despite the presence maintaining excellent RF performance.
of radiating elements on the passive structure that • PowerShift provides an easy and
are in the direct path of the AAS radiating array. This efficient option for ensuring reliable
power to small cell clusters.
minimizes the frontal area needed to deploy all the
• Passive/active antenna technology
radiating apertures. In addition to reducing the number
further simplifies the macro layer by
of required pipes per sector face, the design also enabling active and passive arrays to
reduces wind load. coexist in the same basic footprint
without affecting signal quality.

12.3: Passive active antenna | Source: CommScope

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 Author biographies

180 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 Author biographies

numerous foreign patents in addition to having been published outside facilities personnel. Carla now serves as principal reliability
Mike Wolfe—CTO, Outdoor in several journals. He has a bachelor of science degree in engineer for the Outdoor Wireless Network group, specializing in
Wireless Networks electrical engineering from the California Institute of Technology RF filters and combiners. Carla holds a master’s degree in physical
Mike is an evangelist for CommScope and a master’s degree and Ph.D. in electrical engineering from science from the University of Milan, Italy.
outdoor wireless solutions, overseeing the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
strategy, marketing and technical support Marcus Ash—Product Manager
within the Outdoor Wireless Networks Pedro Torres Martos—CTO Marcus Ash is a product manager
business segment. He has over 30 years Europe, Outdoor Wireless at CommScope with over
of experience in wireless technology, and his passion lies in Networks 34 years of experience in wireless
making CommScope the most valued partner to our customers as telecommunications infrastructure
Pedro Torres Martos is CTO Europe
they continuously evolve their networks towards 5G technology products, including fiber-to-the-antenna,
for Outdoor Wireless Networks at
and beyond. Prior to his current CTO role, Mike held a variety of active products, coaxial cables, and
CommScope. Pedro has more than
roles in system engineering, product management, and connectors. He previously worked in Field Engineering Services,
20 years of experience in mobile
sales at CommScope, and he also worked for 14 years in the providing on-site support for the installation of all RF products.
networks in different roles. He started his career in R&D at
defense industry.
Ericsson Sweden, worked as RAN and IP network expert and
led the introduction of LTE and Heterogeneous Networks in the Xu Bin—Lab Manager
Marty Zimmerman—CTO North Mediterranean region. After two years as RAN CTO for Telefonica Xu joined the CommScope Outdoor
America, Outdoor Wireless Global he moved to CommScope in 2015. Pedro holds a master Wireless Network group (Suzhou, China)
Networks of science degree in telecommunications engineering and an in 2014 after working for CRRC as a
Marty Zimmerman is an engineering executive MBA by UNC Kenan-Flager Business School. He is also material development engineer. In his
fellow with CommScope. His current role a member of the 5TONIC steering board. initial role at CommScope, Xu worked as
is CTO for North America for the Outdoor reliability engineer on the base station
Wireless Networks (OWN) business Carla Annovazzi—Principal antenna portfolio. In 2020 he was promoted to lab manager,
segment. His primary role is working with customers and BU Reliability Engineer working on reliability initiatives for CommScope’s HELIAX® coaxial
resources to identify problems needing solutions for improving and fiber products. Three years later, Xu’s role expanded to include
Carla began her career as an electronic
the performance of 4G and 5G mobile wireless networks. Other product reliability for the power systems in CommScope’s Outdoor
designer at Thales Alenia Aerospace
duties include managing the BSA IP portfolio and leading the Wireless Network group. He also has expertise in product reliability
(formerly Laben). As part of the On
OWN Technical Support team. Previously he served as the global engineering and failure analysis for filters, connectors and cabling.
Board Data Handling group, she
lead for technical business development for BSA and also served Xu holds a master’s degree in material science from Nanjing
conducted reliability analyses on circuit
as the head of Technical Sales Support for North America. Prior to University of Science and Technology.
designs for scientific satellites. Carla joined CommScope in 1996
that he served as director of Engineering for BSA after working
as product quality manager, developing quality and reliability
his way up from being an antenna design engineer. Prior to that,
programs and interfacing with customers as needed. In 2000,
he worked as an antenna engineer for Sinclair Technologies and
she assumed the role of reliability manager, where she managed
Analex, a NASA contractor. Marty holds 80+ U.S. patents and
CommScope’s internal laboratory and was a key contact with

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 Author biographies

With over 30 years of experience and a degree in electrical

Thomas Craft Jr.—Director of Jared Haines—Director of
engineering, he has been involved in most every aspect of
Engineering Product Line Management
microwave spectrum management, including detailed line of
Tom is an engineering director for the sight analysis, availability and performance calculations, Jared Haines is currently the director of
RF and Power business unit within the interference analysis and coordination with microwave and mobile Product Line Management at CommScope
Outdoor Wireless Networks segment licensees, software requirements, Q/A, and migration for the Structures and Small Cell
of CommScope and is responsible of legacy software to the cloud. business units. Jared has over 20 years of
for technical strategy and innovation experience in the telecom industry. He
development. He has spent his career creating innovative Mark Gibson—Sr. Director, started his career as an entry-level tower
solutions for next-generation information and communication Business Development and technician while also being a full-time student at SUNY Oswego
technologies. He was a member of technical staff at AT&T/ Regulatory Policy where he completed his undergraduate degree. Over the years he
Lucent Technologies Bell Laboratories developing products has held more senior roles on the business side to help develop
With 40 years of wireless experience,
for light wave, military submarine and ship-based electronics, solutions for CommScope both in the United States and abroad.
Mark is responsible for developing
and digital loop carrier systems. Since joining CommScope in Today, as a director of Product Line Management, he leads the
domestic and international business
2007, he has worked to develop emerging technologies for teams for Structures and Metro Cell (small cell) business, applying
opportunities for CommScope in the
telecommunications in the areas of fuel cell backup power his experience from his early years in the field to the product
areas of RF engineering and spectrum management. In addition to
systems and low rack count prefabricated modular data centers portfolio throughout the product lifecycle.
leading technical and business development efforts for numerous
for high-performance computer environments.
wireless and spectrum-related products and services, he has led
Sam Merta—Manager of
Currently, Tom is working to develop power systems to enable efforts to address spectrum sharing between federal government
Business Development
the implementation of reliable and converged 4G and 5G and commercial users. He leads CommScope’s efforts to develop,
networks. He holds more than 18 U.S. patents and has a master’s test and certify the Automated Frequency Coordination system for Samantha joined CommScope in
degree in mechanical engineering from the New Jersey Institute 6 GHz unlicensed bands. 2018 as a mechanical engineer in the
of Technology. He is based in Richardson, Texas. Outdoor Wireless Network (OWN) group,
He is a board member regulatory officer of the OnGo Alliance
specializing in base station antenna (BSA)
and president and chair of the Wireless Innovation Forum. He is
Brian Eichenser—Director of concept design, simulation and analysis.
a member of the Commerce Spectrum Management Advisory
Operations Committee, where he has also co-chaired working groups
In 2023, she moved into her current role as manager of business
Brian is a director in the Comsearch development, coordinating new product and technology design
related to spectrum sharing and data exchange issues and has
business unit, responsible for several work between product-level management teams and research-
testified before the U.S. Congress on spectrum policy and related
areas, including the commercial and-development personnel. Among the outdoor wireless
matters. He has led spectrum management efforts, including
and technical support of the [Link] solutions Samantha has helped bring to market is CommScope’s
spectrum sharing analysis protocols and sharing criteria, as well as
microwave link design software product, MOSAIC, a future-ready active and passive antenna solution.
development of engineering services and software products. He
the direction of the Comsearch customer service group and GIS speaks frequently and has authored several papers on spectrum
group and the management of Comsearch’s customer-facing sharing and relocation and has advised numerous wireless
website and content. participants in their system design. He has a BSEE from the
University of Maryland and is a life member of IEEE.

182 Simplify and evolve your mobile network A guide for optimizing your RF path CONTENTS
 Author biographies

Matt Morris—Sr. Director of

Product Line Management
Matt Morris is currently the senior
director of Product Line Management
at CommScope, covering RF and Power
solutions for the NAR and CALA regions.
Matt has over 12 years of experience in
the telecom industry, starting his career with Verizon Wireless
and joining CommScope in 2018. Since joining the CommScope
team, Matt has worked as part of Sales, former Mobile Network
Engineering, and now Product Line Management within the
Outdoor Wireless Networks (OWN) segment. As part of RF and
Power within OWN, Matt’s team is responsible for power solutions
globally, as well as base station antennas, filters and cabinet
solutions for NAR and CALA.

Weidong (Lambo) Wen—Director

of Quality and Reliability
Lambo began with CommScope in
2006 as a reliability engineer at Andrew
Solutions (Suzhou, Jiangsu, China) where
he specialized in the testing, failure
analysis and reliability prediction for
base station antennas (BSAs). In 2015, he was appointed manager
of the Reliability Center in Suzhou, China. Within four years,
Lambo was named director of quality and reliability for all
BSA solutions in China, including antennas, cabinets, RF
power solutions, filters, HELIAX® cables and electromagnetic
compatibility. Lambo helped initiate adoption of the Base Station
Antenna Testing Measurement Standard in China and has
published multiple papers on BSA antenna reliability prediction
and field polymer aging.

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CommScope pushes the boundaries of communications technology with
game-changing ideas and ground-breaking discoveries that spark profound
human achievement. We collaborate with our customers and partners to
design, create and build the world’s most advanced networks. It is our passion
and commitment to identify the next opportunity and realize a better tomorrow.

[Link]
Visit our website or contact your local CommScope representative for more information.

© 2024 CommScope, LLC. All rights reserved. CommScope and the CommScope logo are registered trademarks of CommScope and/or its affiliates in the U.S. and other countries.
For additional trademark information see [Link] All product names, trademarks and registered trademarks are property of their respective owners.

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