CHAPTER 1 (An Introduction to Sociolinguistics by Janet Holmes)
What Do
Sociolinguists
Study?
Darene Almalki
Introduction
Linguistics: The scientific study of language.
Society: The community of people living in a
particular region and having shared customs, laws
and organisations.
Sociolinguistics: The study of the relationship
between language and society.
Introduction
Founder of sociolinguistics: Labov.
What do sociolinguists study?
1) Linguistic variables
(e.g.: pronunciation, syntax, morphology… etc.)
2) Social variables
(e.g.: age, gender, education, class, ethnicity… etc.)
Example 1
S
(Book, example 1, P:1)
Ray: Hi mum.
Mum: Hi. You’re late.
Ray: Yeah, that bastard Sootbucket kept us in again.
Mum: Nana’s here.
Ray: Oh sorry. Where is she?
Example 2
(Book, example 2, P:1)
Ray: Good afternoon, sir.
Principal: What are you doing here at this time?
Ray: Mr. Sutton kept us in, sir.
Notes on Examples 1 and 2
Our linguistic choices are affected by:
1. Who can hear us.
2. Where we are talking.
3. How we feel.
Our linguistic choices can give us non-linguistic information:
Ray’s choice of words provides information about his relationship with
his mother (close - informal) and with the principal (distant – formal).
Language can serve different functions:
We can ask for information (questions), give information
(representatives), express admiration or annoyance (expressives), offer
something (commissives) and make changes (declarations).
Example 3
(Book, example 3, P:3)
Every afternoon my friend packs her bag and leaves her Cardiff office in
southern Wales about 5 o’clock. As she leaves, her business partner says
goodbye Margret, (she replies goodbye Mike), her secretary says see you
tomorrow (she replies bye Jill) and the caretaker says bye Mrs. Walker (to
which she responds goodbye Andy). As she arrives home she is greeted by Hi
mum from her daughter, Jenny, hello dear, have a good day? from her
mother and simply you’re late again from her husband. Later in the evening
the president of the local flower club calls to ask if she would like to join the
club. Good evening, is that Mrs. Billington? She asks. No, it’s Margret
Walker. But my husbands’ name is David Billington, Margret answers. What
can I do for you? Finally a friend calls Hello Meg, sut wyt ti?
Notes on Example 3
Speaker Title
Business partner Goodbye Margret
Secretary “avoided mentioning names or titles”
Caretaker Bye Mrs. Walker
Daughter Hi mum
Mother Hello dear, have a good day?
Husband You’re late again
President of the local flower club Good evening, is that Mrs. Billington?
Friend Hello Meg, sut wyt ti?
The lady was addressed with different names/ titles but they are all appropriate.
The relationship between the addresser and addressee plays an important role.
Example 4
(Book, example 4, P:4)
Sam: You seen our ‘enry’s new ‘ouse yet? It’s on ‘alton you know.
Jim: I have indeed. I could hardly miss it Sam. Your Henry now
owns the biggest house in Halton.
Notes on Example 4
The choice of words and ways of
pronunciations convey social information.
The [h]- dropping reflects Sam and Jim’s different
education and occupations.
Although they come from the same region, they
have different social backgrounds which is
reflected in their speech.
Example 5
(Book, example 5, P:5)
(a) Refuse should be deposited in the receptacle provided.
(b) Put your rubbish in the bin, Jilly.
(c) Please tender exact fare and state destination.
(d) Give me the right money and tell me where you’re going.
Notes on Example 5
Both pairs of statements (a, b) and (c, d) convey the same
message but they differ in grammar and vocabulary.
Using the passive grammatical structure , impersonal style and less
frequent words increases distance and is formal.
Using the active grammatical structure, personal style, and common
words decreases distance and is less formal.
Although they have the same meaning, they are NOT
interchangeable.
If a mother addresses her son with sentence (a), it would sound
awkward and even funny. It would not fulfill the same purpose.
Variety or Code
• The term variety or code: refers to any set of linguistic forms
which patterns according to social factors.
• Variety or code: is a sociolinguistic term referring to language in
context.
• A variety or code: is a set of linguistic forms used under specific
social circumstances, i.e., with a distinctive social distribution.
Variety or Code
• Variety is a broad term which includes:
1. different accents,
2. different linguistic styles,
3. different dialects,
4. and even different languages which contrast with each other for
social reasons.
Variety or Code
• The term variety or code has proved a very useful sociolinguistic
term because:
1. It is linguistically neutral,
2. and covers all the different realisations of the abstract concept
‘language’ in different social contexts.
Linguistic repertoire
• Linguistic repertoire or verbal repertoire: a range of varieties
from which people select according to the context in which they
are communicating.
• In monolingual communities these take the form of different styles
and dialects.
Variety or Code
• People acquire their knowledge of varieties and how to use them
appropriately in the same way that they acquire their knowledge of
most other aspects of language:
1. by extensive exposure,
2. and a process of osmosis.
Osmosis: the process by which ideas and information are absorbed
without conscious effort.
Why Do People Speak Differently?
A- Social Factors:
1- The participants:
a. Who is speaking? (speaker, writer)
b. Who are they speaking to? (listener, reader)
i. Age, gender, education, occupation, social status, social distance, ethnicity …etc. can all
affect the linguistic choices of the participants.
2- The setting or social context of the interaction:
Where are they speaking? E.g. : Home, school, mosque, shop, office, cafe…etc.
3- The topic: What is being talked about? E.g.: studying for an exam, going to a party,
inviting a friend, …etc.
4- The function: Why are they speaking? E.g.: Give information, order, offer, express
feelings …etc. (language functions).
Why Do People Speak Differently?
B- Social Dimensions:
1. The social distance scale
2. The status scale
3. The formality scale
4. The functional scale
1- SOCIAL DISTANCE SCALE
It is concerned with the relationship between the participants.
It emphasises how well the participants know each other.
The more formal the language is, the more distance there is between the
participants. When distance INCREASES, solidarity DECREASES.
Formal language more distance less solidarity = Distant relationship
When Ray uses the title “sir” to address the principal in example (2).
The less formal the language is, the less distance between the participants.
When distance DECREASES, solidarity INCREASES.
Informal language less distance more solidarity = Close relationship
When Ray addresses his mother with “mum” and uses swear words in example (1).
2- STATUS SCALE
It is also concerned with the relationship between participants.
If the speaker is of a lower status than the addresser, he/ she has to use formal
language and use titles to show respect. However, if the speaker is of a higher
status than the addressee, he/ she has the choice to either use formal or informal
language.
Higher status can be attained by class, occupation, education… etc.
Example (2): Ray’s choice of using “sir” shows that the principal was of a higher status.
Example (3): The use of “Mrs. Walker” by the caretaker reflects the higher status of
Margret Walker.
Example (4): Sam’s [h]-dropping reflects his lower social group status in the society as a
whole.
Superior High status
Subordinate Low status
3- FORMALITY SCALE
It is concerned with the setting or the type of interaction.
The language used will be influenced by the formality of the setting.
The degrees of formality are often determined by solidarity and relationships
but not always.
In a low court, the language is highly formal regardless of the personal relationships.
FORMAL INFORMAL
At the bank: Addressing the bank At a café: Addressing a friend.
manager at his office. At home: Addressing a sibling.
At the mosque: Addressing a stranger.
Written notices are mostly formal and Spoken language is mainly less formal
impersonal. than written one. For a friendly chat,
people use colloquial.
Setting:
Formal High formality More distance Less solidarity
Informal Low formality Less distance More
solidarity
4- FUNCTIONAL SCALE
Language serves many functions but mainly two:
1. Give objective information Referential function
2. Express feelings Affective function
Our speech can have both functions but one function will dominate. The more referential
information a message conveys, the less it tends to express the speaker’s feelings and vice versa.
E.g.: Ray’s “yeah, that bastard Sootbucket kept us in again” conveys information about why he
was late and also how he felt about it.
1- Referential 2- Referentially 3- Affective 4- Affectively
dominated dominated
“Speed limit “ You left your cute “ I’m freezing” uttered by “I can’t stand this
should not be bag on the desk.” a student to her friend in a headache my head will
exceeded.” very cold classroom. explode.” (patient to
doctor)