AUGUSTINEUM SECONDARY SCHOOL

Grade 12 Physics Teaching Notes

BY : SIR PROFY
: 18

1.0 General Physics

1.4 Dynamics
1.4.1 Momentum and Newton’s laws of motion
Lesson Objectives
At the end of the lesson; learners should be able to:

• state that mass is the property of a body that resists change in motion
• recall the relationship F = ma and solve problems using it, appreciating that acceleration and
resultant force are always in the same direction
• define and use linear momentum as the product of mass and velocity (recall p = mv)
• define and use force as rate of change of momentum
• state and apply each of Newton’s laws of motion:
- Newton’s first law (the law of inertia): an object at rest continues in a state of rest or if moving
continues moving with constant velocity unless it is acted on by a resultant force
- Newton’s second law: the resultant force exerted on a body is directly proportional to the rate of
change of linear momentum of that body; and recall use (F = ∆𝑝 / ∆𝑡)
- Newton’s third law: when two bodies interact, they exert forces on each other, these forces have
the same magnitude but are in opposite directions

state that mass is the property of a body that resists change in motion

RECAP
What is Mass?

• Mass is the property of an object that resists change in motion

• The greater the mass of a body, the smaller the change produced by an applied force
• The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (kg)

Weight

• Weight is the effect of a gravitational field on a mass

• Since it is a force on an object due to the pull of gravity, it is measured in Newtons (N)
and is a vector quantity
• The weight of a body is equal to the product of its mass (m) and the acceleration of free
fall (g)

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 • g is the acceleration due to gravity or the gravitational field strength and On Earth, this
is 9.81 m s−2 (or N kg−1)

Free Fall

• An object in free fall is falling solely under the influence of gravity

• On Earth, all free-falling objects accelerate towards Earth at a rate of 9.81 m s−2
• In the absence of air resistance, all bodies near the Earth fall with the same acceleration
regardless of their mass

Mass v Weight

• An object’s mass always remains the same, however, its weight will differ depending on the
strength of the gravitational field on different planets
• For example, the gravitational field strength on the Moon is 1.63 N kg-1, meaning an
object’s weight will be about 6 times less than on Earth

On the moon, your mass will stay the same but your weight will be much lower

Example

The acceleration due to gravity on the moon is 1/6 of that on Earth. If the weight of a space
probe on the moon is 491 N, calculate its mass

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 Force & Acceleration
• As stated on the previous page, Newton's Second Law of Motion tells us that objects
will accelerate if there is a resultant force acting upon them
• This acceleration will be in the same direction as this resultant force

Newton’s Second law equation

Resultant Force

• Since force is a vector, every force on a body has a magnitude and direction
• The resultant force is therefore the vector sum of all the forces acting on the body. The
direction is given by either the positive or negative direction as shown in the examples
below

Resultant forces on a body

• The resultant force could also be at an angle, in which case addition of vectors is used to
find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
o For more details on this, have a look at the page on “Scalars & Vectors”

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 Acceleration

• Given the mass, Newton’s Second Law means you can find the acceleration of an object
• Since acceleration is also a vector, it can be either positive or negative depending on the
direction of the resultant force
• Negative acceleration is deceleration
• An object may continue in the same direction however with a resultant force in the
opposite direction to its motion, it will slow down and eventually come to a stop

Example

A rocket produces an upward thrust of 15 MN and has a weight of 8 MN.

A. When in flight, the force due to air resistance is 500 kN. What is the resultant force
on the rocket?
B. The mass of the rocket is 0.8 × 105 kg. Calculate the acceleration of the rocket and
the direction its going in.

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 Newton's Three Laws of Motion

• Newton’s First Law: A body will remain at rest or move with constant velocity
unless acted on by a resultant force

Worked Example
If there are no external forces acting on the car, other than friction, and it is moving at a
constant velocity, what is the value of the frictional force F?

• Newton’s Second Law: A resultant force acting on a body will cause a change in
momentum in the direction of the force. The rate of change in momentum is
proportional to the magnitude of the force
• This can also be written as F = ma

Worked Example
A girl is riding her skateboard down the road and increases her speed from 1 m s -1 to 4 m s-
1
in 2.5 [Link] the force driving her forward is 72 N, calculate the combined mass of the girl and
the skateboard.

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 •
Newton’s Third Law: If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B will exert a
force on body A of equal magnitude but in the opposite direction
o Newton’s Third Law force pairs must act on different objects
o Newton’s Third Law force pairs must also be of the same type e.g.
gravitational or frictional

Worked Example
Using Newton's third law describe why when a balloon is untied, it travels in the opposite
direction.

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 Linear Momentum

• Linear momentum (p) is defined as the product of mass and velocity

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 Momentum is the product of mass and velocity

• Momentum is a vector quantity - it has both a magnitude and a direction

• This means it can have a negative or positive value
o If an object travelling to the right has positive momentum, an object travelling to the
left (in the opposite direction) has a negative momentum
• The SI unit for momentum is kg m s−1

When the ball is travelling in the opposite direction, its velocity is negative. Since
momentum = mass × velocity, its momentum is also negative

Worked Example
Which object has the most momentum?

• Both the tennis ball and the brick have the same
momentum
• Even though the brick is much heavier than the ball, the ball is travelling much faster
than the brick
• This means that on impact, they would both exert a similar force (depending on the
time it takes for each to come to rest)

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 The Principle of Conservation of Momentum

• The principle of conservation of linear momentum states:

The total momentum before a collision = the total momentum after a collision provided no
external force acts

• Linear momentum is the momentum of an object that only moves in one dimension
• Momentum is a vector quantity
o This means oppositely-directed vectors can cancel each other out resulting in a
net momentum of zero
o If after a collision an object starts to move in the opposite direction to which it
was initially travelling, its velocity will now be negative
• Momentum, just like energy, is always conserved

The conservation of momentum for two objects A and B colliding then moving apart

External and Internal Forces

• External forces are forces that act on a structure from outside e.g. friction and weight
• Internal forces are forces exchanged by the particles in the system e.g. tension in a
string
• Forces which are internal or external will depend on the system itself, as shown in the
diagram below:

Internal and external forces on a mass on a spring

• Systems with no external forces may be described as ‘closed’ or ‘isolated’

o These are keywords that refer to a system that is not affected by external forces
• For example, a swimmer diving from a boat:
o The diver will move forwards, and, to conserve momentum, the boat will
move backwards
o This is because the momentum beforehand was zero and no external
forces were present to affect the motion of the diver or the boat

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 Worked Example
Trolley A of mass 0.80 kg collides head-on with stationary trolley B whilst travelling at

3.0 m s–1. Trolley B has twice the mass of trolley A. On impact, the trolleys stick together.

Using the conversation of momentum, calculate the common velocity of both trolleys after the
collision.

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 EXERCISE

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 Impulse

Force & Momentum

• Force is defined as the rate of change of momentum on a body

• The change in momentum is defined as the final momentum minus the initial momentum
• These can be expressed as follows:

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 Direction of Forces

• Force and momentum are vectors so they can take either positive or negative values
• The force that is equal to the rate of change of momentum is still the resultant force
• A force on an object will be negative if it is directed in the opposite motion to its
initial velocity
o This means that the force is produced by the object it has collided with

The wall produces a force of -300N on the car and (due to Newton’s Third Law) the car also
produces a force of 300 N back onto the wall

Worked Example
A car of mass 1500 kg hits a wall at an initial velocity of 15 m s -1. It then rebounds off the wall at
5 m s-1 and comes to rest after 3.0 s. Calculate the average force experienced by the car.

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Impulse

• The force and momentum equation can be rearranged to find the impulse
• Impulse, I, is equal to the change in momentum:

I = FΔt = Δp = mv – mu

• Where:
o I = impulse (N s)
o F = force (N)
o t = time (s)
o p = momentum (kg m s–1)
o m = mass (kg)
o v = final velocity (m s–1)
o u = initial velocity (m s–1)

• This equation is only used when the force is constant

o Since the impulse is proportional to the force, it is also a vector

o The impulse is in the same direction as the force
• The unit of impulse is Ns
• The impulse quantifies the effect of a force acting over a time interval
o This means a small force acting over a long time has the same effect as
a large force acting over a short time

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 Examples of Impulse

• An example in everyday life of impulse is when standing under an umbrella when it is

raining, compared to hail (frozen water droplets)
o When rain hits an umbrella, the water droplets tend to splatter and fall off it
and there is only a very small change in momentum
o However, hailstones have a larger mass and tend to bounce back off the
umbrella, creating a greater change in momentum
o Therefore, the impulse on an umbrella is greater in hail than in rain
o This means that more force is required to hold an umbrella upright in hail
compared to rain

Since hailstones bounce back off an umbrella, compared to water droplets from
rain, there is a greater impulse on an umbrella in hail than in rain

Worked Example
A 58 g tennis ball moving horizontally to the left at a speed of 30 m s–1 is struck by a tennis
racket which returns the ball back to the right at 20 m s–1.(i) Calculate the impulse delivered
to the ball by the racket(ii) State which direction the impulse is in

(i) Step 1: Write the known quantities

•
o Taking the initial direction of the ball as positive (the left)
o Initial velocity, u = 30 m s–1
o Final velocity, v = –20 m s–1
o Mass, m = 58 g = 58 × 10–3 kg

Step 2: Write down the impulse equation

Impulse I = Δp = m(v – u)

Step 3: Substitute in the values

I = (58 × 10–3) × (–20 – 30) = –2.9 N s

(ii) Direction of the impulse

•
o Since the impulse is negative, it must be in the opposite direction to which the
tennis ball was initial travelling (since the left is taken as positive)
o Therefore, the direction of the impulse is to the right

Impulse on a Force-Time Graph

Impulse of a Force-Time Graph

• In real life, forces are often not constant and will vary over time
• If the force is plotted against time, the impulse is equal to the area under the force-
time graph

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 When the force is not constant, the impulse is the area under a force–time
graph

• This is because

Impulse = Force × Change in time

• The impulse is therefore equal whether there is a small force over a long period of
time or a large force over a small period of time
• The force-time graph may be a curve or a straight line
o If the graph is a curve, the area can be found by counting the squares
underneath
o If the graph is made up of straight lines, split the graph into sections. The total
area is the sum of the areas of each section

Worked Example
A ball of mass 3.0 kg, initially at rest, is acted on by a force F which varies with t as shown
by the graph.

Calculate the velocity of the ball after 16 s.

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 Step 1: List the known quantities

m = 3.0 kg

u = 0 m s-1 (since it is initially at rest)

Step 2: Calculate the impulse

The impulse is the area under the graph. The graph can be split up into two right-angled
triangles with a base of 8 s and a height of 4 kN

Area = impulse = 32 × 103 Ns

Step 3: Write the equation for impulse

Impulse, I = Δp = m(v – u)

Step 4: Substitute in the values

I = mv

32 × 103 = 3.0 × v

v = (32 × 103) ÷ 3.0

v = 10666 m s–1 = 11 km s-1

Impact Forces

• Impact forces are reduced by increasing the contact time

• This fact is used in everyday life to lower the risk of injury
• Some example of where reducing impact force is important:
o In sport
o In packaging

In Sports

• For example, in cricket:

o When a cricket fielder relaxes their hands and pulls them back when catching
a ball
o A cricket ball travels at very high speeds and therefore has a high momentum
o When a fielder catches the ball, it exerts a force onto their hands
o Stopping a ball with high momentum at once will cause a large force onto
their hands

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 o This is because a change in momentum (impulse) acts over a short period of
time which creates a large force on the fielder's hands and could cause serious
injury
o A fielder moves their hands back when they catch the ball, which increases
the time for its change in momentum to reduce
o This means there will be less force exerted on the fielder's hands and therefore
less chance of injury

A cricket fielder moves their hands backwards when catching a cricket ball to reduce
the force it will exert on their hands

• In football:
o Increasing the contact time is sometimes used to advantage, as the longer the
contact time, the larger change in momentum
o When kicking a football, after a strong kick the motion is followed through
o The momentum from the foot is transferred to the ball
o This creates a large impulse and the ball then has a higher velocity

In Packaging

• Packaging, especially for fragile items, uses bubble wrap or polyester packaging to
reduce the impact forces that items experience in transit
• These help cushion the items by increasing the time over which they experience a
force, which reduces the risk of damage

Worked Example
A tennis ball hits a racket with a change in momentum of 0.5 kg m s -[Link] the different
contact times, which tennis racket experiences more force from the tennis ball?

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 Collisions
Elastic & Inelastic Collisions

• In both collisions and explosions, momentum is always conserved

• However, kinetic energy might not always be
• A collision (or explosion) is either:
o Elastic – if the kinetic energy is conserved
o Inelastic – if the kinetic energy is not conserved

• Collisions are when objects striking against each other

o Elastic collisions are commonly those where objects colliding do not stick
together and then move in opposite directions
o Inelastic collision are commonly those where objects collide and stick
together after the collision

Elastic collisions are where two objects move in opposite directions. Inelastic collisions
are where two objects stick together

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 • An explosion is commonly to do with recoil
o For example, a gun recoiling after shooting a bullet or an unstable nucleus
emitting an alpha particle and a daughter nucleus
• To find out whether a collision is elastic or inelastic, compare the kinetic energy
before and after the collision
• The equation for kinetic energy is:

Worked Example
Trolley A of mass 0.80 kg collides head-on with stationary trolley B at speed 3.0 m s–1.
Trolley B has twice the mass of trolley [Link] trolleys stick together and travel at a velocity
of 1.0 m s–1. Determine whether this is an elastic or inelastic collision.

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 Momentum Conservation Issues

• The force of an impact in a vehicle collision can be decreased by increasing the

contact time over which the collision occurs
o The contact time is the time in which the vehicle or the passenger is in contact
with what it has collided with
• Vehicles have safety features such as crumple zones, seat belts and airbags to
account for this
o For a given force upon impact, these absorb the energy from the impact and
increase the time over which the force takes place
o This, in turn, increases the time taken for the change in momentum of the
passenger and the vehicle to come to rest
o The increased time reduces the force and risk of injury on a passenger

The seat belt, airbag and crumple zones help reduce the risk of injury on a passenger

Designing Safety Features

• Vehicle safety features are designed to absorb energy upon an impact by

changing shape
• Seat belts
o These are designed to stop a passenger from colliding with the interior of a
vehicle by keeping them fixed to their seat in an abrupt stop
o They are designed to stretch slightly to increase the time for the passenger's
momentum to reach zero and reduce the force on them in a collision
• Airbags
o These are deployed at the front on the dashboard and steering wheel when a
collision occurs
o They act as a soft cushion to prevent injury on the passenger when they are
thrown forward upon impact
• Crumple zones

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 o These are designed into the exterior of vehicles
o They are at the front and back and are designed to crush or crumple in a
controlled way in a collision
o This is why vehicles after a collision look more heavily damaged than
expected, even for relatively small collisions
o The crumple zones increase the time over which the vehicle comes to
rest, lowering the impact force on the passengers

• The effect of the increase in time and force can be shown on a force-time graph
o For the same change in momentum, which depends on the mass and speed of a
vehicle, the increase in contact time will result in a decrease in the maximum
force exerted on the vehicle and passenger
o This is demonstrated by a lower peak and wider base on a force-time graph

The increase in contact time Δt decreases the force for the same impulse

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