T

JIE Lecture Notes

BMATS201
Mathematics-II for CSE Stream
Module 3: Vector Spaces

Prepared By

Dr. Shantha Kumari. K.

AJIET, Mangaluru
Table of Contents

IET
Module 3 Vector Spaces
3.1 Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Euclidean Vector Space Rn : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Polynomial Vector Space: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Linear Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Linear Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 Linear Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Vector Subspaces: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8 Basis and Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9 Spanning set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
3
9
10
12
16
16
22
29
29
3.10 Linear Span : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.11 basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.12 Dimension: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
AJ
3.13 Theorem 1: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.14 Theorem 2: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.15 Row space and Column space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.16 Linear transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.17 Properties of linear transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.18 Matrix of the linear transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.19 The linear transformation given by a matrix: . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.20 Kernel and Image of a linear transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.21 Rank and Nullity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.22 Rank Nullity theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.23 Inner product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

1
Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 2

3.24 STANDARD INNER PRODUCT or the DOT PRODUCT . . . . . . 82

3.25 Norm of a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.26 Orthogonality : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.27 Matrix space : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.28 Question Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

IET
AJ

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Module 3

IET
Vector Spaces

Syllabus

Importance of Vector Space and Linear Transformations in the field of Com-

puter Science & Engineering.
Vector spaces: Definition and examples, subspace, linear span, Linearly indepen-
dent and dependent sets, Basis and dimension. Problems.
Linear transformations: Definition and examples, Algebra of transformations, Ma-
trix of a linear transformation. Change of coordinates, Rank and nullity of a linear
operator, rank-nullity theorem. Inner product spaces and orthogonality. Problems.
AJ
Self-study: Angles and Projections. Rotation, Reflection, Contraction and Expan-
sion.

3.1 Vector Spaces

A vector space is a non-empty set V on which two operations + and · are defined,
called vector addition and scalar multiplication, such that the following properties
hold:
The operation + (vector addition) must satisfy the following conditions :

(1) Closure: For all u, v ∈ V , u + v ∈ V

3
Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 4

(2) Commutative law: For all u, v ∈ V , u + v = v + u

(3) Associative law: For all u, v, w ∈ V , u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w

(4) Additive identity: For all u ∈ V , there exists an element 0 ∈ V , such that
0 + v = v and v + 0 = v.

IET
(5) Additive inverse: For each v ∈ V , there exist x ∈ V such that v + x = 0
and x + v = 0, where x is called an additive inverse of v.

The operation · (scalar multiplication), must satisfy the following conditions :

(6) Closure: For all v ∈ V , and c is any real number, then the scalar product
c·v ∈V.

(7) Distributive law: For all real numbers a, b and for all u, v ∈ V , a·(u+v) =
a · u + a · v and (a + b) · v = a · v + b · v

(8) Associative law: For all real numbers a, b and for all u, v ∈ V , a · (b · v) =
(a · b) · v

(10) Multiplicative identity: For all v ∈ V , 1 · v = v

Note : The elements of a Vector space V are are called as vectors or points.
AJ
Problem 3.1.1. Let C be the set of all complex numbers(i.e. set of all ordered pairs
of real numbers).
i.e. C = {(a1 , a2 ) ; a1 ∈ R, a2 ∈ ℜ}
Then prove that C is a vector space with pointwise addition and scalar multiplication
defined as follows:
(a1 , a2 ) + (b1 , b2 ) = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 )
and c · (a1 , a2 ) = (c a1 , c a2 ) for all a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 c in ℜ.

Solution :

(1) Closure property

If x = (x1 , x2 ), y = (y1 , y2 ) be any two elements of C, then

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 5

x + y = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) ,
Since x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 ∈ ℜ ⇒, x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ∈ R
so (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) ∈ C
ie. x + y ∈ C
C is closed for vector addition.

IET
(2) Commutative property If x = (x1 , x2 ) and y = (y1 , y2 ) are any two
elements of C then
x + y = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , )
= (y1 + x1 , y2 + x2 )
=y+x
(3) Associative property
If x = (x1 , x2 ) , y = (y1 , y2 ) , z = (z1 , z2 ) are any three elements of C
then
(x + y) + z = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) + (z1 , z2 )
= ((x1 + y1 ) + z1 , (x2 + y2 ) + z2 )
= (x1 + (y1 + z1 ) , x2 + (y2 + z2 ))
= (x1 , x2 ) + (y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 )
= (x + (y + z))
AJ
(4) Existence of identify element
Let 0 = (0, 0) ∈ C
and for x = (x1 , x2 ), we have x + 0 = (x1 , x2 ) + (0, 0) = (x1 , x2 ) = x
0 + x = (0, 0) + (x1 , x2 ) = (x1 , x2 ) = x ∀x ∈ C

(5) Existence of inverse element

∀x = (x1 , x2 ) ∈ C
∃y = (−x1 , −x2 ) ∈ C
such that x+y =0=y+x

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 6

(6) Closure :
If x = (x1 , x2 ) ∈ C and scalar a ∈ ℜ then
a · x = a · (x1 , x2 )
= (a · x1 , a · x2 ) ∈ C
ie. a · x ∈ C
∴ C is closed for scalar multiplication.

IET
(7) Distributive :
If x = (x1 , x2 ) and y = (y1 , y2 ) ∈ C and a ∈ ℜ, then
a · (x + y) = a · (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 )

(8) Distributive :
= (a · (x1 + y1 ) , a · (x2 + y2 ))
= (a · x1 , a · x2 ) + (a · y1 , a · y2 )
= a (x1 , x2 ) + a (y1 , y2 )
=a·x+a·y

If x = (x1 , x2 ) and a, b ∈ ℜ, then

(a + b) · (x1 , x2 ) = ((a + b) · x1 , (a + b) · x2 )
= (a · x1 , a · x2 ) + (b · x1 , b · x2 )
= a · (x1 , x2 ) + b · (x1 , x2 )
AJ
=a·x+b·x
(9) Associative:
If x = (x1 , x2 ) ∈ C and a, b ∈ ℜ, then
a · (b · x) = a · (b · x1 , b · x2 )
= (ab · x1 , ab · x2 )
= ab · (x1 , x2 )
= ab · (x)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 7

(10) Inverse :
If x = (x1 , x2 ) ∈ C, then
1 · x = 1 · (x1 , x2 )
= (1 · x1 , 1 · x2 , . . .)
= (x1 , x2 )

IET
=x

Therefore, C is a vector space with point wise addition and scalar multiplication.

Problem 3.1.2. Show that the set of all matrices of order m × n where m and
n are fixed positive integers is a vector space with respect to matrix addition and
multiplication of a matrix by a scalar.

Solution : Let M denotes the set of all matrices of order m × n where m and n
are fixed positive integers.

(i) Closure : Let A = [aij ]m×n , B = [bij ]m×n be any two matrices of order
m × n in M. then
A + B = ([aij ] + [bij ])
= [aij + bij ] ∈ M
(ii) Commutative property : Let A = [aij ]m×n , B = [bij ]m×n , C = [cij ]m×n
AJ
be two matrices belonging to set M .
A + B = [aij ] + [bij ]

= [aij + bij ]
= [bij + aij ]
= [bij ] + [aij ]
=B+A

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 8

(iii) Associativity: Let A = [aij ]m×n , B = [bij ]m×n , C = [cij ]m×n be three
matrices belonging to set M .
(A + B) + C = ([aij ] + [bij ]) + [cij ]
= [aij + bij ] + [cij ]
= [(aij + bij ) + (cij )]

IET
= [aij + (bij + cij )]
= [aij ] + [bij + cij ]
= [aij ] + ([bij ] + [cij ])
= A + (B + C)
(iv) Additive Identity: LetA = [aij ]m×n ∈ M We know that a zero matrix (null
matrix) of order m × n also belongs to the set M and is denoted by 0.
Now, A + O = [aij ] + [0] = [aij + 0] = [aij ] = A Similarly, 0 + A = A.
(v) Additive Inverse: If A = [aij ]m×n belongs to the set M , then
−A = [−aij ]m×n also belongs to the set M .
Now,
A + (−A) = [aij ] + [−aij ] = [aij − aij ]
= [0] = 0
Similarly, −A + A = 0
(vi) Closure : Let A = [aij ]m×n , and c ∈ R then
AJ
c · A = c [aij ]
= [c aij ] ∈ M
(vii)Associative : Let A = [aij ]m×n , B = [bij ]m×n , be two matrices belonging
to set M and c ∈ R
c(A + B) = c ([aij ] + [bij ])
= (c [aij + bij ])
= c [(aij + bij ]
= [c (aij + bij )] = c [aij ] + c [bij ]
= cA + cB

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 9

(viii)Associative : Let A = [aij ]m×n ∈ M and c, d ∈ R

(c + d)A = (c + d) [aij ]
= [(c + d)aij ]
= [caij + daij ]
= c [aij ] + d [aij ]

IET
= cA + dA
(ix) Let A = [aij ]m×n ∈ M and a, b ∈ R then
a(bA) = a (b [aij ])
= a ([baij ])
= [(ab)aij ]
= (ab) [aij ]
= (ab)A
a(bA) = (ab)A.
(x) Let A = [aij ]m×n ∈ M , then
A = 1 · [aij ] = [1 · aij ] = [aij ] = A
Thus M satisfies all the properties of vector space and hence M is a vector space
over R.
AJ
3.2 Euclidean Vector Space Rn :

If n is a positive integer, then an ordered n-tuple is a sequence of n real numbers

(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ). The set of all ordered n-tuples is called Euclidean n-space and
is denoted by Rn .
The operations of addition of such n-tuples and multiplication of n-tuples by real
numbers are defined as follows:
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn ) ,
c (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = (cx1 , cx2 , . . . , cxn ) ,
for all n-tuples (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) and (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ), and for all real numbers c.
When n = 1, each ordered n-tuple consists of one real number, so R may be viewed

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 10

as the set of real numbers.

When n = 2, the vector space R2 is the set of all 2-tuples (a, b), which are more
commonly known as ordered pairs.
The vector space R3 , likewise, is the set of ordered triples (a, b, c) of real numbers
and is called Euclidean 3-space.
u n is a positive integer, then an ordered n− tuple is a sequence of n real numbers

IET
(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ). The set of all ordered n-tuples is called Eudidean n-space and
is denoted by Rn .
Operations of addition of such n-tuples and multiplication of n-tuples by real num-
bers are defined in the obvious fashion:
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn ) ,

Example :
c (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = (cx1 , cx2 , . . . , cxn )
Example: The ordered pair (2, 5) belongs to R2 . It is a 2-tuple of dimension two.
The ordered triple (1, 3, 7) belongs to R3 . It is a 3-tuple of dimension three.

The set of all real symmetric matrices of order n, is a vector space with respect to
matrix addition and multiplication of a matrix by a scalar, n being a fixed positive
integer.
AJ
3.3 Polynomial Vector Space:

Example : Consider the set Pn =Pn (R) of polynomials in x with real coefficients,
Pn = {a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn | n ∈ N and a0 , . . . , an ∈ R}
Let p(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn and q(x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bn xn be any
two elements of Pn , for some ai , bi ∈ R, 1 ≤ i ≤ n Then Pn (R) forms a vector
space with the vector addition and scalar multiplication defined by
f (x) + g(x) = (a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ) + (b0 + b1 x + · · · + bn xn )
= (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 ) x + · · · + (an + bn ) xn

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 11

and

c · (a0 + a1 x + . . . an xn ) = (ca0 ) + (ca1 ) x + . . . (can ) xn , for c ∈ R.

Solution :
p(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn and q(x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bn xn and
r(x) = c0 + c1 x + · · · + cn xn be any two elements of Pn (R), and α, β ∈ R,

IET
then
(1) Closure: p(x) + q(x) is again a polynomial in P (R).
(2)Commutative law : p(x) + q(x) = q(x) + p(x) for all p(x), q(x) ∈ P (R)
(3) Associative law : (p(x) + q(x)) + r(x) = p(x) + (q(x) + r(x)), for all
p(x), q(x), r(x) ∈ P (R)
(4)Additive identity : The zero polynomial 0 = 0 + 0x + · · · + 0xn satisfies the
property that p(x) + 0 = p(x),
(5) Additive inverse : We have −p(x) ∈ P (R) with the property that p(x) +
(−p(x)) = 0.
(6) Closure: For p(x) ∈ P (R) and for scalar α ∈ R, αp(x) is again a polynomial
in P (R).
(7) Distributive law: For p(x) ∈ P (R) and for scalar α ∈ R, We can write
α(p(x) + q(x)) = αp(x) + αq(x)
AJ
(8) Distributive law: For p(x) ∈ P (R) and for scalars α, β ∈ R, We can write
(α + β)p(x) = αp(x) + βp(x)
(9) Associative law :For p(x) ∈ P (R) and for scalars α, β ∈ R, we can write
(αβ)p(x) = α(βp(x))
, (10)] Multiplicative identity: For a scalar, 1 ∈ R, and p(x) ∈ P (R) ,
1p(x) = p(x)

Correspondence between Polynomial Vector Space and Euclidean Space:


When n = 3, the Polynomial Vector Space P3 = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 | a0 , . . . , a3
is the set of polynomials of degree three or less. Although this space is not a subset

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 12

of any Rn , we can think of P3 as “the same” as R4 . If we identify elements of these

two spaces in this way  
a
 0
a 
 1
a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 of P3 corresponds to   of R4 .
 a2 
 
a3

3.4

IET Linear Combination

Let V be a vector space and let v1 , v2 , . . . vn ∈ V . Any expression of the form

a1 v1 +a2 v2 +· · ·+an vn in V , where ai are scalars, is called a linear combination
of v1 , v2 , · · · vn .

Problem 3.4.1. Write the vector v = (1, 3, 9) as a linear combination of the vectors
u1 = (2, 1, 3), u2 = (1, −1, 1), u3 = (3, 1, 5)

Solution :Let v = (1, 3, 9) as a linear combination of u1 , u2 and u3

Let v = xu1 + yu2 + zu3 where x, y, z are some scalars([Link] numbers).
(1, 3, 9) = x(2, 1, 3) + y(1, −1, 1) + z(3, 1, 5)
or 2x + y + 3z = 1
AJ
x−y+z =3
3x + y + 5z = 9
This is in the form, AX = B
where the Augmented matrix is  
2 1 3 1
 
[A, B] =  1 −1 1 3 

3 1 5 9
Usingrow operations we can
 reduce this matrix to the echelon form :
1 −1 1 3
 
A= 0 1 1 5 

0 0 −2 −20
Here rank [A] = rank[A : B] = 3 = Number of unknowns

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 13

The system of linear equations is consistent and possesses a unique solution.

From the above echelon form, we can write the equations :

x−y+z =3
y+z =5

IET
− 2z = −20
and hence z = 10, y = −5, x = −12
Hence v = −12u1 − 5u2 + 10u3

Problem 3.4.2. Write the vector v = (4, 2, 1) as a linear combination of the vectors
u1 = (1, −3, 1), u2 = (0, 1, 2), u3 = (5, 1, 37)

Solution:
Let v = xu1 + yu2 + zu3
ie. (4, 2, 1) = x(1, −3, 1) + y(0, 1, 2) + z(5, 1, 37)
or
1x + 0y + 5z = 4
− 3x + y + 1z = 2
1x + 2y + 37z = 1
This is in the form, AX = B
AJ
where

The Augmented matrix is  

1 0 5 4
 
[A, B] =  −3 1 1 2 

1 2 37 1
Using row operations, we can reducethis to echelon form.

1 0 5 4
 
[A, B] =  0 1 16 14 

0 0 0 −31
rank[A] = 2
rank[A : B] = 3

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 14

i.e. rank[A] ̸= rank[A : B].

Hence system of linear equations is inconsistent.

i.e. solution does not exist.
Therefore v can not be expressed as linear combination of the vectors u1 , u2 , u3 .

IET
" #
3 −1
Problem 3.4.3. Express the matrix A = in the vector space of 2 × 2
1 −2
matrices as a linear"combination
# of " # " #
1 1 1 1 1 −1
B= ,C = ,D =
0 −1 −1 0 0 0

Solution : Let Let the matrix A as a linear combination of matrices B, C and D

" + yC#+ zD;"wherex, #y, z ∈"R

i.e. A = xB · #· · (1)i.e.
" #
3 −1 1 1 1 1 1 −1
=x +y +z
1 −2 0 −1 −1 0 0 0
" # " #
3 −1 x+y+z x+y−z
=
1 −2 −y −x
Equating the corresponding elements,
AJ
x + y + z = 3; x + y − z = −1; − y = 1; −x = −2

Solving the above equations,

x = 2, y = −1, z = 2.
∴ (1) becomes
A = 2B − C − 2D.
or " # " # " # " #
3 −1 1 1 1 1 1 −1
=2 − −2
1 2 0 −1 −1 0 0 0
which is the required linear combination of A.

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 15

" #
−1 7
Problem 3.4.4. Determine whether the matrix is a linear combination
8 −1
of
" # " # " #
1 0 2 −3 0 1
, and in the vector space M22 of 2 × 2 matrices.
2 1 0 2 2 0
" # " # " #
−1 7 1 0 2 −3
Solution : Let A =
"

2 0
0 1
#

i.e. A = xB + yC + zD

"
8 −1
−1 7
8 −1
"
"

#
−1
=x

=
#
"
7

x 0
IET
#
1 0
2 1

2x x
"
8

+y
# "
+
−1

"
2 −3
0 2
2y −3y
0 2y
,B =

+z
# "
+
0
2z
2

#
2 1

Let us consider the matrix A as a linear combination of matrices B, C and D

,C =

· · · (1) where x, y, z ∈ R

#
0
" # "
0 2

1
0
z
0
#

#
and D =

−1 7 x + 2y + 0 0 − 3y + z
=
8 −1 2x + 0 + 2z x + 2y + 0
Equating the corresponding entries, we get
AJ
x + 2y + 0z = −1
0x − 3y + z = 7
2x + 0y + 2z = 8
x + 2y + 0z = −1
Here, we can observe that, first and fourth equations are same.
Hence solving first three equations, we get x = 3, y = −2, z = 1
Hence # A "= xB #+ yC "+ zD =#3B "− 2C #
" (1) becomes +D
−1 7 1 0 2 −3 0 1
i.e. =3 −2 +
8 −1 2 1 0 2 2 0
Hence the matrix A is a linear combination of the matrices B, C and D.

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 16

Problem 3.4.5. For what value of k (if any) the vector v = (1, −2, k ) can be ex-
pressed as a linear combination of vectors v1 = (3, 0, −2) and v2 = (2, −1, −5)
in R3 (R).

Solution : Since vector v = (1, −2, k) is a linear combination of v1 = (3, 0, −2)

and v2 = (2, −1, −5); therefore there exist scalars a and b such that

IET
v = av1 + bv2
⇒ (1, −2, k) = a(3, 0, −2) + b(2, −1, −5)
⇒ (1, −2, k) = (3a + 2b, −b, −2a − 5b)
Equating the Corresponding elements,
3a + 2b = 1, −b = −2, −2a − 5b = k
3a + 4 = 1, b = 2, −2(−1) − 5(2) = k
⇒ a = −1, 2 − 10 = k
∴ k = −8

3.5 Linear Dependence

Let V be a vector space. The vectors v1 , v2 , . . . vn are said to be linearly depen-

dent, if there exist scalars a1 , a2 , . . . , an not all zero but linear combination is zero.
AJ
i.e., a1 · v1 + a2 · v2 + · · · + an · vn = 0, but all scalars ai ̸= 0, where i ∈ N
Note: If one vector is multiple of other vector then v1 and v2 are linearly depen-
[Link] : If v1 = (3, 4) v2 = (6, 8).
⇒ v2 = 2v1
Hence v1 and v2 are linearly dependent vectors.

3.6 Linear Independence

Let V be a vector space. The vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , vn are said to be linearly indepen-

dent , if there exists scalars a1 , a2 , . . . , an Such that
a1 · v1 + a2 · v2 + · · · + an · vn = 0 ⇒ all ai = 0, where i ∈ N

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 17

Problem 3.6.1. Determine whether the vectors v1 = (1, 2, 3), v2 = (3, 1, 7) and
v3 = (2, 5, 8) are linearly dependent or linearly independent.

Solution : Consider a linear combination of the given vectors and equate it to 0

xv1 + yv2 + zv3 = 0
x(1, 2, 3) + y(3, 1, 7) + z(2, 5, 8) = (0, 0, 0)

IET
⇒ x + 3y + 2z = 0,
x + y + 5z = 0,
and 3x + 7y + 8z = 0
[Link] = 0
 
1 3 2
 
A=
 2 1 5 

3 7 8
using R2 − 2R1 , R3 − 3R1
 
1 3 2
 
A∼  0 −5 1 

0 −2 2
 
1
using (−1)R2 , − R3
AJ
2
 
1 3 2
 
A∼  0 5 −1 

0 1 1

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 18

using R2 ↔ R3 ;
 
1 3 2
 
A∼ 0 1 1
0 5 −1
using R3 − 5R2

IET
 
1 3 2
 
A∼  0 1 1 

0 0 −6
This is in echelon form. rank[A] = 3 = Number of unknowns

Rank=3=[Link] unknowns.
Hence a unique solution exists.
i.e. the trivial solution x = 0, y = 0, z = 0
Hence the given vectors are linearly independent.

Problem 3.6.2. Determine whether or not the vectors u = (1, 1, 2), v = (2, 3, 1),
w = (4, 5, 5) in R3 are linearly dependent.

 of u,
Solution : Set a linearcombination  v, w equalto the
 zero
 vector. This yields
1 2 4 0
AJ
       
x 1  +y 3  +z 5  =  0 
      
2 1 5 0

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 19

x + 2y + 4z = 0
x + 3y + 5z = 0
2x + y + 5z = 0
The Matrix is:
 

IET
1 2 4
 
A= 1 3 5


2 1 5
R2 → R2 − R1 R3 → R3 − 2R1 gives :
using
 
1 2 4
 
A=
0 1 1 
0 −3 −3

using R3 → −1/3R3
 
1 2 4
 
0 1 1
 
0 1 1
using R3 → R3 − R2 gives
 
AJ
1 2 4
 
0 1 1
 
0 0 0
This is in echelon form.
Rank (A)=Rank(A,B)=2 ¡ number of unknowns.

The echelon system has only two nonzero rows in three unknowns.
hence, it has a nonzero solution.
Thus, u, v, w are linearly dependent.

Problem 3.6.3. Determine whether or not the vectors u = (1, 2, 5), v = (2, 5, 1), w =
(1, 5, 2) are linearly dependent or linearly independent?

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 20

SOl: Set a linear combination of u, v, w equal to the zero vector using unknowns
x, y, z.
i.e. xu + yv + zw = 0
x(1, 2, 5) + y(2, 5, 1) + z(1, 5, 2) = 0
i.e. x + 2y + z = 0, 2x + 5y + 5z = 0, 5x + y + 2z = 0

IET
For this system, write the matrix A whose columns are u, v, w and reduce to eche-
lon form :

A=


A∼
2 5

1 2 1
5
5 1 2





Using R2 ⇒ R2 − 2R1 , R3 ⇒ R3 − 5R1




1 2
0 1
0 −9 −3
1
3


,


Using R3 7→ R3 + 9R2 :
 
1 2 1
AJ
 
A∼ 0 1 3 
0 0 24
Here rank(A)=3=no. of unknowns
Thus the system is consistent and a unique solution exists.
This solution is the trivial solution, x = 0, y = 0, z = 0
Thus, the vectors are linearly independent.

Problem 3.6.4. Determine whether or not the vectors (1, 2, −3, 1), (3, 7, 1, −2), (1, 3, 7, −
are linearly independent?

Solution:
Let u = (1, 2, −3, 1), v = (3, 7, 1, −2), w = (1, 3, 7, −4)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 21

Now, Equate the linear combination of u, v, w to zero and then consider the coeffi-
cient matrix to reduce it to echelon form :
i.e. xu + yv + zw = 0
Form the matrix A whose columnsare u, v, w. or in 
other words,
1 3 1
 
 2 7 3 

IET
A=
 

 −3 1 7 
 
1 −2 −4

Using R2 → R2 − 2R1 , R3 → R3 + 3R1 , R4 → R4 − R1

 
1 3 1
 
0 1 1 
A=
 

 0 10 10 
 
0 −5 −5
1 −1
Using R3 7→ R3 , R4 7→ R4
 10  5
1 3 1
 
0 1 1
A=
 

0 1 1
 
0 1 1
AJ
Using R3 = R3 − R2 , R4 = R4 − R2 :
 
1 3 1
 
0 1 1
A=
 

0 0 0
 
0 0 0
Here, rank(A) = 2 < [Link] unknowns, and infinitely many solutions exist.
Hence it has a nonzero solution, other than the trivial solution.
Thus, the vectors u, v, w are linearly dependent.

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 22

3.7 Vector Subspaces:

Let V be a vector space and W be a subset of V , i.e. W ⊂ V . Then W is called

a subspace of V if W itself is a vector space with respect to the operations of vector
addition and scalar multiplication in V.
Necessary and sufficient conditions for a subspace

IET
Theorem 1:
W is a subspace of V iff
i) W is nonempty.
ii) W is closed under vector addition. i.e. ∀u, v ∈ W ⇒ u + v ∈ W
iii) W is closed under scalar multiplication. [Link] u is any vector in W and c is any
real number, then c · u ∈ W
Theorem 2: W is a subspace of V iff
i) W is non empty.
ii) ∀a, b ∈ R and v, w ∈ W
⇒ a · v + b · w ∈ W.

Problem 3.7.1. show that the subset W = {(x, y, z) | x − 3y + 4z = 0} of the

vector space R3 is a subspace of R3
AJ
Solution : To show that the subset W = {(x, y, z) | x − 3y + 4z = 0} of the
vector space R3 is a subspace of R3 , we need to prove three conditions:
1. Contains the zero vector: W must contain the zero vector (0, 0, 0).
2. Closed under addition: If u and v are in W , then u + v is also in W .
3. Closed under scalar multiplication: If u is in W and c is a scalar, then cu is also
in W .
Let’s prove each condition:
1. Contains the zero vector: The equation x − 3y + 4z = 0 can be satisfied by
setting x = 0, y = 0, and z = 0.
Therefore, (0, 0, 0) is in W .
2. Closed under addition: Let u = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and v = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) be in W .

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 23

Then x1 − 3y1 + 4z1 = 0 and x2 − 3y2 + 4z2 = 0

⇒ (x1 − 3y1 + 4z1 ) + (x2 − 3y2 + 4z2 ) = 0

⇒ (x1 + x2 ) − 3(y1 + y2 ) + 4(z1 + z2 ) = 0
⇒ ((x1 + x2 ), (y1 + y2 ), (z1 + z2 )) ∈ W
⇒ (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 ) ∈ W

IET ⇒u+v ∈W

This shows that u + v is in W .

3. Closed under scalar multiplication: Let u = (x, y, z) be in W and c be a scalar.
Then c be a scalar and x − 3y + 4z = 0

⇒ c(x − 3y + 4z) = 0
⇒ (cx − 3cy + 4cz) = 0
⇒ (cx, cy, cz) ∈ W
⇒ c(x, y, z) ∈ W
⇒ cu ∈ W

This shows that cu is in W .

AJ
Since all three conditions are satisfied, W = {(x, y, z) | x − 3y + 4z = 0} is a
subspace of R3 .

Problem 3.7.2. Prove that the subset W = {(x, y, z) | ax + by + cz =

0, x, y, z ∈ R} of the vector space V = R3 is a subspace of V .
(or)
Show that any plane passing through the origin is a subspace of R3 .
or
Let W = {(x, y, z) | lx + my + nz = 0}, l, m, n being real numbers, then
prove that W is a subspace of R3 .

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 24

Solution : To show that the subset W = {(x, y, z) | ax + by + cz = 0} of the

vector space R3 is a subspace of R3 , we need to prove three conditions:
1. Contains the zero vector: W must contain the zero vector (O, O, O).
2. Closed under addition: If u and v are in W , then u + v is also in W .
3. Closed under scalar multiplication: If u is in W and c is a scalar, then cu is also
in W .

IET
Let’s prove each condition:
1. Contains the zero vector: The equation ax + by + cz = 0 can be satisfied by
setting x = 0, y = 0, and z = 0. Therefore, (0, 0, 0) is in W .

2. Closed under addition: Let u = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and v = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) be in W .

Then ax1 + by1 + cz1 = 0 and ax2 + by2 + cz2 = 0

⇒ (ax1 + by1 + cz1 ) + (ax2 + by2 + cz2 ) = 0

⇒ a(x1 + x2 ) + b(y1 + y2 ) + c(z1 + z2 ) = 0
⇒ ((x1 + x2 ), (y1 + y2 ), (z1 + z2 )) ∈ W
⇒ (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 ) ∈ W
⇒u+v ∈W
AJ
This shows that u + v is in W .

3. Closed under scalar multiplication: Let u = (x, y, z) be in W and α be a scalar.

Then α be a scalar and ax + by + cz = 0

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 25

⇒ α(ax + by + cz) = 0
⇒ (αax + αby + αcz) = 0
⇒ (aαx + bαy + cαz) = 0
⇒ (αx, αy, αz) ∈ W

IET
⇒ α(x, y, z) ∈ W
⇒ αu ∈ W

This shows that αu is in W .

Since all three conditions are satisfied, W = {(x, y, z) | ax + by + cz = 0} is
a subspace of R3 .

Problem 3.7.3. Define a subspace. Show that the intersection of any two subspaces
of a vector space V is also a subspace of V .

Solution : Recall that the intersection U ∩ W is the set of elements that are both
elements of U and W .
Let U and W be subspaces of the vector space V.
To show that the subset U ∩ W of the vector space V is a subspace of V, we need
to prove three conditions:
AJ
1. Contains the zero vector: W must contain the zero vector (0, 0, 0).
2. Closed under addition: If x and y are in U ∩ W , then x + y is also in W .
3. Closed under scalar multiplication: If x is in U ∩ W and c is a scalar, then cx
is also in U ∩ W .
Let us prove these conditions :
(i) As U and W are subspaces of V, the zero vector 0 is in both U and V .
Hence the zero vector 0 ∈ V lies in the intersection U ∩ W .
(ii) Suppose that x, y ∈ U ∩ W .
This implies that x is a vector in U as well as a vector in W .
Similarly, y is a vector in U as well as a vector in W .
Since U is a subspace and x and y are both vectors in U , their sum x + y is in U .

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 26

Similarly, since V is a subspace and x and y are both vectors in W , their sum
x + y ∈ W.
Therefore the sum x + y is a vector in both U and W . Hence x + y ∈ U ∩ W .
Thus U ∩ W is closed under addition.
To verify condition 3 , let x ∈ U ∩ W and α ∈ R.
As x ∈ U ∩ W , the vector x lies in both U and W .

IET
Since both U and W are subspaces, the scalar multiplication is closed in U and W ,
respectively.
Thus αx ∈ U and αx ∈ W .
It follows that αx ∈ U ∩ W .
Thus U ∩ W is closed under scalar multiplication.
This proves condition 3, and hence the intersection U ∩ W is a subspace of V.

Problem 3.7.4. Let V = R3 be a vector space and consider the subset W of V

consisting of vectors of the form a, a2 , b , where the second component is the
square of the first. Is W a subspace of V ?



Solution : let u = a1 , a21 , b1 &v = a2 , a22 , b2
Now
u + v = a1 , a21 , b1 + a2 , a22 , b2



AJ
= a1 + a2 , a21 + a22 , b1 + b2 ̸ inw

Since (a1 + a2 )2 =
̸ a21 + a22 , (i.e. the second component is not the square of the
first)
∴ W is not subspace.

Problem 3.7.5. Let V be the vector space of all square matrices over R. Determine
whether("
the following
# set W is subspaces
) of V .
x y
W = ; x, y, z ∈ R
z 0
(" # )
x y
Solution :To show that W = ; x, y, z ∈ R is a subspace of V , the
z 0
vector space of all square matrices over R, we need to prove three conditions:

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 27

1. W Contains the zero vector: W must contain the zero vector (0, 0, 0).
2. W is Closed under addition: If u and v are in W , then u + v is also in W .
3. W is Closed under scalar multiplication: If u is in W and c is a scalar, then cu is
also in W . " # " #
0 0 x y
(i) Clearly, , as it is of type , with x = y = z = 0 ∈ R
0 0 z 0

IET
" # " #
x1 y1 x2 y2
(ii) W is Closed under addition : Let A = , and B = be
z1 0 z2 0
any two elements of W . Then " # " #
x1 y1 x2 y2
A+B = +
z1 0 z2 0
" #
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
=
z1 + z2 0
" #
x y
which is a matrix of the type and
z 0
x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 ∈ R.
∴ A + B ∈ W.
" #
x1 y1
(iii) Closed under scalar multiplication: If A = is in W and c is a
z1 0
AJ
scalar, then " #
x1 y1
cA = c
z1 0
" #
cx1 cy1
=
cz1 0
" #
x y
which is a matrix of the type, and
z 0
cx1 , cy1 , cz1 ∈ R.
∴ cA ∈ W.
Thus, W is a sub-space of V .

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 28

Problem 3.7.6. Let V be the vector space of all square matrices over R. Determine
whether("
the following
# set W is subspaces
) of V .
x 0
W = : x, y ∈ R
0 y
(" # )
x 0
Solution :To show that W = ; x, y, z ∈ R is a subspace of V , the

IET
0 y
vector space of all square matrices over R, we need to prove three conditions:
1. W Contains the zero vector: W must contain the zero vector (0, 0, 0).
2. W is Closed under addition: If u and v are in W , then u + v is also in W .
3. W is Closed under scalar multiplication: If u is in W and c is a scalar, then cu is
also in W . " # " #
0 0 x 0
(i) Clearly, , as it is of type , with x = y = 0 ∈ R
0 0 0 y
" # " #
x1 0 x2 0
(ii) W is Closed under addition : Let A = , and B = be
0 y1 0 y2
any two elements of W . Then " # " #
x1 0 x2 0
A+B = +
0 y1 0 y2
" #
x1 + x2 0+0
AJ
=
0 + 0 y1 + y2
" #
x 0
which is a matrix of the type and
0 y
x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ∈ R.
∴ A + B ∈ W.

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 29

" #
x1 0
(iii) Closed under scalar multiplication: If A = is in W and c is a
0 y1
scalar, then " #
x1 0
cA = c
0 y1
" #
cx1 0

IET
=
0 cy1
" #
x 0
which is a matrix of the type, and
0 y
cx1 , cy1 ∈ R.
∴ cA ∈ W.
Thus, W is a sub-space of V .

3.8 Basis and Dimension

3.9 Spanning set

Spanning set :
AJ
Let V be a vector space over R and S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk } be a subset of V . We
say that S is a spanning set of V if every vector v of V can be written as a liner
combination of vectors in S. In such cases, we say that S spans V .

Example :Let S = {e1 , e2 , e3 }, where e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), e3 =

(0, 0, 1).
Then S forms a spanning set for R3 , as every vector (x, y, z) in can be written as a
linear combination as
(x, y, z) = xe1 + ye2 + ze3

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 30

3.10 Linear Span :

Linear Span :
Let V be a vector space over R and S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk } be a subset of V . Then
the span of S or linear Span of S is the set of all linear combinations of vectors in S,
L(S) = span(S) = {c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + ck vk : c1 , c2 , . . . , ck are scalars }.

IET
Note 1. The span of S is denoted by L(S) or span(S) as above or span {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk }.
Note 2. If V = span(S), then say V is spanned by S or S spans V .

Problem 3.10.1. Let v1 = (1, 2, 0), v2 = (3, 1, 1), and w = (4, −7, 3). Deter-
mine whether w belongs to Span (v1 , v2 ).

Solution : We have to check if there exist x, y ∈ R such that w = xv1 + yv2 .

i.e. we check whether there is a solution for the system of equations,

i.e.
(4, −7, 3) = x(1, 2, 0) + y(3, 1, 1)

4 = x + 3y
−7 = 2x + y
3 = 0x + y
⇐⇒ x = −5, y = 3
AJ
Thus w = −5v1 + 3v2 ∈ Span (v1 , v2 ).

Problem 3.10.2. Consider the vectors p1 = 1 + x + 4x2 and p2 = 1 + 5x + x2


in P2 . Determine whether p1 and p2 lie in span 1 + 2x − x2 , 3 + 5x + 2x2 .

Solution: To check whether p1 lie in span 1 + 2x − x2 , 3 + 5x + 2x2 .
i.e. we want to determine whether the scalars a and b exist such that p1 is a linear
combination of 1 + 2x − x2 and 3 + 5x + 2x2 .
Consider the linear combination,
p1 = a 1 + 2x − x2 + b 3 + 5x + 2x2

1 + x + 4x2 = a + 2ax − ax2 + 3b + 5bx + 2bx2

Equating coefficients of powers of x (where x0 = 1 ) gives
1 = a + 3b, 1 = 2a + 5b, and 4 = −a + 2b

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 31

Solving these, we get


a = −2 and b = 1, so p1 is indeed in span 1 + 2x − x2 , 3 + 5x + 2x2 .

Similarly, To check whether p2 lie in span 1 + 2x − x2 , 3 + 5x + 2x2 .
i.e. we want to determine whether the scalars c and d exist such that p2 is a linear
combination of 1 + 2x − x2 and 3 + 5x + 2x2 .
Consider the linear combination,

IET
p2 = c 1 + 2x − x2 + d 3 + 5x + 2x2

1 + 5x + x2 = c + 2cx − cx2 + 3d + 5dx + 2dx2

Equating coefficients of powers of x (where x0 = 1 ) gives
1 = c + 3d, 5 = 2c + 5d, and 1 = −c + 2d
There is no solution to the system of equations. (Check it by showing rank(A) ̸=
rank(A,B)

So p2 is not in span 1 + 2x − x2 , 3 + 5x + 2x2 .
Note : The fact that every polynomial in Pn has the form a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · +
an xn where each ai is in R shows that
Pn = span 1, x, x2 , . . . , xn .


Problem 3.10.3. Let f (x) = 2x2 − 5 and g(x) = x + 1. Show that the function
h(x) = 4x2 + 3x − 7 lies in the subspace Span {f, g} of P2 .
AJ
Solution : To show that h(x) = 4x2 + 3x − 7 lie in span {f, g} = {2x2 −
5, x + 1}.
i.e. we will show that the scalars a and b exist such that h(x) is a linear combination
of f (x) and g(x).
Consider the linear combination,
h(x) = af (x) + bg(x)
4x2 + 3x − 7 = a 2x2 − 5 + b (x + 1)

4x2 + 3x − 7 = 2ax2 − 5a + bx + b
Equating coefficients of powers of x and constant terms, we get
4 = 2a, 3 = b, −7 = −5a + b
Solving these, we get a = 2 and b = 3,
i.e. the scalars a and b exist such that h(x) is a linear combination of f (x) and

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 32

g(x).
So h(x) is indeed in span {f, g}.

3.11 basis

Basis :

IET
Let V be a vector space and S = {v1 , v2 , . . . vn } be a set of elements (vectors)in
V . We say that S is a basis of V if
1. S is linearly independent.
2. S spans V . i.e. Each vector of V can be uniquely expressed as linear Combina-
tion of v1 , v2 , . . . vn
Example: Let S = {e1 , e2 , e3 }, where e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), e3 =
(0, 0, 1). Then S forms a spanning set for R3 , as {e1 , e2 , e3 } is a linearly inde-
pendent set and every vector (x, y, z) in can be written as a linear combination of
e1 , e2 , e3 as
(x, y, z) = xe1 + ye2 + ze3
Here e1 , e2 , e3 form a standard basis of R3
In general, consider vector space Rn . Write
AJ
e1 = (1, 0, . . . , 0), e2 = (0, 1, . . . , 0), . . . , en = (0, 0, . . . , 1).
Then, e1 , e2 , e3 , . . . , en form a standard basis of Rn . This basis is called the stan-
dard basis of Rn .

3.12 Dimension:

Dimension of a vector space V :

Number of elements in a basis of a vector space V is called the dimension of V and
is denoted by dim V . If V contains a basis with n elements then the dim V = n.

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 33

Problem 3.12.1. Check whether v1 = (1, 1, 1), v2 = (1, −1, 1), v3 = (1, 1, −1)
forms a basis of R3 .

Solution : First, let us check whether v1 , v2 , v3 are linearly independent.

Let us first equate the linear combination of v1 , v2 , v3 to zero.
xv1 + yv2 + zv3 v3 = 0.

IET
OR x(1, 1, 1) + y(1, −1, 1) + z(1, 1, −1) = (0, 0, 0).
The equations give the following system of linear equations:
x +y +z = 0
x −y +z = 0
x +y −z = 0
The augmented
 matrix is   
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
   
 1 −1 1 0  its echelon form is  0 1 0 0 
   
1 1 −1 0 0 0 1 0
So, x = y = z = 0 and this establishes that v1 , v2 , v3 are linearly independent.

Now to show that v1 , v2 , v3 spans R3 , let v = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) be a vector in R3 . We

have to show that, we can find x, y, z such that
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = xv1 + yv2 + zv3
OR
AJ
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x(1, 1, 1) + y(1, −1, 1) + z(1, 1, −1).
This gives the system of linear equations:
x +y +z x1
x −y +z = x2
x +y −z x3
OR     
1 1 1 x x1
    
 1 −1 1  =  x2 
 y

   
1 1 −1 z x3

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 34

 
1 1 1
 
The coefficient matrix  1 −1 1  has inverse, since det(A) = |A| ̸= 0
 
1 1 −1
So, the above system has the solution:
   
x x1
 y  = A−1  x2 
   

IET
   
z x3
Here, each vector (x1 , x2 , x3 ) is in the span of v1 , v2 , v3 .
So, v1 , v2 , v3 form a basis for R3 .

3.13 Theorem 1:

Let V be a vector space and S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } be a basis of V . Then every

set of vectors in V containing more than n vectors in V is linearly dependent.

3.14 Theorem 2:

Suppose V is a vector space and V has a basis with n vectors. Then, every basis has
AJ
n vectors.
Remark: If dimension of V matches with the number of elements in S, then to
check if S is a basis of V or not, we have to check only one of the two required
properties.
(1) linear independence or
(2) spanning.
Here are some standard examples:


Example 1: We have dim R2 = 2. This is because the standard basis
e1 = (1, 0), e2 = (0, 1)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 35

consist of two elements.

Example 2: We have dim R3 = 3. This is because the standard basis
e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), e3 = (0, 0, 1)
consist of three elements.

Problem 3.14.1. Determine whether or not the following forms a basis x1 = (2, 2, 1), x2 =

IET
(1, 3, 7), x3 = (1, 2, 2) in R3 .

Solution : Three vector in R3 forms a basis iff they are linearly independent.

x(2, 2, 1) + y(1, 3, 7) + z(1, 2, 2) = (0, 0, 0)

2x + y + z = 0 2x + 3y + 2z = 0 x + 7y + 2z = 0
AX = 0
 
2 1 1
 
A∼ 2 3 2 

1 7 2

R1 ↔ R3
 
1 7 2
 
A∼2 3 2


AJ
2 1 1
R2 − 2R1 , R3 − 2R1
 
1 7 2
 
A∼  0 −11 −2 

0 −13 −3
(−1)R2 , (−1)R3
 
1 7 2
 
A∼  0 11 2 

0 13 3

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 36

13
R3 − R2
11 
1 7 2
 
A∼  0 11 2 

7
0 0 11

IET
∴ rank[n] = 3 = Number of unknows. So unique Solution and
Solution is x = 0, y = 0, z = 0
Hence vectors x1 , x2 , x3 are linearly independent and hence
forms a basis.
3
Problem
3.14.2.
 Determine
  whether
  eachof the following sets is a basis for R .
 1   2   −2 

 

(a) S =  0  ,  1  ,  1 
     

 

 −1 −1 4 
     
 1   2   3 

 

(b) S =  4  ,  5  ,  6 
     

 

 7 8 9 

Solution : A subset S of a vector space V is called a basis if

AJ
1). S is linearly independent, and
2). S is a spanning set.
(a) Consider the linear combination
 equated
 to zero. 
1 2 −2
     
x1  0  + x2  1  + x3  1  = 0
    
−1 −1 4
This is equivalent to the matrix
 equation   
1 2 −2 x1
  
 0 1 1   x2  = 0
  
−1 −1 4 x3

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 37

To find the solution, consider the augmented matrix.

Applying elementary row operations,
 we obtain 
1 2 −2 0
 

 0 1 1 0
− 1 −1 4 0
R3 +R1
−→

IET
 
1 2 −2 0
 
0 1 1 0 
 
0 1 2 0

−→
R3 −R2
 
1 0 −4 0
 
0 1 1 0
 
0 0 1 0
R1 +4R3
−→
 
1 0 0 0
 
.
0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0
It follows that the solution is x1 = x2 = x3 = 0.
AJ
Hence S is linearly independent. As S consists of three linearly independent vectors
in R3 , it must be a basis of R3 .

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 38

(b)Consider the augmented matrix

 
1 2 3 0
 
4 5 6 0 
 
7 8 9 0
−→
R3 −7R1 , R2 −4R1

IET
 
1 2 3 0
 
 0 −3 −6 0 
 
0 −6 −12 0

1
−→ R2
  3
1 2 3 0
 
−→ 
 0 1 2 0 

0 −6 −12 0

R1 − 2R2 , R3 + 6R2
 
1 0 −1 0
 
0 1 2 0
 
0 0 0 0
AJ
Thus, the general solution is x1 = x3 , x2 = −2x3 , where x3 is a free variable.
Hence, in particular, there is a nonzero solution.
So S is linearly dependent, and hence S cannot be a basis for R3 .

Problem 3.14.3. Show that dim Pn = n + 1 and that 1, x, x2 , . . . , xn is a
basis, called the standard basis of Pn .

Solution : Each polynomial p(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn in Pn is clearly a

linear combination of 1, x, . . . , xn , so Pn = span {1, x, . . . , xn }.
However, if a linear combination of these vectors vanishes, a0 1 + a1 x + · · · +
an xn = 0, then a0 = a1 = · · · = an = 0 because x is an indeterminate.
So {1, x, . . . , xn } is linearly independent and hence is a basis containing n + 1

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 39

elements. Thus, dim (Pn ) = n + 1.

3.15 Row space and Column space

IET
Definition : Let A = [aij ] be an m × n matrix.
1. The n-tuples corresponding to the rows of A are called row vectors of A.
2. Similarly, the m-tuples corresponding to the columns of A are called column
vectors of A.
3. The row space of A is the subspace of Rn spanned by row vectors of A.
4. The column space of A is the subspace of Rm spanned by column vectors of A.
Note : The dimension of the row space (equivalently, of the column space) of A is
called the rank of A and is denoted by rank(A).

Problem 3.15.1. Let

S = {(1, 2, 2), (−1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 1)} ⊆ R3 .
Find a basis of of the subspace spanned by S.

Solution: We write these rows as a 

matrix: 
1 2 2
AJ
 
A=  − 1 0 0 .

1 1 1
Now the row space of A will be the same as the subspace spanned by S.
So, we will find a basis of the row space of A. Using row operations, we get the row
Echelon form of A is given by  
1 2 2
 
B=
 0 1 1 .

0 0 0
So, a basis is:
u1 = (1, 2, 2), u2 = (0, 1, 1).

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 40

Remark: The answers regrading bases would not be unique. The following will also
be a basis of the subspace :
v1 = (1, 2, 2), v2 = (−1, 0, 0).

Problem 3.15.2. Find the basis and the dimension of the subspace spanned by the
vectors {(2, 4, 2), (1, −1, 0), (1, 2, 1), (0, 3, 1)} in v3 (R).

IET
Solution :Let S = {(2, 4, 2), (1, −1, 0), (1, 2, 1), (0, 3, 1)}
dim(v3 (R) or dim(R3 ) = 3
Any subset of v3 (R = R3 containing more than 3 vectors is linearly dependent.
Therefore S is linearly dependent.
Now let us find the subspace spanned by S.


Consider A = 

R1 → 1/2R1


2 4 2

1 2 1

0 3 1

 1 −1 0 







1 2 1
 
 1 −1 0
A∼
 

1 2 1
AJ
 
0 3 1
R2 → R2 − R1
using
R3 → R3 − R1
 
1 2 1
 
 0 −3 −1 
∼
 


 0 0 0 

0 3 1

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 41

using R4 → R4 + R2
 
1 2 1
 
 0 −3 −1 
A∼
 

0 0 0 
 
0 0 0
This Matrix is in echelon form and has 2 non zeros hows.

IET
therefore dimension of the subspace spanned by S is 2
A basis of the subspace is the set of all nonzero rows of the above echelon form.
Hence Basis of the subspace(row space) ={(1, 2, 1), (0, 3, −1)}

Problem 3.15.3. V is a vector space of polynomials over R. find a basis and di-
mension of subspace w of V , spanned by the polynomials
x1 = t3 − 2t2 + 4t + 1, x2 = 2t3 − 3t2 + 9t − 1
x3 = t3 + 6t − 5 , x4 = 2t3 − 5t2 + 7t + 5
AJ

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 42

Solution :  
1 −2 4 1
 
 2 −3 9 −1 
A=
 

 1 0 6 −5 
 
2 −5 7 5
R2 → R2 − 2R1

IET 

R3 → R3 − R1
R4 → R4 − 2R1

A∼


1 −2 4
0 1

0 2
 2

R3 → R3 − 2R2
R4 → R4 + R2
1 −2 4 1


 0 1 1 −3 
1

−6
0 −1 −1 3


1 −3 





A∼
 

0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0
AJ
Number of non zero rows = 2
∴ dim W = 2 and Non Zero rows of Echelon matrix forms basis.
i.e. {(1, −2, 4, 1), (0, 1, 1, −3)} forms a basis for the subspace W .

Problem 3.15.4. Let W be the subspace of R5 , spanned by

x1 = (1, 2, −1, 3, 4), x2 = (2, 4, −2, 6, 8), x3 = (1, 3, 2, 2, 6)
x4 = (1, 4, 5, 1, 8), x5 = (2, 7, 3, 3, 9).
find a subset of vectors which forms a basis of W .

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 43

Solution:  
1 2 −1 3 4
 
 2 4 −2 6 8 
 
A=1 3 2 2 6
 
 
1 4 5 1 8
 
2 7 3 3 9

IET 

R5

0

A=0


0

1
R2 → R2 − 2R1
R3 → R3 − R1
R4 → R4 − R1

0 3
→ R5 − 2R1

2 −1
0
1
2

R4 → R4 − 2R3 , R5
0
3
6
5
3
0 0

−3 1
4


−1 2 


−2 4 



→ R5 − 3R3
 
1 2 −1 3 4
 
0 0 0 0 0 
AJ
 
A =  0 1 3 −1 2 
 
 
0 0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 −4 0 −5
Number of non zero rows = 3
∴ dim W = 3 and Non Zero rows of Echelon matrix forms basis.
i.e. {(1, 2, −1, 3, 4), (0, 1, 3, −1, 2), (0, 0, −4, 0, 5)} forms a basis for the sub-
space W .

Problem
(" 3.15.5. Find
# the" basis and# dimension
" of subspace
# " spanned by
#)the subset
1 −5 1 1 2 −4 1 −7
S= , , ,
−4 2 −1 5 −5 7 −5 1
of the vector space of all 2 × 2 matrices over R.

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 44

Solution : Let us denote the given matrices

" of S by# A, B, C,"D respectively.
#
1 −5 1 1
i.e. S = {A, B, C, D} where A = , B = , C =
−4 2 −1 5
" # " #
2 −4 1 −7
, D=
−5 7 −5 1
Then the coordinates A, B, C, D with respect to the standard bases are (1, −5, −4, 2), (1, 1,

IET
and (1, −7, −5, 1)
Consider matrix & as:  
1 −5 −4 2
 
1 1 −1 5 
A= R1 → R2 − R1
 

 2 −4 −5 7 
 
1 −7 −5 1
R3 → R3 − 2R1
R4 → R4 − R1
 
1 −5 −4 2
 
0 6 3 3 
A∼
 

0 6 3 3 
 
0 −2 −1 −1
R4 → 3R4 + R3
AJ
R3 → R3 − R2
 
1 −5 −4 2
 
0 6 3 3
A∼
 

0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0
The final matrix has two non-zero
(" rows. # " #)
1 −5 0 6
∴ Basis of the subspace is ,
−4 2 3 3
∴ Dimension of the subspace = 2

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 45

Problem 3.15.6. V is a vector space of all polynomials over R. Find a basis and
dimension of the subspace W of v, spanned by the polynomials.
x1 = t3 − 2t2 + 4t + 1, x2 = 2t3 − 3t2 + 9t − 1
x3 = t3 + 6t − 5, x4 = 2t3 − 5t2 + 7t + 5.

Solution :  

IET
1 −2 4 1
 
 2 −3 9 −1 
A=
 

 1 0 6 −5 
 
2 −5 7 5
R2 → R2 − 2R1
R3 → R3 − R1
R4 → R4 − 2R1
 
1 −2 4 1
 
0 1 1 −3 
=
 

0 2
 2 −6 

0 −1 −1 3
R3 → R3 − 2R2
R4 → R4 + R2
AJ
 
1 −2 4 1
 
 0 1 1 −3 
λ=
 

0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0
Non Zero rows of Echelon matrix forms basis.
number of now zerorows = 2
∴ dim of the subspace=2 and
{(1, −2, 4, 1), (0, 1, 1, −3)} forms a basis of subspace W .

Problem 3.15.7. S = {(2, 5, −3, −2), (−2, −3, 2, −5), (1, 3, −2, 2), (−1, −5, 3, 5)}
is a subset of R4 . Find a basis of of the subspace spanned by S.

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 46

(Try yourself !)
Hint : Answer : Basis is S = {u1 , u2 , u3 } where u1 = (1, 2.5, −1.5, −1),
u2 = (0, 1, −0.6, −1.6), u3 = (0, 0, 1, −19).

The Nullspace of a matrix :

IET
Suppose A is an m × n matrix. Let N (A) denote the set of solutions of the
homogeneous system Ax = 0.
N (A) = {x ∈ Rn : Ax = 0} .
Then N (A) is a subspace of Rn and is called the nullspace of A. The dimension of
N (A) is called the nullity of A. Notationally:

3.16
nullity(A) := dim(N (A)).

Linear transformation

Linear transformation:
If V and W are two vector spaces, a function T : V → W is called a linear
transformation if it satisfies the following axioms.
AJ
(i) T (v1 + v2 ) = T (v1 ) + T (v2 ) for all v1 and v2 in V .
(ii) T (c · v) = c · T (v) for all v ∈ V and c in R.
If T : V → W is a linear transformation, then V is called the domain of T and
W is called the codomain of T .
Note : A linear transformation T : V → V (from a vector space into itself) is
called a linear operator on V. The situation can be visualized as in the diagram.

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 47

3.17 Properties of linear transformations

Properties of linear transformations:

Let T : V → W be a linear transformation.
1. T (0) = 0.
2. T (−v) = −T (v) for all v in V .

IET
3. T (c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + ck vk ) = c1 T (v1 ) + c2 T (v2 ) + · · · + ck T (vk )
for all vi in V and all ci in R.

Problem 3.17.1. Prove that

T (x, y) = (x + y, x − y, y)
is a linear transformation from R2 into R3 .
or Prove that T : R2 → R3 defined by T (a, b) = (a + b, a − b, b) is a linear
transform.

Solution : Given T (x, y) = (x + y, x − y, y)

Let u = (x1 , y1 ) , v = (x2 , y2 ) be two vectors belonging to R2 .
∴ T (u + v) = T ((x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ))
= T (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )
AJ
= (x1 + x2 + y1 + y2 , x1 + x2 − y1 − y2 , y1 + y2 )
(using T (x, y) = (x + y, x − y, y))
= {(x1 + y1 ) + (x2 + y2 ) , (x1 − y1 ) + (x2 − y2 ) , (y1 + y2 )}
= (x1 + y1 , x1 − y1 , y1 ) + (x2 + y2 , x2 − y2 , y2 )
= T (u) + T (v)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 48

Also, for a scalar a ∈ R and u ∈ R2 , we have

T (au) = T (a (x1 , y1 ))
= T (ax1 , ay1 )
= (ax1 + ay1 , ax1 − ay1 , ay1 )
(using T (x, y) = (x + y, x − y, y))

IET
= a (x1 + y1 x1 − y1 y1 )
= aT (u)
∴ T is a linear transformation.

Problem 3.17.2. Which of the following functions are linear transformations.?

i) T : R3 → R3 defined by T (x, y, z) = (y, −x, −z)
ii) T : R3 → R2 defined by T (x, y, z) = (2x − 3y, 7y + 2z).

Solution : i) Let u = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) , v = (x2 , y1 , z2 ) ∈ R3 be arbitrary ele-

[Link]
T (u) = T (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (y1 , −x1 , −z1 )
T (v) = T (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = (y2 , −x2 , −z2 )
Now,
T (u + v) = T (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 )
= (y1 + y2 − x1 − x2 , −z1 − z2 )
AJ
= (y1 , −x1 , −z1 ) + (y2 , −x2 , −z2 )
= T (u) + T (v).
Also, for any scalar a ∈ R.
T (au) = T (ax1 , ay1 , az1 )
= (ay1 − ax1 , −az1 )
= a (y1 − x1 , −z1 )
= aT (u)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 49

Hence, T is a linear transformation.

ii)Given that T : R3 → R2 defined by T (x, y, z) = (2x − 3y, 7y + 2z).
Let u = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and v = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) ∈ R3 be arbitrary.
T (u) = T (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (2x1 − 3y1 , 7y1 + 2z1 )
T (v) = T (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = (2x2 − 3y2 , 7y2 + 2z2 )

IET
∴ T (u + v) = T (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 )
= (2x1 + 2x2 − 3y1 − 3y2 , 7y1 + 7y2 + 2z1 + 2z2 )
= {(2x1 − 3y1 ) + (2x2 − 3y2 ) , (7y1 + 2z1 ) + (7y2 + 2z2 )}
= (2x1 − 3y1 , 7y1 + 2z1 ) + (2x2 − 3y2 , 7y2 + 2z2 )
= T (u) + T (v)
Also, for any scalar a ∈ R
T (au) = T (ax1 , ay1 , az1 )
= (2ax1 − 3ay1 , 7ay1 + 2az1 )
= a(2x1 − 3y1 , 7y1 + 2z1 )
= aT (u)
Problem 3.17.3. Check whether
T (v1 , v2 ) = (v1 − v2 , v1 + 2v2 )
is a linear transformation from R2 into R2 .
AJ
Solution : Given that T (v1 , v2 ) = (v1 − v2 , v1 + 2v2 )
Let u = (u1 , u2 ) , v = (v1 , v2 ) be two vectors in R2 ,and c be any real
number. Then (1) Vector addition :
u + v = (u1 , u2 ) + (v1 , v2 ) = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 )
T (u + v) = T (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 )
= ((u1 + v1 ) − (u2 + v2 ) , (u1 + v1 ) + 2 (u2 + v2 ))
= ((u1 − u2 ) + (v1 − v2 ) , (u1 + 2u2 ) + (v1 + 2v2 ))
(using the given transformation T)
= (u1 − u2 , u1 + 2u2 ) + (v1 − v2 , v1 + 2v2 )
= T (u) + T (v)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 50

(2) Scalar multiplication

cu =c (u1 , u2 ) = (cu1 , cu2 )
T (cu) = T (cu1 , cu2 ) = (cu1 − cu2 , cu1 + 2cu2 )
= c (u1 − u2 , u1 + 2u2 )
= cT (u)
Therefore, T is a linear transformation.

IET
Problem 3.17.4. Determine whether the function

is a linear transformation.

"
T
" #!
x
y

#!
=




0+0
x+y
x
T :R

+
3y

Solution : Here T is not a linear transformation

1

0



2 3
 → R defined by

Method 1: Recall the property that every linear transformation must map the zero
vector to the zero vector.
But, here we have   
0
  
0      
 ̸ 0
T =
 0+1 = 1 =

0  
3·0 0 0
AJ
 
" # 0
0  
So the function T does not map the zero vector to the zero vector 
 0 .

0
0
Thus, T is not a linear transformation.
Method 2: Let u = (u1 , u2 ) , v = (v1 , v2 ) be two vectors in R2 ,
Then we have
T (u) + T (v) = T (u1 , u2 ) + T (v1 , v2 ]
= (u1 + u2 , u1 + 1, 3u2 ) + (v1 + v2 , v1 + 1, 3v2 )
= (u1 + v1 + u2 + v2 , u1 + v1 + 2, 3u2 + 3v2 ) · · · (1)
and
T (u + v) = T (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 )
= ((u1 + v1 ) + (u2 + v2 ), (u1 + v1 ) + 1, 3(u2 + v2 )) · · · (2)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 51

From RHS of (1) and (2), we can see that

T (u + v) ̸= T (u) + T (v)
Thus, T is not a linear transformation.

Problem 3.17.5. Prove that T : R3 → R3 be defined by T (x, y, z) = (2x −

3y, x + 4, 5z) is not a linear transformation.

IET
Solution : Recall the property that every linear transformation must map the zero
vector to the zero vector.
But, here we have

 
T
0



 0  =  0 + 4
 
0

5(0)

2(0) − 3(0)

Thus, T is not a linear transformation.



 
0
 
So the function T does not map the zero vector 

 
 
0

0
 
 =  4  ̸=  0 
 
0
 
0

 
0
 
 0  to the zero vector  0 .
0
  
0


Problem 3.17.6. Prove that the transformation RR2 → R2

T (x, y) = (3x, x+y) is linear. Find the images of the vectors (1, 3) and (−1, 2)
AJ
under this transformation.

Solution : Given T (x, y) = (3x, x + y)

Let u = (x1 , y1 ) , v = (x2 , y2 ) be two vectors belonging to R2 .
∴ T (u + v) = T ((x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ))
= T (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )
= (3(x1 + x2 ), x1 + x2 + y1 + y2 )
(using T (x, y) = (3x, x + y))
= ((3x1 + x1 + y1 ) , (3x2 + x2 + y2 ))
= (3x1 + (x1 + y1 )) + (3x2 + (x2 + y2 ))
= T (u) + T (v)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 52

Also, for a scalar a ∈ R and u ∈ R2 , we have

T (au) = T (a (x1 , y1 ))
= T (ax1 , ay1 )
= (3ax1 , ax1 + ay1 )
(using T (x, y) = (3x, x + y))

IET
= a (3x1 , x1 + y1 )
= aT (u)
∴ T is a linear transformation. Now, let us find the images of the vectors (1, 3) and
(−1, 2) under this transformation.
Using, T (x, y) = (3x, x + y), we get
Image of (1, 3) = T (1, 3) = (3(1), 1 + 3) = (3, 4)
Image of (−1, 2) = T (−1, 2) = (3(−1), −1 + 2) = (−3, 1)

Problem 3.17.7. Let Pn be the vector space of real polynomial functions of degree
≤ n. Show that the transformation T : P2 → P1 defined by


T ax2 + bx + c = (a + b)x + c is linear.

Solution :

Let u = ax2 + bx + c and v = px2 + qx + r be arbitrary elements of P2 . Then

AJ
T (u + v) = T ax2 + bx + c + px2 + qx + r

= T (a + p)x2 + (b + q)x + (c + r)

= (a + p + b + q)x + (c + r)
(using the definition, T ax2 + bx + c = (a + b)x + c)

= [(a + b)x + c] + [(p + q)x + r]

= T ax2 + bx + c + T px2 + qx + r

= T (u) + T (v)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 53

Let k be a scalar. Then

T (ku) = T k ax2 + bx + c

= T kax2 + kbx + kc

= (ka + kb)x + kc by definition of T

= k((a + b)x + c)

IET
= kT ax2 + bx + c


by definition of T
= kT (u)
Therefore T is a linear transformation.

3.18 Matrix of the linear transformation

Matrix of a Linear transformation:

Let T : U → V be the linear transformation, where U and V are vector spaces
over field F .
Let B = {u1 , u2 . . . un } and B ′ = {v1 , v2 . . . vm } be ordered basis for the fi-
nite dimensional vector spaces U and V respectively. Since T (u1 ) , T (u2 ) . . . T (un ) ∈
V and {v1 , v2 . . . vm } spans V , each T (ui ) can be expressed as a linear combi-
AJ
nation of the vectors v1 , v2 . . . vm .
Let
T (v1 ) = a11 v1 + a21 v2 + . . . + am1 vm
T (u2 ) = a12 v1 + a22 v2 + . . . + am2 vm
...............
T (un ) = a1n v1 + a2n v2 + . . . + amn vm
where the scalars aij ∈ R.
The coefficient matrix of this
 system of equations is : 
a a a . . . am1
 11 21 31 
a
 12 a22 a32 . . . am2


 
 − − − ··· − 
 
a1n a2n a3n · · · amn

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 54

The transpose of this matrix is a matrix representation of T , called matrix of T with

repect to ordered basis B and B ′ (or matrix associated with T with respect to B and
B ′ ] It is denoted by [T : B, B ′ ] andis given by 
a a12 . . . a1n
 11 
 a
 21 a22 . . . a2n

′
[T : B, B ] =  .

 .. .. .. .. 
. . . 

IET
 
am1 am2 . . . amn

Problem 3.18.1. Find the matrix representing the transformation T : R2 → R3

given by T (x1 , x2 ) = (3x1 − x2 , 2x1 + 4x2 , 5x1 − 6x2 ) relative to the
standard basis of R2 and R3 .

Solution : The ordered standard basis of R2 is B = {(1, 0), (0, 1)}

and that of R3 is B ′ = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}
given that T (x1 , x2 ) = (3x1 − x2 , 2x1 + 4x2 , 5x1 − 6x2 )
∴ T (1, 0) = (3(1) − 0, 2(1)4(0), 5(1) − 6(0))
= (3, 2, 5)
andT (0, 1) = (3(0) − (1), 2(0) + 4(0), 5(0) − 6(0))
= (−1, 4, −6)
Now, T (1, 0) , T (0, 1) are in the domain R3 , these can be expressed as a lin-
AJ
ear combination of the basis vectors (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1).

T (1, 0) = (3, 2, 5) = 3(1, 0, 0) + 2(0, 1, 0) + 5(0, 0, 1)

T (0, 1) = (−1, 4, −6) = −1(1, 0, 0) + 4(0, 1, 0) + (−6)(0, 0, 1)
The coefficient matrix is " #
3 2 5
−1 4 −6
Hence, matrix of the transformation is given by the transpose of the above matrix.
i.e.  
3 −1
 
2 4 
 
5 −6

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 55

Problem 3.18.2. Find the matrix representing the transformation T : R3 → R4

defined by T (x, y, z) = (x + y + z, 2x + z, 2y − z, 6y) relative to the standard
basis of R3 and R4 .

Solution : We know that ordered standard basis of R3 is

B = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} and

IET
and ordered standard basis of R4 is
B ′ = {(1, 0, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 0, 1)}

Since T (x, y, z) = (x + y + z, 2x + z, 2y − z, 6y), we get

T (1, 0, 0) = (1, 2, 0, 0)
T (0, 1, 0) = (1, 0, 2, 6)
T (0, 0, 1) = (1, 1, −1, 0)
Let e1 = (1, 0, 0, 0) e2 = (0, 1, 0, 0) e3 = (0, 0, 1, 0) ε4 = (0,
 0, 0, 1)
∴ T (1, 0, 0) = (1, 2, 0, 0) = 1e1 + 2e2 + 0e3 + 0e4 


T (0, 1, 0) = (1, 0, 2, 6) = 1e1 + 0e2 + 2e3 + 6e4


T (0, 0, 1) = (1, 1, −1, 0) = 1e1 + 1e2 − 1e3 + 0e4 
matrix of T with respect to ordered basis B and B ′ is transpose of matrix of coeffi-
cients in the above system of equations, andis given by
AJ
1 1 1
 
2 0 1 
[T : B, B ′ ] = 
 

0 2 −1
 
0 6 0

Problem 3.18.3. Let T : R3 → R3 be the linear operator given by

T ([x1 , x2 , x3 ]) = (3x1 + x2 , x1 + x3 , x1 − x3 ).
Find the matrix for T with respect to the standard basis for R3 .

Solution : The standard basis for R3 is

B = {e1 = [1, 0, 0], e2 = [0, 1, 0], e3 = [0, 0, 1]} .

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 56

Given that T ([x1 , x2 , x3 ]) = (3x1 + x2 , x1 + x3 , x1 − x3 ) Substituting each

standard basis vector into this formula for T , we get
T (e1 ) = T [1, 0, 0] = [3, 1, 1] = 3(1, 0, 0) + 1(0, 1, 0) + 1(0, 0, 1)
T (e2 ) = T [0, 1, 0] = [1, 0, 0] = 1(1, 0, 0) + 0(0, 1, 0) + 0(0, 0, 1)
T (e3 ) = T [0, 0, 1] = [0, 1, −1] = 0(1, 0, 0) + 1(0, 1, 0) − 1(0, 0, 1)
Hence, matrix of the transformation is the transpose of the coefficients matrix and is

IET
given by

Problem 3.18.4. Find 

A=
the linear map


 −2
1 −1

0
3
1


AT = 
 1

3 1 0
0 1
1 0 −1
2




3


 T : R → R whose matrix is

 , relative to the ordered basis



B : {(1, 1)(0, 2)} and

B ′ = {(0, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0)} for R3 .

Solution : Here  
1 −1
A = [T : B, B ′ ] = 
 
 −2 3 
AJ

0 1
B : {(1, 1)(0, 2)}.
Hence T (1, 1) = Linear combination of vectors of B ′ using scalars of first column
of [T : B, B ′ ]
i.e. T (1, 1) = 1(0, 1, 1) − 2(1, 0, 1) + 0(1, 1, 0) = (−2, 1, −1)
similarly T (0, 2) = −1(0, 1, 1) + 3(1, 0, 1) + 1(1, 1, 0) = (4, 0, 2)
Let (x, y) ∈ R2 be arbitrary. Since B : {(1, 1)(0, 2)} is a basis of R2 , we can
write (x, y) as a linear combination of elements of B. i.e.
(x, y) = a(1, 1) + b(0, 2) = (a, a) + (0, 2b) = (a, a + 2b)

To find a and b :
(x, y) = (a, a + 2b) ⇒ a = x

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 57

y−x
and a + 2b = y ⇒ b = Using these values,
2
y−x
(x, y) = x(1, 1) + (0, 2)
2
Applying T on both sides,
T (x, y) = T (a(1, 1) + b(0, 2))
= aT (1, 1) + bT (0, 2)
y−x
 

IET
= xT (1, 1) + T (0, 2) (by substituting for a and b)
2
y−x
 
= x(−2, 1, −1) + (4, 0, 2)
2
y−x y−x
     
= −2x + 4, x + 0, −x + 2
2 2
= (2y − 4x, x, y − 2x)
This is the required transformation.
" #
1 −1 2
Problem 3.18.5. Given A = , Find the linear map T : V3 (R) →
3 1 0
V2 (R) relative to the ordered basis B1 and B2 , given by (i) B1 and B2 are stan-
dard bases of V3 (R) and V2 (R) respectively.
(ii) B1 : {(1, 1, 1), (1, 2, 3), (1, 0, 0)} and B2 = {((1, 1), (1, −1)}

Solution : Since B1 and B2 are standard bases, we define T : V3 (R) → V2 (R)

AJ
by
T (1, 0, 0) = 1(1, 0) + 3(0, 1) = (1, 3)
T (0, 1, 0) = −1(1, 0) + 1(0, 1) = (−1, 1)
T (0, 0, 1) = 2(1, 0) + 0(0, 1) = (2, 0)
Any element (x, y, z) of V3 (R) can be written as a linear combination of basis
elements. i.e. Now, (x, y, z) = x(1, 0, 0) + y(0, 1, 0) + z(0, 0, 1)
T (x, y, z) = T (x(1, 0, 0) + y(0, 1, 0) + z(0, 0, 1))
= xT (1, 0, 0) + yT (0, 1, 0) + zT (0, 0, 1)
= x(1, 3) + y(−1, 1) + z(2, 0)
= (x − y + 2z, 3x + y)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 58

" #
1 −1 2
(ii) Given A = and B1 : {(1, 1, 1), (1, 2, 3), (1, 0, 0)} and
3 1 0
B2 = {((1, 1), (1, −1)} are basis of V3 (R) and V2 (R) respectively.
Hence T (1, 1, 1) = Linear combination of vectors of B2 using scalars of first col-
umn of A
i.e. T (1, 1, 1) = 1(1, 1) + 3(1, −1) = (1, 1) + (3, −3) = (4, −2)

IET
Similarly, T (1, 2, 3) = Linear combination of vectors of B2 using scalars of second
column of A.
i.e. T (1, 2, 3) = −1(1, 1) + 1(1, −1) = (−1, −1) + (1, −1) = (0, −2)
and T (1, 0, 0) = Linear combination of vectors of B2 using scalars of third column
of A.
i.e. T (1, 0, 0) = 2(1, 1) + 0(1, −1) = (2, 2)
Let (x, y) ∈ R3 (codomain) be arbitrary.
Since B : {((1, 1, 1), (1, 2, 3), (1, 0, 0)} is a basis of R3 , we can write (x, y, z)
as a linear combination of elements of B. i.e.
(x, y, z) = a(1, 1, 1) + b(1, 2, 3) + c(1, 0, 0)
= (a, a, a) + (b, 2b, 3b) + (c, 0, 0)
= (a + b + c, a + 2b, a + 3b) (∗)
To find a, b and c :
AJ
(x, y, z) = (a + b + c, a + 2b, a + 3b)
⇒a + b + c = x · · · (1)
a + 2b = y · · · (2)
a + 3b = z · · · (3)
(3)-(2) gives, b = z − y

Substituting this in (2), we get a + 2(z − y) = y ⇒ a = y − 2z + 2y ⇒ a =

3y − 2z
Substituting these values, in (1), we get a+b+c = x ⇒ (3y−2z)+(z−y)+c =
x

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 59

⇒ 2y − z + c = x
⇒ c = x − 2y + z

Using these values, (*) becomes

(x, y, z) = (3y − 2z)(1, 1, 1) + (z − y)(1, 2, 3) + (x − 2y + z)(1, 0, 0)

Applying T on both sides,

IET
T (x, y, z)
= T ((3y − 2z)(1, 1, 1) + (z − y)(1, 2, 3) + (x − 2y + z)(1, 0, 0))
= (3y − 2z)T (1, 1, 1) + (z − y)T (1, 2, 3) + (x − 2y + z)T (1, 0, 0)
= (3y − 2z)(4, −2) + (z − y)(0, −2) + (x − 2y + z)(2, 2)
= [(3y − 2z)(4) + z(0) + (x − 2y + z)(2), (3y − 2z)(−2) + (z − y)(−2) + (x
= (12y − 8z + 2x − 4y + 2z, −6y + 4z − 2z + 2y + 2x − 4y + 2z)
= (2x + 8y − 6z, 2x − 8y + 4z)
This is the required transformation.

Problem 3.18.6. Find the matrix of the linear transformation T : V2 (R) → V3 (R)
such that T (−1, 1) = (−1, 0, 2) and T (2, 1) = (1, 2, 1).

Solution : We can write (−1, 1), (2, 1) ∈ V2 (R) as a linear combination of basis
elements e1 = (1, 0) and e2 = (0, 1) of V2 (R).
AJ
i.e.
(−1, 1) = −1 · e1 + 1 · e2
(2, 1) = 2e1 + 1e2
Using the transformation T , on both sides, we get
T (−1, 1) = T (−1e1 + 1e2 ) = −T (e1 ) + T (e2 )
T (2, 1) = T (2e1 + 1e2 ) = 2T (e1 ) + T (e2 )
Substituting for T (−1, 1) and T (2, 1) from the given data,
(−1, 0, 2) = −T (e1 ) + T (e2 ) · · · (1)
(1, 2, 1) = 2T (e1 ) + T (e2 ) · · · (2)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 60

(2)-(1) gives,
(1, 2, 1) − (−1, 0, 2) = 3T (e1 )
⇒ (2, 2, −1) = 3T (e1 )
2 2 −1
 
1
T (e1 ) = (2, 2, −1) = , ,
3 3 3 3
Substituting T (e1 ) in (1),
2 2 −1
 
(−1, 0, 2) = − , , + T (e2 )

⇒
IET
⇒ (−1, 0, 2) +

columns (i.e. transpose).

Hence



−1 2 5
, ,
3 3 3
2




⇒ −1 + , 0 + , 2 +
3
3 3 3
2 2 −1

2
3
, ,
3 3 3

= T (e2 )
−1
3



= T (e2 )

= T (e2 )

The matrix of Transformation is given by writing the values of T (e1 ) and T (e2 ) as

A=


2
3
2
3
−1

3 
2 
3 
−1 5
3 3

Problem 3.18.7. Consider the linear transformation T : R3 → R2 defined as

AJ
T (1, 0, 0) = (3, −1), T (0, 1, 0) = (2, 1), T (0, 0, 1) = (3, 0)
Find T (1, −2, 3).

Solution : Since T is defined on basis vectors of R3 , it is defined on the whole

space. To find T (1, −2, 3), express the vector (1, −2, 3) as a linear combination
of the basis vectors and use the linearity of T .
(1, −2, 3) = 1(1, 0, 0) − 2(0, 1, 0) + 3(0, 0, 1)
∴ T (1, −2, 3) = T (1(1, 0, 0) − 2(0, 1, 0) + 3(0, 0, 1))
= 1T (1, 0, 0) − 2T (0, 1, 0) + 3T (0, 0, 1)
= 1(3, −1) − 2(2, 1) + 3(3, 0) from the given data,
= (8, −3)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 61

Problem 3.18.8. Let

T (x, y, z) = (5x − 3y + z, 2z + 4y, 5x + 3y).
What is the standard matrix of T ?

Solution : We have T : R3 → 3 3
 R. We write vectors x ∈ R as columns
x

IET
 
x=  y  instead of (x, y, z).

z
Recall that the standard basis of R3 is given by
e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), e3 = (0, 0, 1).
Using T (x, y, z) = (5x − 3y + z, 2z + 4y, 5x + 3y)., we can write
T (e1 ) = T (1, 0, 0) = (5(1) − 3(0) + z, 2(0) + 4(0), 5(1) + 3(0))
= (5, 0, 5)
T (e2 ) = T (0, 1, 0) = (5(0) − 3(1) + 0, 2(0) + 4(1), 5(0) + 3(1))
= (−3, 4, 3)
T (e3 ) = T (0, 0, 1) = (5(0) − 3(0) + 1, 2(1) + 4(0), 5(0) + 3(0))
= (1, 2, 0)
The matrix of Transformation is given by writing the values of T (e1 ), T (e2 ) and
T (e3 ) as columns (i.e. transpose).
AJ
 
5 −3 1
 
A=
0 4 2.
5 3 0
Problem 3.18.9. Let
T (x, y, z) = (3x − 2y + z, 2x − 3y, y − 4z).
1. Write down the standard matrix of T .
2. Compute T (2, −1, −1).

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 62

Solution : with the standard basis e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), e3 = (0, 0, 1)
we have
T (e1 ) = T (1, 0, 0) = (3, 2, 0)
T (e2 ) = T (0, 1, 0) = (−2, −3, 1)
T (e3 ) = T (0, 0, 1) = (1, 0, −4)
The standard matrix of Transformation is given by writing the values of T (e1 ),

IET
T (e2 ) and T (e3 ) as columns (i.e. transpose).
Hence  
3 −2 1
 
A=  2 −3 0 

0 1 −4
2. Using given expression T (x, y, z) = (3x − 2y + z, 2x − 3y, y − 4z), We
have
T (2, −1, −1) = (3(2) − 2(−1) + (−1), 2(2) − 3(−1), (−1) − 4(−1))
= (7, 7, 3)

Problem 3.18.10. Consider the linear transformation T : R3 → R2 , defined

by T (x, y, z) = (x + y, 2z). Find the matrix of T with respect to the bases
{u1 , u2 , u3 } and u′1 , u′2 of R3 and R2 , where


u1 = (1, 1, 0), u2 = (0, 1, 4), u3 = (1, 2, 3) and

u′1 = (1, 0), u′2 = (0, 2)
AJ
Use this matrix to find the image of the vector u = (2, 3, 5).

Solution : We find the effect of T on the basis vectors of R3 .

T (u1 ) = T (1, 1, 0) = (2, 0) = 2(1, 0) + 0(0, 2) = 2u′1 + 0u′2
T (u2 ) = T (0, 1, 4) = (1, 8) = 1(1, 0) + 4(0, 2) = 1u′1 + 4u′2
T (u3 ) = T (1, 2, 3) = (3, 6) = 3(1, 0) + 3(0, 2) = 3u′1 + 3u′2

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 63

" # " #
2 1
The coordinate vectors of T (u1 ) , T (u2 ), and T (u3 ) are thus , , and
0 4
" #
3
. These vectors form the columns of the matrix of T .
3
" #
2 1 3
A=

IET
0 4 3
Let us now use A to find the image of the vector u = (2, 3, 5). We determine the
coordinate vector of u. It can be shown that
u = (2, 3, 5) = 3(1, 1, 0) + 2(0, 1, 4) − (1, 2, 3) = 3u1 + 2u2 + (−1)u3
 
3
 
The coordinate vector of u is thus a = 
 2 . The coordinate vector of T (u) is

−1
 
" # 3 " #
2 1 3   2= 5

b = Aa =
0 4 3   5
−1
Therefore T (u) = 5u′1 + 5u′2 = 5(1, 0) + 5(0, 2) = (5, 10). We can check this
result directly using the definition T (x, y, z) = (x + y, 2z). For u = (2, 3, 5)
this gives
AJ
T (u) = T (2, 3, 5) = (5, 10)

Problem 3.18.11. Let T : R3 → R3 be a linear transformation such that

T (1, 0, 0) = (2, 4, −1), T (0, 1, 0) = (1, 3, −2), T (0, 0, 1) = (0, −2, 2).
Compute T (−2, 4, −1).

Solution : Using the standard basis, we can write

(−2, 4, −1) = −2(1, 0, 0) + 4(0, 1, 0) − (0, 0, 1) = −2e1 + 4e2 − 1e3

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 64

So,
T (−2, 4, −1) = T (−2e1 + 4e2 − 1e3 )
= −2T (e1 ) + 4T (e2 ) − T (e3 )
= −2T (1, 0, 0) + 4T (0, 1, 0) − T (0, 0, 1)
= (2, 4, −1) + (1, 3, −2) + (0, −2, 2)

IET
= (3, 5, −1)
Problem 3.18.12. Let
T (x, y, z) = (5x − 3y + z, 2z + 4y, 5x + 3y).
What is the standard matrix of T ?

Solution : We have T : R3 → 3 3
 R. We write vectors x ∈ R as columns
x
 
x=  y  instead of (x, y, z).

z
Recall the standard basis
     
1 0 0
of R3 .
     
e1 =  0 ,
 e2 = 
 1 ,
 e3 = 
0

0 0 1
We have      
AJ
5 −3 1
     
 0 ,
T (e1 ) =   T (e2 ) = 
 4,  2 .
T (e3 ) =  
5 3 0
So, the standard matrix of T is  
5 −3 1
 
A=
 0 4 2 .

5 3 0
Problem 3.18.13. Let
T (x, y, z) = (3x − 2y + z, 2x − 3y, y − 4z).
1. Write down the standard matrix of T .
2. Compute T (2, −1, −1).

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 65

Solution : With e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), e3 = (0, 0, 1) we have

T (e1 ) = T (1, 0, 0) = (3, 2, 0)
T (e2 ) = T (0, 1, 0) = (−2, −3, 1)
T (e3 ) = T (0, 0, 1) = (1, 0, −4)

IET
So, the standard matrix is the transpose
 of the coefficient
 matrix, and is given by
3 −2 1
 
A=  2 −3 0 
0 1 −4
2. Using T (x, y, z) = (3x − 2y + z, 2x − 3y, y − 4z), We have
T (2, −1, −1) = (3(2) − 2(−1) + (−1), 2(2) − 3(−1), (−1) − 4(−1))
= (7, 7, 3)

3.19 The linear transformation given by a matrix:

The linear transformation given by a matrix:

Let A be an m × n matrix. The function T defined by
T (v) = Av
is a linear transformation from Rn into Rm .
AJ
Problem
 3.19.1.
 The function T : R2 → R3 is defined as T (v) = Av =
3 0 " #
  v1
 2
 1   v (a) Find T (v), where v = (2, −1)
2
−1 −2
(b) Show that T is a linear transformation form R2 into R3

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 66

 
3 0 " #
  v1
Solution : Given that T (v) = Av = 
 2 1 
 v
2
−1 −2
 
3v1 + 0v2
 
Hence T (v) =  2v 1 + v2



IET
− v1 − 2v2

i.e. T (v1 , v2 ) = (3v1 , 2v1 + v2 , −v1 − 2v2 ) is a function from R2 → R3

T (2, −1) = (3(2), 2(2) + (−1), (−2) − 2(−1))
= (6, 3, 0)

3.20 Kernel and Image of a linear transformation

Kernel and Image of a linear transformation :

Let T : U → V be a linear transformation. The set of vectors in U that are mapped
into the zero vector of V is called the kernel of T or null space of T. The kernel is
denoted ker(T ).
i.e. Ker(T ) = {u ∈ U |T (u) = 0, 0 ∈ V }
Kernel is a subset of the domain U of T.
AJ
The set of vectors in V that are the images of vectors in U is called the range of T
or image set of T. The range is denoted range (T ).
i.e. Im(T ) or range(T ) = {T (u) ∈ V | u ∈ U }
Range is a subset of the codomain V of T .

We illustrate these sets in the following figure.

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 67

IET
Note : The null space of T : Rm → Rn is a subspace of Rm .

Problem 3.20.1. T : R3 → R3 be a linear transformation given by T (x, y, z) =

(2x, x + y + z, −y). Find the null space and range space.

Solution : The standard basis of R3 is {e1 , e2 , e3 } = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}
Let us find the images of standard basis of R3 .
Given that T (x, y, z) = (2x, x + y + z, −y)
Hence
T (e1 ) = T (1, 0, 0) = (2, 1, 0)
T (e2 ) = T (0, 1, 0) = (0, 1, −1)
T (e3 ) = T (0, 0, 1) = (0, 1, 0)
AJ
Here, {T (e1 ), T (e2 ), T (e3 )} = {(2, 1, 0), (0, 1, −1), (0, 1, 0)} generates range
of T.
To find the basis of range, consider a matrix,
 
2 1 0
 
A=  0 1 −1


0 1 0
R3 ←→ R3 − R2
 
2 1 0
 
A∼  0 1 −1 

0 0 1
This is in echelon form having 3 non-zero rows
The set of all nonzero rows in this echelon form, form a basis of range.

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 68

i.e. basis for the Range space={(2, 1, 0), (0, 1, −1), (0, 0, 1)} In other words,
Range(T ) is the subspace generated by (2, 1, 0), (0, 1, −1), (0, 0, 1)
Range space={x(2, 1, 0) + y(0, 1, −1) + z(0, 0, 1)}
To find the basis of Kernel of T(Null Space of T):
consider T (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0)

IET
⇒ (2x, x + y + z, −y) = (0, 0, 0)
2x = 0; x + y + z = 0, −y = 0
⇒x=y=z=0
Hence we have a trivial solution, x = 0, y = 0, z = 0
Hence Null space ={k(0, 0, 0)}
i.e. null space has only zero element or zero vector.
Since a set containing only the zero vector cannot be a basis for any non-trivial vector
space, we have Dim(Range Space)=0.

Problem 3.20.2. Find the kernel and range of the linear transformation T (x, y, z) =
(x + y, z) of R3 → R2

Solution : The standard basis of R3 is {e1 , e2 , e3 } = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}
Let us find the images of standard basis of R3 .
AJ
Given that T (x, y, z) = (y − x, y − z)
Hence
T (e1 ) = T (1, 0, 0) = (1, 0)
T (e2 ) = T (0, 1, 0) = (1, 0)
T (e3 ) = T (0, 0, 1) = (0, 1)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 69

Here, {T (e1 ), T (e2 ), T (e3 )} = {(1, 0), (1, 0), (0, 1)} generates range of T.
To find the basis of range, consider a matrix,
 Consider

1 0
 
A= 1 0

0 1
R2 → R2 − R1

IET
 
1 0
 
A∼  0 0 

0 1
R2 ←→ R3
 
1 0
 
A∼  0 1 

0 0
This is in echelon form having 2 non-zero rows
The basis for the subspace range(T) is ={(1, 0), (0, 1)}
In other words, Range(T ) is the subspace generated by (1, 0) and (0, 1)

Range(T ) = {x(1, 0) + y(0, 1)}

AJ
To find Kernel of T(Null Space of T):
consider T (x, y, z) = (0, 0)
⇒ (x + y, z) = (0, 0)
This gives the system of equations

x + y = 0; z=0
⇒ x = −y
⇒ y = −x
Let x = k. Then y = −k
∴ N (T ) = {(k, −k, 0)} is the null space.

Problem 3.20.3. Determine the range and null space of the linear transformation
T : R3 −→ R4 with T (x, y, z) = (x − y + z, y − z, x, 2x − 5y + 5z).

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 70

Solution : The standard basis of R3 is {e1 , e2 , e3 } = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}
Let us find the images of standard basis of R3 .
Given that T (x, y, z) = (x − y + z, y − z, x, 2x − 5y + 5z)
Hence
T (e1 ) = T (1, 0, 0) = (1, 0, 1, 2)
T (e2 ) = T (0, 1, 0) = (−1, 1, 0, −5)

IET
generates range of T.
T (e3 ) = T (0, 0, 1) = (1, −1, 0, 5)
Here, {T (e1 ), T (e2 ), T (e3 )} = {(1, 0, 1, 2), (−1, 1, 0, −5), (1, −1, 0, 5)}

To find the basis of range, consider

A=
 a matrix,

1
 −1 1



1

1 0 1
0

2
1 2


0 −5 
−1 0 5
R2 ←→ R2 + R1 ,
R3 ←→ R3 − R1




A= 0 1 1 −3 

0 −1 −1 3
AJ
R3 ←→ R3 + R2
 
1 0 1 2
 
A=  0 1 1 −3


0 0 0 0

This is in echelon form having 2 non-zero rows

The set of all nonzero rows in this echelon form, forms a basis of range.
i.e. basis for the Range space={(1, 0, 1, 2), (0, 1, 1, −3)} In other words, Range(T )
is the subspace generated by {(1, 0, 1, 2), (0, 1, 1, −3)}
Range space={x(1, 0, 1, 2) + y(0, 1, −1) + z(0, 1, 1, −3)}
To find the basis of Kernel of T(Null Space of T):

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 71

consider T (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0, 0)

⇒ (x − y + z, y − z, x, 2x − 5y + 5z = (0, 0, 0, 0)
This gives the system of equations

x − y + z = 0,
y=z=0

IET
The coefficient matrix is

A=

Using R3 → R3 − R1 , R4 → R4 − 2R1

A∼
x=0
2x − 5y + 5z = 0




1 −1 1
0 1 −1

1 0
2 −5 5

1 −1 1
0 1 −1

0 1 −1

0












0 −3 3
Using R3 → R3 − R2 , R4 → R4 + 3R2 
1 −1 1
AJ
 
0 1 −1
A∼
 

0 0 0 
 
0 0 0
Since rank=2 is less than number of unknowns, infinitely many solutions exist.
Let z = k, From second row, we have y − z = 0 ⇒ y = z
Hence y = k
From first row, we have x − y + z = 0 ⇒ x − k + k = 0
Hence x = 0
Thus Null space = {(x, y, z)} = {0, k, k)} = {k(0, 1, 1}
Dimension of this Null space is 1.

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 72

3.21 Rank and Nullity

Rank and nullity of a linear transformation: Let T : U → V be a linear

transformation. The Dimension of the Range (T ) is known as rank of T and the
dimension of the Ker(T ) is known as nullity of T .

IET
3.22 Rank Nullity theorem

The Rank-Nullity Theorem :

Let T : V → W be a linear transformation from a finite dimensional vectors space
V to a vector space W . Then

Equivalently,
dim(Range(T )) + dim(Ker(T )) = dim V .

rank(T ) + nullity of (T ) = dim(V ).

Problem 3.22.1. Verify the Rank-nullity theorem for the linear transformation T :
R3 → R3 defined by T (x, y, z) = (x + 2y − z, y + z, x + y − 2z).

Solution : The standard basis of R3 is {e1 , e2 , e3 } = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}
Let us find the images of standard basis of R3 .
AJ
Given that T (x, y, z) = (x + 2y − z, y + z, x + y − 2z).

T (e1 ) = T (1, 0, 0) = (1, 0, 1)

T (e2 ) = T (0, 1, 0) = (2, 1, 1)
T (e3 ) = T (0, 0, 1) = (−1, 1, −2)
Thus {T (e1 ), T (e2 ), T (e3 )} = {(1, 0, 1), (2, 1, 1), (−1, 1, −2)} generates
the range of T.
TO find the basis of range, consider the
 matrix 
1 0 1
 
A=  2 1 1 

−1 1 −2

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 73

R2 → R2 − 2R1 , andR3 → R3 + R1
 
1 0 1
 
A∼  0 1 −1 

0 1 −1
R3 → R3 − R2

IET
 
1 0 1
 
⇒  0 1 −1 

0 0 0
This is in echelon form having 2 non-zero rows
The set of all nonzero rows in this echelon form, forms a basis of range.
Thus {(1, 0, 1), (0, 1, −1)} form a basis of Range of T & dim( Range of T ) =
2.
To find the basis of nullity of T Let v = (x, y, z) ∈ R3 such that
Nullity of T = {v ∈ R3 | T (v) = 0}
set of all (x, y, z) such that T (x, y, z) = 0.
set of all (x, y, z) such that (x + 2y − z, y + z, x + y − 2z) = (0, 0, 0).
This gives the system of equations

x + 2y − z = 0
AJ
y+z =0
x + y − 2z = 0
The coefficient matrix is  
1 2 −1
 
A= 0 1 1 

1 1 −2
Using R3 → R3 − R1  
1 2 −1
 
A∼  0 1 1 

0 −1 −1

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 74

Using R3 → R3 + R2  
1 2 −1
 
A∼
0 1 1 

0 0 0
i.e. rank =2 ¡ no. of unknowns.
Hence infinite number of solution exists.

IET
Let z = k
From second row, y + z = 0 ⇒ y + k = 0 ⇒ y = −k
From First row, x + 2y − z = 0 ⇒ x − 2k − k = 0 ⇒ x = 3k
Hence the null space is {(x, y, z)} = {(3k, −k, k)} = {k(3, −1, 1)}
Thus {(3, −1, 1)} is a basis of nullity of T & Nullity (T ) = Dimension of Null
space=1.
rank(T ) + nullity of (T ) = 2 + 1
=3
= dim(R3 ).
Hence rank Nullity theorem is verified.

Problem 3.22.2. Let T : R3 → R3 defined by T (x, y, z) = (x + y, x − y, 2x +

z). Find the rank and nullity of T and verify the rank - nullity Theorem.
AJ
Solution : The standard basis of R3 is {e1 , e2 , e3 } = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}
Let us find the images of standard basis of R3 .
Given that T (x, y, z) = (x + y, x − y, 2x + z).

T (e1 ) = T (1, 0, 0) = (1, 1, 2)

T (e2 ) = T (0, 1, 0) = (1, −1, 0)
T (e3 ) = T (0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 1)
Thus {T (e1 ), T (e2 ), T (e3 )} = {(1, 1, 2), (1, −1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} generates the
range of T.
TO find the basis of range,

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 75

Consider the matrix  

1 1 2
 
A = 1 −1 0


0 0 1
Using R2 → R2 − R1  
1 1 0

IET
 
A∼ 0 −2 −2

0 0 1
This is in echelon form having 2 non-zero rows
The basis of range space is given by nonzero rows of the echelon form.
i.e. Basis of range of T={(1, 1, 0), (0, −2, −2), (0, 0, 1)}
i.e. Rank(T)=3
To find the Nullity(T) :
Nullity(T) = {v ∈ R3 |T (v) = 0}
Let us find all v = (x, y, z) such that T (v) = T (x, y, z) = 0
T (x, y, z) = (x + y, x − y, 2x + z) = (0, 0, 0).
This gives the system of equations
x+y =0
x−y =0
2x + z = 0
AJ
The coefficient matrix is  
1 1 0
 
A = 1 −1 0


2 0 1
Using R2 → R2 − R1 and R3 → R
3 − 2R1 
1 1 0
 
A∼0 −2 0

0 −2 1
Using R3 → R3 − R1 ,  
1 1 0
 
A∼0 −2 0

0 0 1

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 76

i.e. rank=no. of unknowns.

Hence unique solution exists.
i.e. x = 0, y = 0, z = 0

i.e. Null Space contains only zero vector.

i.e. Null Space ={(0, 0, 0)}

IET
Nullity(T)=Dimension of Null Space=0
rank(T ) + nullity of (T ) = 3 + 0
=3
= dim(R3 ).
Hence rank Nullty theorem is verified.

Problem 3.22.3. For the linear transformation T : R2 → R3 such that T (x1 , x2 ) =

(x1 − x2 , x2 − x1 , −x1 ), find a basis and dimension of its range space and its
null space. Also verify that rank (T )+ nullity (T ) = dim R2

Solution : The standard basis of R2 is {e1 , e2 } = {(1, 0), (0, 1)}

Let us find the images of standard basis of R3 .
Given that T (x1 , x2 ) = (x1 − x2 , x2 − x1 , −x1 ).

T (e1 ) = T (1, 0) = (1, −1, −1)

AJ
T (e2 ) = T (0, 1) = (−1, 1, 0)

Thus {T (e1 ), T (e2 )} = {(1, −1, 1), (−1, 1, 0)} generates the range of T.
TO find the basis of range,
Consider the matrix " #
1 −1 1
A=
−1 1 0
Using R2 → R2 + R1 , " #
1 −1 1
A∼
0 0 1
This is in echelon form having 2 non-zero rows
The basis of range space is given by nonzero rows of the echelon form.

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 77

i.e. Basis of range of T={(1, −1, 1), (0, 0, 1)}

i.e. Rank(T)=2
To find the Nullity(T) :
Nullity(T) = {v ∈ R2 |T (v) = 0}
Let us find all v = (x1 , x2 ) such that T (v) = T (x1 , x2 ) = 0

IET
(x1 − x2 , x2 − x1 , −x1 ) = (0, 0, 0)
⇒ x1 − x2 = 0
x2 − x1 = 0
− x1 = 0
On solving the above equations, we get
x1 = 0, x2 = 0 (trivial solution)
Hence Null space ={k(0, 0)}
i.e. null space has only zero element or zero vector.
Since a set containing only the zero vector cannot be a basis for any non-trivial vec-
tor space, we have Dim(Range Space)=0.

rank(T ) + nullity of (T ) = 2 + 0
=2
AJ
= dimension of domain(R2 )
Hence rank Nullity theorem is verified.

Problem 3.22.4. Verify the Rank-nullity theorem for the linear transformation T :
v3 (R) → v2 (R) defined by T (x, y, z) = (y − x, y − z)

Solution : The standard basis of R3 is {e1 , e2 , e3 } = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}
Let us find the images of standard basis of R3 .
Given that T (x, y, z) = (y − x, y − z)
Hence
T (e1 ) = T (1, 0, 0) = (−1, 0)
T (e2 ) = T (0, 1, 0) = (1, 1)
T (e3 ) = T (0, 0, 1) = (0, −1)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 78

consider  
−1 0
 
A= 1
 1 

0 −1
Using R2 −→ R2 + R1
 

IET
−1 0
 
A =∼ 
 0 1 

0 −1
Using R3 → R3 + R2
 
−1 0
 
A =∼   0 1 

0 0
This is in echelon form having 2 non zero rows
The basis for Image Space(Range Space) is given by the non-zero rows in Echelon
form.
i.e. Basis={(−1, 0), (0, 1)}
∴ Rank of T =Dim(Range(T))=2

To find N ullity(T ) :
AJ
consider T (x, y, z) = (0, 0)
⇒ (y − x, y − z) = (0, 0)
y−x=0
⇒
y−z =0
⇒ y = x and
⇒y=z
we can also use coefficient matrix and reduce it to echelon form
⇒x=y=z
suppose z = k, k ̸= 0 then x = k, y = k
∴ Null Space(T)={(k, k, k)}

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 79

and Nullity = Dimension of Null Space =1

rank(T ) + nullity of (T ) = 2 + 1
=3
= dimension of domain(v3 (R))
Hence rank Nullity theorem is verified.

IET
Problem 3.22.5. Verify Rank Nullity theorem for the Linear transformation T :
R4 → R3 defined by
T (x, y, z, t) = (x − y + z + t, 2x − 2y + 3z + 4t, 3x − 3y + 4z + 5t)

Solution : The standard basis of R3 is {e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 } = {(1, 0, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1
Let us find the images of standard basis of R3 .
Given that T (x, y, z, t) = (x−y+z+t, 2x−2y+3z+4t, 3x−3y+4z+5t)
Hence
T (e1 ) = T (1, 0, 0, 0) = (1, 2, 3)
T (e2 ) = T (0, 1, 0, 0) = (−1, −2, −3)
T (e3 ) = T (0, 0, 1, 0) = (1, 3, 4)
T (e4 ) = T (0, 0, 0, 1) = (1, 4, 5)
consider  
1 2 3
AJ
 
 − 1 −2 −3 
A=
 

 1 3 4 
 
1 4 5
Using R2 −→ R2 + R1 , R3 → R3 − R1 , R4 → R4 − R1
 
1 2 3
 
0 0 0
A∼
 

0 1 1
 
0 2 2

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 80

Using R4 → R4 − 2R3
 
1 2 3
 
0 0 0 
A∼
 

0 1 1 
 
0 0 0

IET
Interchanging R3 and R2 ,  
1 2 3
 
0 1 1 
A∼
 

0 0 0 
 
0 0 0
This is in echelon form having 2 non zero rows
The basis for Image Space(Range Space) is given by the non-zero rows in Echelon
form.
i.e. Basis={(1, 2, 3), (0, 1, 1)}
∴ Rank of T =Dim(Range(T))=2

To find N ullity(T ) :

consider T (x, y, z, t) = (0, 0, 0)

⇒ (x − y + z + t, 2x − 2y + 3z + 4t, 3x − 3y + 4z + 5t) = (0, 0, 0)
AJ
x−y+z+t=0
⇒ 2x − 2y + 3z + 4t = 0
3x − 3y + 4z + 5t = 0

Coefficient matrix is :  
1 −1 1 1
 
A=
2 −2 3 4

3 −3 4 5

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 81

Using R2 → R2 − 2R1 and R3 →R3 − 3R1 

1 −1 1 1
 
A∼ 0 0 1 2

0 0 1 2
Using R3 → R3 − R2  
1 −1 1 1

IET
 
A∼ 0 0 1 2

0 0 0 0
Since rank=2 ¡ no. of unknowns, infinite no. of solution exists.
Suppose t = k, k ̸= 0 then from 2nd row, z + 2t = 0 ⇒ z = −2k
From first row, x − y + z + t = 0 ⇒ x − y − 2k + k = 0
Let y = k1 , then x − y − 2k + k = 0 ⇒ x − k1 − k = 0
⇒ x = k1 + k
∴ Null Space(T)={(k1 + k, k1 , −2k, k)}
If k1 = 0 and k = 0 then the null space elements are respectively {(k, 0, −2k, k), (k1 , k1 , 0
i.e. Null Space = {k(1, 0, −2, 1), k1 (1, 1, 0, 0)}
and Nullity = Dimension of Null Space =2
rank(T ) + nullity of (T ) = 2 + 2
=4
= dimension of domain R4
AJ
Hence rank Nullity theorem is verified.

3.23 Inner product

An inner product on a real vector space V is a function that associates a number

with each ordered pair pair of vectors u and v of V and is denoted by ⟨u, v⟩. This
function satisfies the following conditions for vectors u, v, and w, and scalars a, b.
(i). ⟨u, v⟩ = ⟨v, u⟩ (symmetry property)
(ii). ⟨au1 + bu2 , v⟩ = ⟨au1 , v⟩ + ⟨bu2 , v⟩ = a⟨u1 , v⟩ + b⟨u2 , v⟩ (Linear
property)
(iii). ⟨u, u⟩ ≥ 0, and ⟨u, u⟩ = 0 if and only if u = 0 (positive definite property)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 82

Inner product space :

An inner product space is a vector space V along with an inner product on V.

3.24 STANDARD INNER PRODUCT or the DOT PRODUCT

Let V = Rn be the real vector space of dimension n. Given two vectors u =

3.25
IET
(u1 , u2 , . . . , un ) and v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) of V , Then the standard inner product
on V is the dot product, given by
⟨u, v⟩ = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + · · · + un vn
This is also denoted by uv T

Norm of a Vector

Norm of a Vector:
Let V be an inner product space. The norm or length of a vector v ∈ V is denoted
∥v∥ and is defined by
p
∥v∥ = ⟨v, v⟩ = ⟨v, v⟩
or
AJ
∥v∥2 = ⟨v, v⟩
Normalizing a vector : Every nonzero vector v in an inner product space V can be
multiplied by the reciprocal of its length to obtain the unit vector
1
v̂ = vwhich is a positive multiple ov v
∥v∥
This process is called normalizing v.

3.26 Orthogonality :

Orthogonality :Let V be an inner product space. Two vectors u, v ∈ V are called

orthogonal if
⟨u, v⟩ = 0

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 83

Problem 3.26.1. Consider vectors u = (1, 2, 4), v = (2, −3, 5), w = (4, 2, −3)
in R3 . Find (i)⟨u, v⟩, (ii)⟨u, w⟩, (iii)⟨v, w⟩ (iv) ⟨(u + v), w⟩, (v) ∥u∥ and (vi)
∥v∥

Solution : i) ⟨u, v⟩ = (1)(2) + (2)(−3) + 4(5) = 2 − 6 + 20 = 16. Similarly,

IET
ii) ⟨u, w⟩ = (1)(4) + (2)(2) + 4(−3) = 4 + 4 − 12 = −4
iii) ⟨v, w⟩ = (2)(4) + (−3)(2) + (5)(−3) = 8 − 6 − 15 = −13.
iv) ⟨(u+v), w⟩ = (1+2, 2−3, 4+5)·(4, 2, −3) = (3, −1, 9)·(4, 2, −3) =
12 − 2 − 27 = −17.
√ √ √
v) ∥u∥ = 12 + 22 + 42 = 1 + 4 + 16 = 21.
√ √
vi) ∥v∥ = 4 + 9 + 25 = 38.

Problem 3.26.2. Consider the following polynomials in P (t) and inner product:
Inner product:
f (t) = t + 2, g(t) = 3t − 2, h(t) = t2 − 2t − 3 and
Z 1
⟨f, g⟩ = f (t)g(t)dt.
0
(a) find ⟨f, g⟩ and ⟨f, h⟩
(b) Find ∥f ∥ and ∥g∥
AJ
(c) normalize f and g.

Solution : (a) Z 1
⟨f, g⟩ = f (t)g(t)dt
0
Z 1
= (t + 2)(3t − 2)dt
0
Z 1
3t2 + 4t − 4 dt


=
0
1
3t3 4t2

1
= t3 + 2t2 − 4t 0

= + − 4t
3 2 0

= [1 + 2 − 4]
= −1.

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 84

and Z 1
⟨f, h⟩ = f (t)h(t)dt
Z0 1
(t + 2) t2 − 2t − 3 dt


=
Z0 1
= [t3 − 7t − 6)dt
0

IET
4 1
t 7t2
= − − 6t
4 2 0
37
=−
4
(b) Z 1
⟨f, f ⟩ = f (t)f (t)dt
0
Z 1
= (t + 2)(t + 2)dt
0
Z 1
= (t2 + 4t + 4)dt
0
1
t3 t2

= +4 + 4t
3 2 0
 
1
= +2+4
3
19
=
AJ
3
√ √
19 57
∥f ∥ = √ or .
3 3

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 85

and Z 1
⟨g, g⟩ = g(t)f (t)dt
Z0 1
= (3t − 2)(3t − 2)dt
0
Z 1
= (9t2 − 12t + 4)dt
0
1
9t3 12t2

IET

= − + 4t
3 2 0

= [3 − 6 + 4] =1
√
∥g∥ = 1 = 1
(c) Normalizing f and g:
√
57
Since ∥f ∥ = 3
and g is already a unit vector, we have
1 3
fˆ = f = √ (t + 2)
∥f ∥ 57
1
ĝ = g = 3t − 2.
∥g∥
Problem 3.26.3. Verify the vectors u = (1, 1, 1), v = (1, 2, −3) & w =
(1, −4, 3) in R3 are orthogonal or not.

Hint : ⟨u, v⟩ = 1+2−3 = 0, ⟨u, w⟩ = 1−4+3 = 0, ⟨v, w⟩ = 1−8−9 =

−16
AJ
Thus u is orthogonal to v and w, v & W are not orthogonal.

Problem 3.26.4. Show that the function f (x) = 3x − 2 and g(x) = x are
R1
orthogonal in [0,1] with inner product ⟨f, g⟩ = 0 f (x) g(x)dx

Solution : Z 1
⟨f, g⟩ = f (x)g(x)dx
0
Z 1
= (3x − 2)(x)dx
0
Z 1
3x2 − 2x dx


=
0
1
= x3 − x2 0 = 0


Hence the function f (x) = 3x − 2 and g(x) = x are orthogonal.

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 86

Problem 3.26.5. Consider the vector space Pn of polynomials with inner product
Z 1
⟨f, g⟩ = f (x)g(x)dx
0
Determine the norm of the function f (x) = 5x2 + 1.

Solution : Using the above definition of inner product, we get

IET
p
∥f (x)∥ = ⟨f (x), f (x)⟩
s
Z 1
= f (x) f (x)dx
0
s
Z 1
= [f (x)]2 dx
0
s
Z 1
= [5x2 + 1]2 dx
0
s
Z 1
= [25x4 + 10x2 + 1] dx
0
s 1
x5 x3
= 25 + 10 +x
5 3 0
s 
1 1
= 25 + 10 + 1
5 3
AJ
r
28
=
3q
The norm of the function f (x) = 5x2 + 1 is 28 3
.

Problem 3.26.6. Consider the vector space Pn , of polynomials of degree ≤ n. Let f

and g be elements of Pn . Prove that the following function defines an inner product
on Pn . Z 1
⟨f, g⟩ = f (x)g(x)dx
0
Determine the inner product of the polynomials
f (x) = x2 + 2x − 1 and g(x) = 4x + 1

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 87

Solution : Let us check the conditions of inner product.

(i)Symmetric property : Z 1
⟨f, g⟩ = f (x)g(x)dx
0
Z 1
= g(x)f (x)dx
0

IET
= ⟨g, f ⟩
(ii) Linearity property : Z 1
⟨af + bg, h⟩ = [af (x) + bg(x)]h(x)dx
0
Z 1
= [af (x)h(x) + bg(x)h(x)]dx
0
Z 1 Z 1
=a f (x)h(x)dx + b g(x)h(x)dx
0 0

= a⟨f, h⟩ + b⟨g, h⟩
(iii)Positive definite property: Z 1
⟨f, f ⟩ = f (x)f (x)dx
0
Z 1
= [f (x)]2 dx
0
This is always > 0, and it is zero, if and only if f (x) = 0
We now find the inner product of the functions f (x) = x2 + 2x − 1 and g(x) =
AJ
4x + 1 Z 1
2
x2 + 2x − 1 (4x + 1)dx


⟨x + 2x − 1, 4x + 1⟩ =
Z0 1
4x3 + 9x2 − 2x − 1 dx


=
0

=2

3.27 Matrix space :

We get an inner product on Mm×n by defining, for A, B ∈ Mm×n ,

Xm X n
⟨A, B⟩ = aij bij
i=1 j=1

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 88

(multiply corresponding entries and add). For instance,

Consider the vector space M22 of"2 × 2 # matrices." Let u #
and v defined as follows
a b e f
be arbitrary 2 × 2 matrices, u = ,v =
c d g h
Then the inner product on M22 is given by
⟨u,*"
v⟩ = ae +#bf" + cg #+
+ dh, In particular,

IET
2 −3 5 2
, = (2 × 5) + (−3 × 2) + (0 × 9) + (1 × 0)
0 1 9 0
=4

Problem 3.27.1. Let M = M2,3 with inner product, ⟨A, B⟩ = tr(B T A) and let
" # " # " #
9 8 7 1 2 3 3 −5 2
A= B= C=
6 5 4 4 5 6 1 0 −4
Find (a) ⟨A, B⟩, ⟨A, C⟩, ⟨B, C⟩ (b) ⟨2A + 3B, 4C⟩ (c) ∥A∥ and ∥B∥

Pm Pn
Solution : (a)By definition, ⟨A, B⟩ = i=1 j=1 aij bij . Using this, we get
⟨A, B⟩ = 9 + 16 + 21 + 24 + 25 + 24 = 119
⟨A, C⟩ = 27 − 40 + 14 + 6 + 0 − 16 = −9
⟨B, C⟩ = 3 − 10 + 6 + 4 + 0 − 24 = −21
AJ
(b) " # " #
21 22 23 12 −20 8
2A + 3B = 4C =
24 25 26 4 0 −16
⟨2A + 3B, 4C⟩ = 252 − 440 + 184 + 96 + 0 − 416 = 532 − 856 = −324
(c) ∥A∥2 = ⟨A, A⟩ = m
P Pn 2
i=1 j=1 aij , the sum of the squares of all elements of
A.
∥A∥2 = 92 + 82 + 72 + 62 + 52 + 42 = 271 and
∥B∥2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 + 62 = 91
√ √
Hence ∥A∥ = 271 and ∥B∥ = 91

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 89

3.28 Question Bank

1. Let C be the set of all complex numbers(i.e. set of all ordered pairs of real
numbers).
i.e. C = {(a1 , a2 ) ; a1 ∈ R, a2 ∈ ℜ}
Then prove that C is a vector space with pointwise addition and scalar multipli-

IET
cation defined as follows:
(a1 , a2 ) + (b1 , b2 ) = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 )
and c · (a1 , a2 ) = (c a1 , c a2 ) for all a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 c in ℜ.

2. Show that the set of all matrices of order m × n where m and n are fixed posi-
tive integers is a vector space with respect to matrix addition and multiplication
of a matrix by a scalar.

3. Write the vector v = (1, 3, 9) as a linear combination of the vectors u1 =

(2, 1, 3), u2 = (1, −1, 1), u3 = (3, 1, 5)

4. Write the vector v = (4, 2, 1) as a linear combination of the vectors u1 =

(1, −3, 1), u2 = (0, 1, 2), u3 = (5, 1, 37)

5. Express the vector v = (1, −2, 5) as a linear combination of the vectors

AJ
v1 = (1, 1, 1), v2 = (1, 2, 3), v3 = (2, −1, 1) in the rector space R3 (R).
Ans:
(1, −9, 5) = −6v1 + 3v2 + 2v3
= −6(1, 1, 1) + 3(1, 2, 3) + 2(2, −1, 1)
" #
3 −1
6. Express the matrix A = in the vector space of 2 × 2 matrices as a
1 −2
linear combination
" of # " # " #
1 1 1 1 1 −1
B= ,C = ,D =
0 −1 −1 0 0 0

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 90

" #
−1 7
7. Determine whether the matrix is a linear combination of
8 −1
" # " # " #
1 0 2 −3 0 1
, and in the vector space M22 of 2×2 matrices.
2 1 0 2 2 0
8. Show that the vector v = (1, 3, 9) is a linear combination of the vectors v1 =

IET
(2, 1, 3), v2 = (1, −1, 1), v3 = (3, 1, 5) in the vector space R3 .

9. Show that the set S = {(1, 2, 4), (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} is linearly
dependent.

10. Show the set S = {(1, 0, 1)(1, 1, 0)(−1, 0, −1)} is linearly dependent in
V3 (K).

11. For what value of k (if any) the vector v = (1, −2, k ) can be expressed as
a linear combination of vectors v1 = (3, 0, −2) and v2 = (2, −1, −5) in
R3 (R).

12. Determine whether the vectors v1 = (1, 2, 3), v2 = (3, 1, 7) and v3 =

(2, 5, 8) are linearly dependent or linearly independent.

13. Determine whether or not the vectors u = (1, 1, 2), v = (2, 3, 1), w =
(4, 5, 5) in R3 are linearly dependent.
AJ
14. Determine whether or not the vectors u = (1, 2, 5), v = (2, 5, 1), w =
(1, 5, 2) are linearly dependent or linearly independent?

15. Determine whether or not the vectors (1, 2, −3, 1), (3, 7, 1, −2), (1, 3, 7, −4)
are linearly independent?

16.

17. show that the subset W = {(x, y, z) | x − 3y + 4z = 0} of the vector

space R3 is a subspace of R3

18. Prove that the subset W = {(x, y, z) | ax + by + cz = 0, x, y, z ∈ R}

of the vector space V = R3 is a subspace of V .

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 91

(or)
Show that any plane passing through the origin is a subspace of R3 .
or
Let W = {(x, y, z) | lx + my + nz = 0}, l, m, n being real numbers,
then prove that W is a subspace of R3 .

IET
19. Define a subspace. Show that the intersection of any two subspaces of a vector
space V is also a subspace of V .

20. Let V = R3 be a vector space and consider the subset W of V consisting of

vectors of the form a, a2 , b , where the second component is the square of
the first. Is W a subspace of V ?

21. Let V be the vector space of all square matrices over R. Determine whether
the following of V .
(" set #W is subspaces )
x y
W = ; x, y, z ∈ R
z 0

22. Let v1 = (1, 2, 0), v2 = (3, 1, 1), and w = (4, −7, 3). Determine whether
w belongs to Span (v1 , v2 ).

23. Consider the vectors p1 = 1 + x + 4x2 and p2 = 1 + 5x + x2 in P2 .

AJ

Determine whether p1 and p2 lie in span 1 + 2x − x2 , 3 + 5x + 2x2 .

24. Let f (x) = 2x2 − 5 and g(x) = x + 1. Show that the function
h(x) = 4x2 + 3x − 7 lies in the subspace Span {f, g} of P2 .

25. Determine whether or not the following forms a basis x1 = (2, 2, 1), x2 =
(1, 3, 7), x3 = (1, 2, 2) in R3 .

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 92

26. Determine
whether
 each
 of the
 following
 sets is a basis for R3 .
 1   2   −2 

 

(a) S =   0  ,  1  ,  1 
    

 
 −1 −1 4 
     
 1   2   3 

 

(b) S =  4  ,  5  ,  6 

IET
     

 

 7 8 9 

27. Show that dim Pn = n + 1 and that 1, x, x2 , . . . , xn is a basis, called the
standard basis of Pn .

28. Check whether the vectors (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 5), (5, 3, 4) forms a basis of R3

29. Show that the set B = {(1, 1, 0)(1, 0, 1)(0, 1, 1)} is a basis of the vector
space V3 (R).

30. Prove that {(1, 2, 1), (3, 4, −7)(3, 1, 5)} is a basis of V3 (R).

31. Examine whether the set of vectors (2, 1, 0),(1, 1, 2) and (1, 2, 1) is a basis
of the space V3 (R).

32. Show that the vectors (1, 0, −1), (1, 2, 1), (0, −3, 2) form a basis of V3 (R)
AJ
33. Let
S = {(1, 2, 2), (−1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 1)} ⊆ R3 .
Find a basis of of the subspace spanned by S.

34. Find the basis and the dimension of the subspace spanned by the vectors {(2, 4, 2), (1, −1
in v3 (R).

35. V is a vector space of polynomials over R. find a basis and dimension of

subspace w of V , spanned by the polynomials
x1 = t3 − 2t2 + 4t + 1, x2 = 2t3 − 3t2 + 9t − 1
x3 = t3 + 6t − 5 , x4 = 2t3 − 5t2 + 7t + 5

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 93

36. Define basis and dimension of a vector space. Find basis and dimension of
subspace of V3 (R) spanned by
{(1, −2, 3)(1, −3, 4)(−1, 1, −2)}
Ans : B = {(1, −2, 3), (0, −1, 1)} and dimension =2

37. Prove that

IET
T (x, y) = (x + y, x − y, y)
is a linear transformation from R2 into R3 .
or Prove that T : R2 → R3 defined by T (a, b) = (a + b, a − b, b) is a
linear transform.

38. Which of the following functions are linear transformations.?

i) T : R3 → R3 defined by T (x, y, z) = (y, −x, −z)
ii) T : R3 → R2 defined by T (x, y, z) = (2x − 3y, 7y + 2z).

39. Check whether

T (v1 , v2 ) = (v1 − v2 , v1 + 2v2 )
is a linear transformation from R2 into R2 .

40. Determine whether the function T : R2 → 3

 R defined
 by
" #! x+y
x  
AJ
T = x + 1 
y  
3y
is a linear transformation.

41. Prove that T : R3 → R3 be defined by T (x, y, z) = (2x − 3y, x + 4, 5z)

is not a linear transformation.

42. Prove that the transformation RR2 → R2

T (x, y) = (3x, x + y) is linear. Find the images of the vectors (1, 3) and
(−1, 2) under this transformation.

43. Let Pn be the vector space of real polynomial functions of degree ≤ n. Show
that the transformation T : P2 → P1 defined by


T ax2 + bx + c = (a + b)x + c is linear.

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 94

44. Find the matrix representing the transformation T : R2 → R3 given by

T (x1 , x2 ) = (3x1 − x2 , 2x1 + 4x2 , 5x1 − 6x2 ) relative to the stan-
dard basis of R2 and R3 .

45. Find the matrix representing the transformation T : R2 → R3 given by

T (x1 , x2 ) = (3x1 − x2 , 2x1 + 4x2 , 5x1 − 6x2 ) relative to the stan-

IET
dard basis of R2 and R3 .

46. Let T : R3 → R3 be the linear operator given by T ([x1 , x2 , x3 ]) =

(3x1 + x2 , x1 + x3 , x1 − x3 ). Find the matrix for T with respect to the
standard basis for R3 .

T : R2 → R
47. Find the linear map  3
 whose matrix is
1 −1
 
A=  −2 3  , relative to the ordered basis

0 1
B : {(1, 1)(0, 2)} and
B ′ = {(0, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0)} for R3 .
" #
1 −1 2
48. Given A = , Find the linear map T : V3 (R) → V2 (R)
3 1 0
AJ
relative to the ordered basis B1 and B2 , given by (i) B1 and B2 are standard
bases of V3 (R) and V2 (R) respectively.
(ii) B1 : {(1, 1, 1), (1, 2, 3), (1, 0, 0)} and B2 = {((1, 1), (1, −1)}

49. Find the matrix of the linear transformation T : V2 (R) → V3 (R) such that
T (−1, 1) = (−1, 0, 2) and T (2, 1) = (1, 2, 1).

50. Consider the linear transformation T : R3 → R2 defined as

T (1, 0, 0) = (3, −1), T (0, 1, 0) = (2, 1), T (0, 0, 1) = (3, 0)
Find T (1, −2, 3).

51. Let
T (x, y, z) = (5x − 3y + z, 2z + 4y, 5x + 3y).
What is the standard matrix of T ?

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 95

52. Let
T (x, y, z) = (3x − 2y + z, 2x − 3y, y − 4z).
1. Write down the standard matrix of T .
2. Compute T (2, −1, −1).

53. Consider the linear transformation T : R3 → R2 , defined by T (x, y, z) =

IET
(x + y, 2z). Find the matrix of T with respect to the bases {u1 , u2 , u3 } and
 ′ ′
u1 , u2 of R3 and R2 , where
u1 = (1, 1, 0), u2 = (0, 1, 4), u3 = (1, 2, 3) and u′1 = (1, 0), u′2 = (0
Use this matrix to find the image of the vector u = (2, 3, 5).

54. Let T : R3 → R3 be a linear transformation such that

T (1, 0, 0) = (2, 4, −1), T (0, 1, 0) = (1, 3, −2), T (0, 0, 1) = (0, −2, 2).
Compute T (−2, 4, −1).

55. Let
T (x, y, z) = (5x − 3y + z, 2z + 4y, 5x + 3y).
What is the standard matrix of T ?

56. Let
T (x, y, z) = (3x − 2y + z, 2x − 3y, y − 4z).
AJ
1. Write down the standard matrix of T .
2. Compute T (2, −1, −1).
 
3 0 " #
 v1
 
57. The function T : R2 → R3 is defined as T (v) = Av = 
 2 1  v
2
−1 −2
(a) Find T (v), where v = (2, −1)
(b) Show that T is a linear transformation form R2 into R3

58. Let T : R3 → R3 be a linear transformation given by T (x, y, z) = (2x, x+

y + z, −y). Find the null space and range space.

59. Find the kernel and range of the linear transformation T (x, y, z) = (x+y, z)
of R3 → R2

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 96

60. Determine the range and null space of the linear transformation
T : R3 −→ R4 with T (x, y, z) = (x − y + z, y − z, x, 2x − 5y + 5z).

61. Verify the Rank-nullity theorem for the linear transformation T : R3 → R3

defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x + 2y − z, y + z, x + y − 2z).

IET
62. Let T : R3 → R3 defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x + y, x − y, 2x + z). Find the rank and nullity of T and
verify the rank - nullity Theorem.

63. For the linear transformation T : R2 → R3 such that

T (x1 , x2 ) = (x1 − x2 , x2 − x1 , −x1 ), find a basis and dimension of its
range space and its null space. Also verify that rank (T )+ nullity (T ) =
dim R2

64. Verify the Rank-nullity theorem for the linear transformation T : v3 (R) →
v2 (R) defined by T (x, y, z) = (y − x, y − z)

65. Verify Rank-nullity theorem for the linear transformation T : R3 → R3 de-

fined by
T (x, y, z) = (x − y, 2y + z, x + y + z).
AJ
Ans: Range (T ) = {x(1, 0, 1) + y(−1, 1, 0) : x, y ∈ R}.
Ker(T ) = {k(1, 1, −2) ∈ R : k ∈ R}

66. Find the kernel of the linear operator

T (x, y, z) = (x + y, y + z) of R3 → R2 .
Ans: ker T = {(k, −k, k)}

67. Verify Rank Nullity theorem for the Linear transformation T : R4 → R3

defined by
T (x, y, z, t) = (x − y + z + t, 2x − 2y + 3z + 4t, 3x − 3y + 4z + 5t)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 97

68. Verify rank-nullity theorem for the linear transformation T : R3 → R3 , T (x, y, z) =

(x + 2y − z, y + z, x + y − 2z)

69. Consider vectors u = (1, 2, 4), v = (2, −3, 5), w = (4, 2, −3) in R3 .
Find (i)⟨u, v⟩, (ii)⟨u, w⟩, (iii)⟨v, w⟩ (iv) ⟨(u + v), w⟩, (v) ∥u∥ and (vi)
∥v∥

IET
70. Consider the following polynomials in P (t) and inner product:
Inner product:
f (t) = t + 2, g(t) = 3t − 2, h(t) = t2 − 2t − 3 and
Z 1
⟨f, g⟩ = f (t)g(t)dt.
0
(a) find ⟨f, g⟩ and ⟨f, h⟩
(b) Find ∥f ∥ and ∥g∥
(c) normalize f and g.

71. Verify the vectors u = (1, 1, 1), v = (1, 2, −3) & w = (1, −4, 3) in R3
are orthogonal or not.

72. Show that the function f (x) = 3x − 2 and g(x) = x are orthogonal in [0,1]
R1
with inner product ⟨f, g⟩ = 0 f (x) g(x)dx
AJ
73. Consider the vector space Pn of polynomials with inner product
Z 1
⟨f, g⟩ = f (x)g(x)dx
0
Determine the norm of the function f (x) = 5x2 + 1.

74. Consider the vector space Pn , of polynomials of degree ≤ n. Let f and g be

elements of Pn . Prove that the following function defines an inner product on
Pn . Z 1
⟨f, g⟩ = f (x)g(x)dx
0
Determine the inner product of the polynomials
f (x) = x2 + 2x − 1 and g(x) = 4x + 1

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATS201-Module 3: Vector Spaces Page 98

75. Let M = M2,3 with inner product, ⟨A, B⟩ = tr(B T A) and let A =
" # " # " #
9 8 7 1 2 3 3 −5 2
B= C=
6 5 4 4 5 6 1 0 −4
Find (a) ⟨A, B⟩, ⟨A, C⟩, ⟨B, C⟩ (b) ⟨2A + 3B, 4C⟩ (c) ∥A∥ and ∥B∥

76. Consider the vectors u = (1, 5) and v = (3, 4) in R,

Find: a) ⟨u, v⟩ with respect to the usual inner product in R2 .

IET
b) ∥v∥ using the inner product in R2 .

77. Define an Inner product space. Consider f (t) = 4t + 3, g(t) = t2 , the inner
R1
product ⟨f, t⟩ = 0 f (t)g(t)dt. Find < f, g > and ∥g∥.

78. Define an Inner product space. Consider f (t) = 3t − 5, g(t) = t2 , the inner
R1
product ⟨f, t⟩ = 0 f (t)g(t)dt. Find < f, g > Ans : −11

79. Show that the functions f (x) = 3x − 2 and g(x) = x are orthogonal in Pn
R1
with inner product ⟨f, g⟩ = 0 f (x)g(x)dx.

80. Consider the vectors u = (1, 5) and v = (3, 4) in R,

2

Find: a) ⟨u, v⟩ with respect to the usual inner product in R2 .

b) ∥v∥ using the inner product in R2 .

81. Verify the vectors u = (1, 1, 1), v = (1, 2, −3) & w = (1, −4, 3) in R3
AJ
are orthogonal or not.

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru