2024

PV Module
Index Report
[Link]
A LETTER FROM OUR CEO
A
s RETC publishes its sixth annual PV Module Index Report, our organization
has never been better positioned to support the global energy transition.
As a member of the VDE Group, RETC provides customers worldwide
with a one-stop shop for solar and energy storage product testing, inspection,
and certification. Moreover, RETC is uniquely positioned to support the nascent US
clean energy manufacturing renaissance.

Since the passage of the Inflation Reduction Act in 2022, companies have announced
nearly $17 billion worth of investments in new and expanded solar manufacturing
capacity additions in the United States. Given the unprecedented market expansion
in the world’s second-largest solar market, industry stakeholders must remain
vigilant regarding technical risks inherent to supply chain diversification and the
accelerated time frames between innovation and mass production.

To better meet the needs of an expanding US clean energy manufacturing

ecosystem, RETC recently acquired SolarPTL, a photovoltaic testing laboratory
based in Tempe, Arizona, with a dedicated outdoor testing facility. This acquisition
Cherif Kedir is the president and CEO does more than simply improve RETC’s overall solar, energy storage, and tracker
of RETC. He is a solar industry veteran testing throughput capabilities. It also provides manufacturing companies from
with an extensive background in Arizona to Texas with a regional partner for product testing and certification.
semiconductors, whose experience
spans research and development, To better support product reliability testing and energy yield characterization,
manufacturing, reliability testing, field
RETC has also expanded its outdoor testing and field forensics capabilities. We
testing, product certification, and
bankability. now operate a one-acre outdoor testing laboratory—formerly known as known
as the Arizona Public Service (APS) Solar Test and Research (STAR) Center—
specializing in reliability and performance characterization in hot, dry, high-irradiance conditions. We are also operating two
newly acquired drone cameras with infrared capabilities and will soon be able to support customers with large-scale in-field
electroluminescence (EL) testing.

As a highly accredited independent testing laboratory, RETC is privileged to receive a sneak preview of coming solar
technologies and trends. Based on this perspective, we can confidently say that the future is largely a sunny and innovative
place populated with new and exciting technologies. However, it is not a place without risk or cloudy weather. For example,
RETC has long warned industry stakeholders about potential field durability risks intrinsic to ultra-large-format PV modules.

In our laboratory testing, RETC has consistently observed that heat-strengthened solar glass is more prone to breakage than
fully tempered solar glass. Unfortunately, we now suspect this vulnerability may also apply to field deployments. We have
therefore dedicated the entirety of the “Industry Trends” section (pp. 5–15) to subject matter expert interviews exploring reports
of spontaneous glass breakage and catastrophic hail losses in fielded solar assets. Our hope is that this candid discussion will
inspire a collective response that ultimately eradicates the problem.

RETC is united with its customers in the belief that our collective work enables a safer and more sustainable future. Thank you
for being our partners and collaborators in this endeavor.
—Cherif Kedir, CEO, RETC

“To better meet the needs of an expanding US clean energy

manufacturing ecosystem, RETC recently acquired SolarPTL,
a photovoltaic testing laboratory based in Tempe, Arizona,
with a dedicated outdoor testing facility.”

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 2

 CONTENTS
A Letter from Our CEO 2

Industry Trends 5

Glass Manufacturing, Science, and Standards 6

Solar Glass Durability and Failure Modes 8

Lessons from Field Forensic Investigations 10

Single-Axis Tracker Design Considerations 12

Hail Impact Characterization and Mitigation 14

Categories for High Achievement 16

Module Reliability 18
Reliability Indicators and Results 18
Backsheet Ultraviolet Durability Test (BUDT) 19
Damp Heat (DH) 19
Hail Durability Test (HDT) 20
Potential-Induced Degradation (PID) 21
Static and Dynamic Mechanical Load (DML) 22
Thermal Cycling (TC) 23
Ultraviolet-Induced Degradation (UVID) 24

Module Performance 25
Performance Indicators and Results 25
Module Efficiency 26
Incidence Angle Modifier (IAM) 27
Light- and Elevated Temperature–Induced Degradation (LETID) 27
Light-Induced Degradation (LID) 28
PAN File Characterization 29
PTC-to-STC Ratio 30
Temperature Coefficient 31

Module Quality 32
Quality Indicators and Results 32
Red Flags 33
Cover Photo: ryanking999 / [Link]

Bill of Materials (BOM) Verification 34

A Year in Review 35
rh2010 / [Link]

2024 Awardees 37
2024 Summary of Results 38

Looking Ahead 39

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 3

CONTRIBUTORS
Cherif Kedir, President and CEO
Zennia Villanueva, Senior Quality Director
Saeed Arash Far, Senior Director of Operations and Engineering
Kenneth Sauer, Principal Staff Engineer, Solar PV
Camille Sherrod, Senior Manager of Sales and Project Management
David Brearley, Product Marketing Manager
Jan Petersen Lim, Data Analyst
Mary Rhoda Magno Lim, Data Analyst
Julius Patrick Reyes, Data Analyst
Ronnie Reyes, Data Analyst

ABOUT RETC
RETC (Renewable Energy Test Center), a member of the VDE Group,
is a leading provider of engineering services and certification testing
for renewable energy products. Since its founding in 2009, RETC has
partnered with manufacturers, developers, and investors to test a wide
range of products, including solar PV modules, racking, trackers, power
electronics, and battery energy storage systems (BESS). At our accredited
laboratories around the world, we evaluate products using only the latest
testing standards and industry-accepted methods. Headquartered in
Fremont, California, RETC puts customers at the forefront by bringing
value to research and development, bankability assessments, and market
entry. We are united with our customers in the belief that our work enables
a safer and more sustainable world.

RETC IS PROUD TO BE:

• ISO 17025 accredited by A2LA
(Certification Number 3038.01)
• Awarded IEC CBTL status
• A VDE Qualified Test Laboratory and
VDE PrimeLab®
• Verified by the UL Data Acceptance
Program
• An Intertek Recognized Test
Laboratory (RTL)
• TÜV SÜD America’s CARAT Program
recipient
• TÜV Rheinland’s Partner Laboratory
• A California Solar and Storage
Association (CALSSA) Member

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 4

INDUSTRY TRENDS
Innovation is essential to increasing solar PV market penetration.
But have module value engineering efforts reached a glass threshold?

I
n the 2021 edition of the PV Module Index Report, RETC for environmental stresses? Were our testing protocols
explored the benefits and trade-offs associated with and sequences inadequate to identify potential new failure
a then-novel trend toward large-format PV module modes and wear-out mechanisms?
designs. On the one hand, we noted that large-area, high-
power modules were helping to accelerate the process Today, our in-house laboratory and field forensic investigations,
of lowering the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of solar, not to mention insightful due diligence from esteemed
effectively making flat-plate PV technologies more cost- colleagues worldwide, better inform us. With the benefit of
effective compared to other sources of power generation this experience and hindsight, we find ourselves asking: Is
capacity. On the other, we noted that the up-front cost a decline in the compressive strength of solar module glass
savings associated with these value engineering efforts partly to blame for some of the unique field failure modes
could come at the cost of reduced resilience to conditions associated with new ultra-large-format module designs?
of use, including exposure to elevated wind and snow loads
or severe hail impacts. This is an elephant-sized question that we, like the blind
persons in the parable, cannot describe fully by touching
Some three years later, the early warning efforts documented only one part of the beast. With that in mind, we interviewed
in our article, “Evaluating Large-Format PV Modules,” are a handful of industry subject matter experts, each of whom
simultaneously prescient and naive. While we had clearly brings a unique perspective and area of expertise to the
identified a signal in our laboratory testing and field table. By questioning these many authorities—on glass
forensics—namely, structural vulnerabilities associated with manufacturing, module durability, field forensics, tracker
newer module designs—we did not necessarily understand structures, and hail-impact characterization—and sharing
the root cause of the issue. Was the physical size of these those conversations here, we hope to empower industry
new modules a problem? Was solar market proliferation to stakeholders to eliminate a potential technical barrier to
blame for subjecting modules to previously unaccounted- solar market advancement.

“Is a decline in the

compressive strength
of solar module glass
partly to blame for some
of the unique field failure
modes associated with
new ultra-large-format
module designs?”

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 5

GLASS MANUFACTURING, SCIENCE & STANDARDS

DR. JAMES WEBB is a senior RETC: How does heat-strengthened glass differ from
research manager for reliability tempered glass?
sciences at Corning, a pioneering
glass manufacturer founded in 1851. JW: The best way to understand these differences is to refer to
Today, Corning provides state- ASTM C1048 Standard Specification for Heat-Strengthened
of-the-art products for a variety and Fully Tempered Glass. This standard differentiates
of industrial applications, such as between fully tempered and heat strengthened based on
optical communications, mobile consumer electronics, surface stress levels and breakage patterns. For example,
displays, automotive supplies, and life sciences. Dr. the standard defines tempered glass as having a minimum
Webb’s research, development, and engineering activities surface tension of 69 MPa, whereas heat-strengthened glass
are foundational to the company’s product and process will have a surface compressive strength of 24 to 52 MPa.
innovations for ceramics and specialty glass. In terms of breakage patterns, the stress level in tempered
glass is intended to ensure that for improved safety, the
RETC: What are the challenges associated with using glass glass breaks into small cube-shaped pieces of glass rather
as a structural material? than sharp jagged shards. While fully tempered glass
meets building code requirements for safety glass, heat-
JW: Glass is a unique material that is largely used for two strengthened glass does not. Annealed glass [ordinary float
main properties: chemical stability and visual transparency. glass] has a surface compression of less than 24 MPa and
Certainly, glass is not commonly used as primary beams may fracture as sharp shards, which can pose a risk of injury.
supporting a building, but people do use it, in a sense, to
manage applied loads. What is interesting about glass as a RETC: Is there a relationship between glass thickness and
structural material is that its strength is largely an extrinsic heat strengthening?
property, meaning it is a function of something you do to
the glass that changes its strength. The strength of best- JW: When a piece of glass is tempered, its temperature is
in-class commercially available glass optical fiber is on the raised to between the annealing and softening temperatures,
order of 10 to 14 gigapascals, which approaches theoretical where the glass can adjust its own stress quickly. Then it
limits. By comparison, the practical strength of plate glass is quickly cooled. During cooling, the glass surface shrinks
is multiple orders of magnitude lower, on the order of 70 first, while the interior of the glass still has the ability to
to 100 megapascals (MPa). What dictates glass strength is flow. Surface compression then develops as the interior
largely what manufacturers do to the surface. For example, completes its process of cooling, shrinking, and solidifying.
heat tempering adds compressive strength to the surface This results in tensile stress in the center of the glass and
of the glass. This compressive strength provides protection compressive stress on the exterior surface. What drives the
against surface flaws that would otherwise change the tempering process is the manufacturer’s ability to develop
glass’s inherent strength. Flaws resulting from manufacturing a temperature differential through the thickness of the glass.
processes, handling processes, or environmental exposure
will reduce structural strength in glass. RETC: Is it possible to fully temper thinner sheets of glass?

JW: Yes, it is. However, the temperature differential in the

glass decreases as the physical distance between the
interior and the exterior decreases. Unless something is
“What drives the tempering process done to quickly extract more heat from the surface of
is the manufacturer’s ability to thinner glass, the temperature differential is not going to
be enough to develop tempering stress. With 2.0-mm
develop a temperature differential
[0.08-in.] glass, some form of accelerated cooling—such
through the thickness of the glass.” as forced air—is needed to get it to temper. However,
—Dr. James Webb, Corning this may require different manufacturing equipment and

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 6

potentially creates challenges with respect to cost. When Manufacturing float glass is a complicated process. The
using existing manufacturing infrastructure to manufacture process speed needs to be right. There are rollers involved
thinner glass for architectural applications, you may only be to stretch the glass out. Rollers are also used to get the AR
able to produce heat-strengthened glass. [anti-reflective] texture utilized on solar glass. As the glass
gets thinner, handling requirements also change. Handling,
RETC: Are there practical alternatives to heat strengthening pick and place, and rolling equipment need to be adjusted
for solar glass? to account for the increased flexibility of thinner glass.
Common adjustments include decreasing the spacing of
JW: Chemical tempering is one alternative to heat rollers and suction cups. Thin glass edges will have smaller
tempering. Corning uses chemical tempering to produce radii, which can have implications for tolerance to impact
its Gorilla Glass product, which is used for products in events during the manufacturing process. There may be
the mobile consumer electronics and automotive spaces. short-term increases in handling issues as solar glass is
With chemical tempering, you are submerging glass into getting thinner. While it is possible to manufacture thinner
a molten potassium salt bath and exchanging the sodium glass that is very strong, it is also a learning process.
ions for potassium. Since potassium is much larger than
sodium, the process basically shoves a larger ion into a small RETC: How can the solar industry mitigate against glass
hole. Chemical tempering develops compressive stresses breakage issues?
that can be much higher than with thermal tempering.
While this is an effective process for producing glass with JW: All glass manufacturers have a relatively structured
an impressive strength profile, a cost-benefit analysis is process for getting glass off their manufacturing lines
required to determine its suitability for solar applications. and into a box for shipment. They will all have strategies
Thermal tempering provides a good equilibrium between for packing, separating, and delivering the glass to the
cost and strength. Another option is for manufacturers to customer. While there may be some subtle differences from
maximize glass strength by considering panel, process, and one manufacturer to another, it is reasonable to assume
system design strategies that lower glass stress, improve that the glass coming out of those boxes generally meets
handling, and reduce strength-limiting damage. the compressive strength specifications in ASTM C1048.
Unfortunately, simply buying strong glass and putting it
RETC: Is using thinner glass a good way for module into a manufacturing process will not necessarily result in
companies to reduce costs? a strong solar module. The glass needs to be kept strong
during module assembly, which is not a benign process.
JW: There is often an assumption that glass gets cheaper If module manufacturers are not paying attention to what
as it gets thinner, which is not necessarily true. Certainly they are doing during the module assembly process, they
weight can be reduced by manufacturing with thinner glass. can introduce flaws that reduce the strength of the glass.
Similarly, more glass can be produced pending the amount The same thing is true during installation or operations and
of material that goes into the tank. However, the most cost- maintenance. It is important to pay attention to maintaining
effective glass thickness is somewhat process dependent. the strength of the glass.

TEMPERED GLASS

Glass Surface 20%

Glass Center 60% Glass Center Under Tension Stress

Glass Surface 20%

Glass Surface Under Compression Stress

≥69 megapascals

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 7

SOLAR GLASS DURABILITY & FAILURE MODES

Teresa Barnes, Ph.D., manages the RETC: Do you and your colleagues have any theories about
Photovoltaic Reliability and System why this is happening?
Performance Group at NREL.
She is an expert in accelerated TB: We have started to hypothesize internally about potential
test development, outdoor field root causes. At DuraMAT, for example, we funded a bunch of
testing, energy yield assessment, projects on cell cracks with the idea that researchers would
degradation rate analysis, and take PV modules, pre-crack the cells, and then do some sort
materials science. In addition to working with stakeholders of stress test to identify the impact of the latent defect. After
throughout the PV value chain to develop industry standards funding this research, I started receiving phone calls and
for reliability testing and energy yield, Dr. Barnes is also emails saying: “Hey, I can’t break the cells without breaking
the principal investigator and director of the DuraMAT the glass. It seems like cell cracking is not our problem right
Consortium for module materials research. now. Can I look at glass breakage or something else instead?”
What we believe is happening is similar to how your car
RETC: Has NREL noted any changes in glass breakage windshield breaks, where a small surface defect propagates
patterns over time? when exposed to an extreme environmental stress. Think
about when you are driving down the road and something
TB: Spontaneous glass breakage is an example of a failure hits your windshield. The windshield probably does not
mode that we didn’t used to see. When I first started shatter on impact. Instead, you might see a small star-
working on solar module reliability seven or eight years shaped defect on the surface of the glass. Here in Colorado,
ago, we mostly heard about glass breakage when there where I go through more windshields than I ever did on the
were sloppy O&M [operations and maintenance] practices. East Coast, that impact damage might not propagate until
Maybe someone is mowing for vegetation management, there is a dramatic change in the weather. But when I walk
the mower throws a rock, and you get glass breakage. outside on the first really cold day of winter, suddenly all
Occasionally, we would hear about glass breakage in thin- the windshields in my driveway have a big crack all the way
film modules, which use thinner glass that is not tempered; across the glass. We think a similar dynamic could be a root
this is known failure mode, one that we would expect to cause of spontaneous solar glass breakage.
see. Outside of these known issues, we didn’t used to hear
about glass breakage in silicon modules unless there was a RETC: Why do you think this failure mode is increasing now?
catastrophic storm. That is no longer the case. Now we are
regularly hearing about glass breakage in silicon modules. TB: Solar glass is thinner today than it was in the past. Because
While these reports are anecdotal, there is a definite pattern. the glass is thinner, it is not fully tempered. According to
People are seeing glass breakage for no apparent reason, glass experts like Mike Pilliod from Central Tension, who
often before commissioning. These field reports track what spoke at NREL’s 2024 PV Module Reliability Workshop, any
we are hearing from the testing labs. It used to be the case manufacturer can temper glass that is 3 mm [0.12 in.] or thicker
that modules would pass the IEC 61215 static load test with because it is relatively easy to get the thermal differential to
a big safety factor. Today, modules are either barely passing build the stress profile you need. However, it is more difficult
the base static load test or they are not passing with higher to fully temper glass below a thickness of 3 mm. If you do not
safety factors. Some new module designs are simply not have a good temper on the glass, it is relatively easier for the
passing the minimum static load test. glass to break. In other words, as solar glass gets thinner, it
takes fewer defects to cause a strength-limiting flaw in the
glass. Moreover, the way we specify glass in the solar industry
“As solar glass gets thinner, it takes right now does not account for strength-limiting flaws in glass
that is not fully tempered. There might be a ball-drop test on
fewer defects to cause a strength-
a piece of glass, but people are not necessarily looking at the
limiting flaw in the glass.” impacts of defects around the edges of the glass. Also, the
—Teresa Barnes, Ph.D., NREL way people are cleaning or grinding around the edges of the

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 8

“It is entirely possible
that we could see
hail-hardened modules,
especially in a market
like the United States,
where it could be worth
paying more up front for
hail resilience.”
—Teresa Barnes, Ph.D., NREL

Dennis Schroeder / NREL

glass may be causing more defects rather than fewer defects, about frames getting a bit more substantial and mounting
perhaps making this thinner glass even more sensitive to rails getting a bit wider. As people better understand how
breakage. These are the types of things that we are starting the module system interacts, they can work to optimize
to investigate and trying to better understand. how loads are balanced out. The pendulum in that balancing
act may already be swinging back toward the integrity of
RETC: How does glass breakage relate to module frame the frame and the mounting rail.
and rail designs?
RETC: Given the catastrophic scale of recent hail loss
TB: There is undoubtedly an interaction between these events in Texas, do you think the industry needs hail-
different components. A module is really a whole system, hardened module designs?
often consisting of glass, a perimeter frame, and a mounting
rail. When you think about ultra-large modules as a system, TB: Ten years ago, people would run you out of the meeting
the glass may be getting thinner, the frame may be getting on a rail if you mentioned climate-specific module designs.
thinner, and the mounting rails may be getting closer The consensus was that this would simply be too expensive.
together. The interaction between these components is A decade ago, module cost was really the barrier to entry.
where the term “big floppy modules” comes from. While Today, solar is a terawatt-scale industry, and we are deploying
glass has always been an element in the module system, it hundreds of gigawatts of solar capacity annually. Now climate-
may be bearing more of the load now, which may be bad specific modules and climate-specific testing are starting to
because we have made the glass weaker. look viable because we are seeing more of an emphasis on
total system costs. It is entirely possible that we could see
RETC: How has the industry responded to reports of hail-hardened modules, especially in a market like the United
spontaneous glass breakage? States, where it could be worth paying more up front for hail
resilience. At the end of the day, a lot of these design decisions
TB: At this year’s PV Module Reliability Workshop, my will come down to the business model. People flipping and
colleagues and I started to hear about frames getting selling projects will always have different priorities than those
thicker again. This was somewhat surprising, given the rapid who own and operate projects for the long term. If you are the
innovation in recent years focused on making modules person who will be caught holding the bag when a hailstorm
cheaper and lighter. The problems we are seeing in the US comes, maybe you are willing to pay a little more for hail-
market may be causing manufacturers to rethink product hardened solar modules—because that decision helps make
design strategies. We are starting to hear some chatter the system pencil over a long lifetime.

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 9

LESSONS FROM FIELD FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS

Ralf Schulze manages field environmental stress factors have always been there, they
forensics services for RETC. A 15- were not the leading cause of glass breakage. Today, we are
year veteran in the renewable sometimes being called to investigate glass breakage at sites
energy sector, he has worked as a where modules seem to be failing under normal conditions
managing engineer at Kaco new of use. While I have not seen that many impacted sites, a lot
energy and Yingli Green Energy of people within the broader community are seeing similar
Americas and as a quality manager problems. We know this because NREL and DuraMAT share
for Sunrun. A renowned source for end-to-end renewables information regarding field failures relatively quickly. For the
technology problem-solving and specialized services, few sites I have investigated—which are large utility projects
Schulze is an expert in quality assurance, failure mode and on the order of 100 MW–300 MW in capacity—we are seeing
effects analysis, system diagnostics, and corrective and spontaneous glass breakage rates of 2%–5%.
preventative maintenance.
RETC: Is there a typical field forensics process for
RETC: What is your experience with glass breakage in investigating glass breakage?
fielded PV systems?
RS: When we want to pinpoint a root cause, the first step is
RS: Glass breakage in the field is not necessarily a new to isolate each individual problem, starting with the terrain,
phenomenon. Over the years, we have documented glass tracker, installation process, mounting hardware, torque
breakage in utility solar due to terrain issues, sinking piles, settings, and so forth. Then we start to look for patterns.
construction errors, installers using impact tools, and Is the glass breaking at the mounting rail locations? Is the
incorrect torque settings—the list goes on and on. Having glass breaking during the installation process or after the
said that, my personal experience suggests that the leading commercial operations date? Has the site experienced
causes of glass breakage may be changing over time as PV a severe weather event and been subjected to pressure
modules become larger, using thinner glass and reduced ratings beyond the allowable design loads? When there is
frame profiles. In more recent glass breakage investigations, a pattern that repeats itself—either across a site or based
we are seeing signs pointing to the glass itself, which is not on experience—we can identify a particular issue as the
fully tempered anymore. likely root cause. When breakage patterns are random, that
could suggest the glass itself is not suitable for the specific
RETC: How does module glass specification impact project installation environment. In other words, if we see breakage
durability? inconsistent with anything we have seen in the past, it could
be because the glass is not fully tempered.
RS: Laboratory testing clearly indicates that thin, heat-
strengthened glass has higher breakage and failure rates as RETC: Who is most impacted by spontaneous glass breakage?
compared to fully tempered glass. While thinner glass may
be an ideal way to keep module costs and weight down, RS: The parties feeling the pain tend to be the EPC, project
there may be other considerations to balance, especially owner, or whoever builds the project and then wants to
with large-scale modules. Stress on module glass in the field transfer it to a final owner. If glass breakage is documented
is substantial, especially in the east and west corners of the during the commissioning and handover process, it leads
array under certain wind or weather conditions. While these to bigger questions. People will ask, “If spontaneous glass
breakage is happening to some modules now, won’t it
“When breakage patterns are happen to the other modules, too?” This type of scrutiny
random, that could suggest the glass is uncomfortable for the module manufacturer, who will
generally try to help mitigate the problem. From professional
itself is not suitable for the specific
experience, I believe PV module manufacturers are aware of
installation environment.” these issues, and I suspect some manufacturers are starting
—Ralf Schulze, RETC to rethink module construction practices.

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 10

 RETC: How can laboratory testing help prevent these RETC: What additional due diligence measures do you
problems? recommend?

RS: There are many aspects to this type of technical due RS: Ideally, laboratory testing is done as part of a systematic
diligence. First, you need to investigate and fully test vendor qualification program that starts with long-term
the resiliency of the glass, especially with ultra-large- durability testing—such as RETC’s Thresher Test—followed
scale module designs. Hail durability testing is the most by 12 to 18 months of in-field monitoring. Once you have
likely to identify vulnerabilities associated with the glass qualified vendors and identified resilient BOMs [bills of
itself. Importantly, this testing must exceed the minimum materials], you need to verify that the product leaving the
standards for product certification. Second, you need factory matches the BOM you have locked down. So if you
to understand how module frame and tracker mounting are building a 1 GW project over a period of years, you need
rail details impact module resilience to glass breakage. to require monthly BOM verification inspections and ongoing
Static and dynamic mechanical load sequences are random sample testing to ensure the product you approved
useful for investigating module glass vulnerabilities is being delivered to the field. Once the product reaches
related to the frame and rails. This type of testing has the project site, look for smart ways to improve installation
consistently shown a tremendous decay in load-bearing practices as modules increase in area. For example, you
capacity whenever module frame profiles drop below 35 may be able to optimize installation quality using robotic
millimeters [1.38 in.]. suction-cup machines for module handling.

“Once you have

qualified vendors and
identified resilient
BOMs, you need to
verify that the product
leaving the factory
matches the BOM you
have locked down.”
—Ralf Schulze, RETC
only_kim / [Link]

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 11

SINGLE-AXIS TRACKER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Scott Van Pelt is the chief RETC: What is the goal of mechanical load testing to
engineer for GameChange Solar, failure?
a manufacturer of fixed-tilt and
single-axis tracker solar mounting SVP: We are testing to identify the lightest rail required to
systems. Licensed as a professional meet the desired mechanical capacity. To better align with
engineer in 20 states, he functions wind tunnel test results conducted by our wind engineering
as the structural engineer of record consultant, CPP Wind, we conduct unbalanced load testing,
for many of the company’s projects and is responsible for which subdivides the module into four different segments.
the execution, accuracy, and timeliness of its technical Rather than applying a uniform pressure across the entire
deliverables. Van Pelt is an expert in structural engineering surface of the module, which is an under-conservative design
who has served as a member of several national and assumption, we apply unbalanced loads that reflect how
international standards committees. the wind actually loads tracker-mounted modules during
operation. If the site and technology details are known, we
RETC: How does tracker specification impact PV module can conduct this testing using pressures informed by site-
resilience? specific parameters, such as design windspeed and ground
cover ratio. Alternatively, we can calculate pressures for a
SVP: When we examine a solar module’s load-bearing generic project, based on slightly conservative assumptions
capacity under mechanical testing in the laboratory, we informed by building codes and industry practices. RETC will
see that this property is not inherent to the module itself then perform the specified unbalanced load testing, which
but rather a function of the solar module and the mounting is highly indicative of module loading during operation.
rail acting as an assembly. In other words, the strength of a
tracker-mounted solar module is derived in part from the RETC: How does unbalanced load testing impact single-
mounting rail. Specifically, the stiffer the rail and the longer axis tracker design?
the rail—the further the rail extends out from the center of the
module—the higher the mechanical support capacity for the SVP: There is no meaningful difference from the torque tube
assembly. In this context, I am using the term “rail” somewhat down. However, this testing could cause us to use heavier
ubiquitously. GameChange offers different module mounting components for the torque tube and rails. All single-axis
rail options, including a bolt-and-nut bottom-mount system trackers have a torque tube that rotates the modules, which are
and a friction-fit clamping system called SpeedClamp that attached to the tube using some type of mounting rail system.
offers installation speed advantages. Other vendors offer When we analyze this mounting rail structure, we idealize it as
similar products. Regardless of what rail you are using, you two cantilevers extending out to the east and west sides of the
typically need to increase length or thickness—or both rail torque tube. Based on our wind tunnel test results, we know
length and thickness—to reach higher mechanical ratings. that the wind pressures on these cantilevers are not uniform.
Interestingly, the module itself is generally the weakest link The wind pressures are greatest on the cantilever supporting
in this system. We conduct mechanical testing at RETC, the leading edge of the modules and lower on the cantilever
and the vast majority of the time, the module is the first on the leeward side. Unbalanced load testing ensures that our
component to fail. tracker component designs can support the applied pressure
on the more heavily loaded side of this cantilever. While
unbalanced load testing could possibly cause us to use more
“If you put on your forensic engineer’s heavy mounting rails, the additional cost for these heavier
hat, this module breakage pattern is components is minuscule compared to the remediation costs
indicative of a failure to account for in the event of a field failure.

higher loads on the leading side of

the module.”
—Scott Van Pelt, GameChage Solar

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 12

 RETC: Does this design approach help mitigate glass SVP: This type of module exacerbates problems associated
breakage in the field? with unbalanced loading. With ultra-large-format product
designs, we are more restricted in how we can support the
SVP: Absolutely. You may recall Hurricane Ian in 2022. This modules. Smart clamping systems that improve installation
made landfall as a Category 4 hurricane, tied for the fifth speed are not appropriate for ultra-large-format modules
strongest to ever to strike the United States. GameChange for a number of reasons. We can certainly design systems
had 16 sites in the path of Hurricane Ian, including one site to support these types of modules, but it is important to
located very close to, if not within, the eyewall of the storm. recognize that these types of module designs will often
As I recall, 99.95% of our trackers were operational within days require a heavier rail system. Typically, what we see is that
of the storm. Our customers conducted plant walkdowns to you need more mounting locations per module to achieve
identify any storm damage, and then our trackers were right the desired mechanical load. So you might need eight or
back up and running. While our sites all fared very well, the even 12 bolts per module, which increases installation costs.
EPC [engineering procurement and construction] firms we You not only have to buy more bolts, but also you will incur
work with did experience some failures with other tracker labor hours to install the bolts. We do a lot of work in the
systems. For example, we heard about failures where the Gulf Coast of Texas and Florida, places where the standard
leading edge of the modules had been pushed down and 2,400-pascal static wind load rating for most modules could
in. If you put on your forensic engineer’s hat, this module be exceeded. By conducting unbalanced mechanical load
breakage pattern is indicative of a failure to account for testing with RETC, we can understand how much more
higher loads on the leading side of the module. capacity we can get out of a specific module by adding
more points of support or more structural steel. This is
RETC: Does the proliferation of big, floppy PV modules money well spent, as it gives us an accurate idea of what
make it more difficult to achieve higher mechanical ratings? design we need to reach a certain load level.
PrimoRD / [Link]

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 13

HAIL IMPACT CHARACTERIZATION & MITIGATION

Jon Previtali is a technical due independent third-party engineering review. To prevent

diligence specialist at advisory firm manufacturing process issues, you can use a combination of
VDE Americas, where he supports accelerated lifetime testing and factory production oversight.
utility-scale solar and storage For example, dynamic mechanical load tests done on a
project financing. He also manages randomly selected group of modules can help identify issues
the company’s natural catastrophe before modules are produced and shipped. Also, production
advisory services, which leverage oversight inspections can monitor the glass manufacturing
state-of-the-art meteorological models developed by and handling process or verify whether testing has taken
Central Michigan University’s Dr. John Allen and financial place for glass delivered to the module factory.
loss models developed by VDE Americas co-founder Dr.
Peter Bostock. Previtali is an expert on hail risk assessment RETC: What is your experience with catastrophic glass
for utility-scale solar projects. breakage due to severe hail?

RETC: Is spontaneous glass breakage something the JP: We are seeing more glass breakage due to hail because
engineering community is tracking? of the expansion of projects into hail-prone regions like
Texas and the Midwest. The risk is exacerbated by larger,
JP: We have heard reports of a couple of incidents of bifacial modules that use 2.0-mm [0.08-in.] glass for both
spontaneous glass breakage from credible sources. While front and back sides. The benefit of 2.0-mm double-glass
it’s unclear why it’s happening, we have some theories. One bifacial modules is that they are not subject to the Section
possibility is that the length of the rails that connect the tracker 201 tariff, and their larger format provides economies of
torque tubes to the modules is too short to provide enough scale cost reductions. The downside is that 2.0-mm glass
support for the design wind load, which allows the modules to is too thin to be fully tempered in most mass-production
bend in the wind and causes the glass to crack. Another theory glass manufacturing lines. Because 2.0-mm glass is heat
is that glass is breaking due to manufacturing defects, which strengthened or semi-tempered only, it’s softer and more
could be inclusions, particles of pollutants in the glass, or other vulnerable to hail damage as compared to fully tempered
manufacturing process problems. Glass breakage could also glass, which is what we have with 3.2-mm [0.13-in.] front
be a construction issue, such as module clamps being torqued glass products. Unfortunately, modules of all kinds are
down with too much force during installation. being deployed in hail-prone regions without sufficient hail
monitoring and stow protocols in place.
RETC: How can project stakeholders prevent spontaneous
glass breakage? RETC: Is it possible to prevent catastrophic losses due to hail?

JP: To address this risk, you can ask the engineer of record JP: Buying modules manufactured with fully tempered front
and independent engineer to check the length of the glass will increase first costs but decrease financial exposure
rails. We often see letters from PV module manufacturers due to hail risk over the investment hold period. Module glass
confirming that rails are long enough, but without providing that is 3.2 mm or thicker is fully tempered and roughly twice
any supporting calculations. Since this issue isn’t covered as resilient to hail impacts as thinner heat-strengthened
under the PV module warranty, it’s important to get an glass. We are aware of manufacturers evaluating different
hail-hardened module design approaches, such as using
thicker 4.0-mm [0.16-in.] front glass or using much thinner
“We are seeing more glass breakage chemically treated front glass layers, like Gorilla Glass. While
due to hail because of the expansion using hail-hardened modules is the best solution to the
problem, all is not lost if you cannot. You can significantly
of projects into hail-prone regions like
reduce the risk of hail damage by using trackers that can put
Texas and the Midwest.” the modules into a steep stow position prior to a hailstorm.
—Jon Previtali, VDE Americas For material hail risk mitigation, we are talking about

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 14

 trackers that can stow at or beyond a 50° tilt angle under problem, VDE Americas is working with RETC, our sister
high wind conditions. This hail stow strategy significantly company, on a new hail impact characterization test that
reduces the risk of glass breakage by reducing the glass will use many more ballistic impacts and kinetic energy
area exposed to hail impacts and converting direct blows levels—representing a range of hailstone sizes and wind
with a high kinetic impact energy into glancing blows with conditions—on approximately 30 randomly selected PV
a far lower impact energy. While our recommended hail modules. Unlike IEC 61215, this new testing protocol will be
stow scenario is to tilt the trackers at a maximum tilt angle a test to failure, meaning it will really show us what impacts
away from the wind, it’s very difficult—impossible even, modules are able to withstand. Importantly, this new test is
using available technology—to know which direction the designed to be not much more expensive than the typical
wind will be coming from when the hail falls. When there is IEC 61215 testing.
a hail alert, we recommend that you put the modules into
the closest maximum tilt position to avoid going through RETC: How are you able to control costs while generating
the flat position, which is most susceptible to hail damage. more data?
One of the ways that we support customers is by providing
a hail stow protocol document that can be attached to an JP: One issue with the IEC 61215 hail test is that it is difficult
operating agreement. to make and maintain freezer ice balls that meet the testing
requirements. You need special water and highly controlled
RETC: Do you think the industry needs better ways to freezer conditions, and you can’t store the freezer ice balls
characterize impact resiliency? for more than a few days because they will sublimate, losing
density and size. This complexity adds cost. To reduce cost
JP: Currently, module hail resiliency testing follows the IEC and complexity, we will use synthetic ice balls instead of
61215 standard, which requires 11 freezer ice ball impacts freezer ice balls. The synthetic materials we are evaluating
at different locations often on just one or two PV modules. have densities similar to those of freezer ice balls but are
Testing to this pass-fail standard does not provide enough more consistent as a laboratory testing tool. So, by using
data to accurately characterize module hail resiliency. It a synthetic material as an ice proxy, we can develop an
also doesn’t do a good job of picking up possible glass information-rich, cost-effective, and low-uncertainty test.
defects that would show up in a larger sample size of Initially, the new test will be available only through RETC.
modules. To reliably characterize module hail resiliency, However, once we have validated and defined this new hail
we need more than 11 data points, and we need to test impact characterization test protocol, our plan is to have
modules to failure so that we know the probability of failure VDE standards developers in Germany submit a proposed
under different hailstone size conditions. To solve this testing standard for IEC review.
Robert / [Link]

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 15

CATEGORIES for
HIGH ACHIEVEMENT
RETC presents the 2024 PV
Module Index Report. This
annual publication presents Reliability Performance
Indicators Indicators
performance distribution data for
highly accelerated stress tests, Highest
empowering project stakeholders Achievers

to mitigate site- and product-

specific technical risks.

O
ur sixth annual PV Module Index Report compiles
Quality
Indicators
the results of beyond-certification bankability
tests conducted at our highly accredited
independent testing laboratories over 12 months, spanning
Q2 2023 through Q1 2024. As with previous editions of the
report, we catalog testing sequences and data according to
three interrelated and equally influential disciplines: module
reliability, performance, and quality.
Introduced at the 2011 PV Module Quality Assurance Forum,
The bankability tests underlying this report are foundational the Thresher Test is the solar industry’s first-ever commercial
to a science- and engineering-based approach to technical reliability and durability analysis standard for PV modules.
risk mitigation. Industry stakeholders can use these The program takes its name from a type of farm equipment
comparative test results to identify product or project used to separate high-quality seed and grain from low-
designs best suited to a specific environment, location, or quality straw and chaff. Much as a threshing machine beats
portfolio, as determined by RETC’s Thresher Test results. plants to separate organic materials according to utility and
desirability, the Thresher Test uses highly accelerated stress
sequences to separate high-quality PV module designs from
low-quality ones.
“To separate the
wheat from the chaff, Having served as the development program coordinator,

the Thresher Test RETC was the first testing laboratory in the world to offer
the Thresher Test. In the years since its adoption as the de
development team facto standard for comparative PV module testing, RETC has
expanded standard adapted or added testing sequences to better align outcomes
accelerated testing with the latest field-failure data. By evolving to meet the
needs of a dynamic industry, RETC’s Thresher Test remains
sequences to much longer cycles
the gold standard for identifying product- or technology-
and times.” specific design vulnerabilities, wear-out mechanisms, failure
—Hugh Kuhn, Thresher Test Program Lead modes, and long-term degradation patterns.

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 16

The bankability tests underlying this
2024 PVMI AWARD CATEGORIES
report are foundational to a science- Award Criteria for Recognition
and engineering-based approach to
technical risk mitigation. OD
ULE
INDEX
RE
• Complete RETC’s full Thresher Test program
2024

PO
M
• Meet high achievement requirements in the

PV

RT
HIGHEST ACHIEVER reliability and performance disciplines
• Meet criteria for recognition in the quality
Longtime readers of the PV Module Index Report may discipline
notice a realignment of our testing data reporting and
evaluation criteria in this 2024 edition. Specifically, we have
reengineered our high-achievement categories by adding OD
ULE
INDEX
RE

2024 • Meet high achiever requirements for at least

PO
M
PV

RT
granularity and raising the bar for our most prestigious HIGH ACHIEVEMENT IN
three of the seven test sequences within the
RELIABILITY reliability discipline only*
awards. These structural changes reflect our internal
commitments to continuous improvement, optimization of
stakeholder value, and quality assurance.

INDEX
ULE RE
OD
Starting this year, manufacturers must successfully 2024 • Meet high achiever requirements for at least

PO
M
PV

RT
complete RETC’s rigorous Thresher Test program and excel
HIGH ACHIEVEMENT IN
three of the seven tests sequences within the
PERFORMANCE performance discipline only
across multiple tests within the reliability and performance
disciplines to receive “Overall Highest Achiever” recognition.
Stepping down from our top honor, RETC will recognize
manufacturers that excel across multiple testing sequences ULE
INDEX
RE
OD
2024 PO
M

within one specific discipline for either “High Achievement

PV

RT
• Meet the high achiever requirements for one
in Reliability” or “High Achievement in Performance.” To
TEST CATEGORY or more individual test sequences only
HIGH ACHIEVER

recognize manufacturers of products that excel in one or

more individual testing sequences, we have added a new
*Glass-on-backsheet module models must meet high achiever requirements
award, “Test Category High Achiever.” for BUDT plus at least three additional test sequences within the reliability
discipline.

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 17

MODULE RELIABILITY Reliability Performance
Indicators Indicators

Reliable PV plant operation over Highest

Achievers

a 25- or 30-year service is not an

accident, but rather a testament
to rigorous laboratory testing. Quality
Indicators

P
roduct certification and qualification are essential design and product procurement. All solar modules and
first steps on the road to reliability. To characterize installation environments are not the same. Success or
long-term in-field reliability, industry stakeholders— failure in the field could come down to this simple question:
including subject matter experts at RETC—have developed What is the right tool for the job? Successful solar project
enhanced testing standards, procedures, and sequences deployment demands differentiated products and design
that go beyond minimum product safety and design approaches. These strategic design adaptations ensure
qualification requirements. These beyond-qualification test that fielded projects can withstand site-specific risks while
protocols put additional stress on modules to identify areas optimizing investor returns.
of weakness and better predict long-term in-field reliability.
RELIABILITY INDICATORS & RESULTS
Informed by the comparative results of highly accelerated For the 2024 edition of the PV Module Index Report, RETC
stress testing, diligent project developers, owners, and identified seven important reliability evaluation categories.
insurers can take science- and engineering-based steps to As summarized in the “Reliability Discipline Criteria” table,
mitigate severe weather risks and prevent catastrophic loss each category correlates with a specific extended testing
events. Laboratory testing data clearly show that some PV sequence. The source data in this discipline derive from either
modules are more resilient to severe hail impacts, for example, RETC’s Thresher Test or its Hail Durability Test programs.
whereas other products are more vulnerable. At the same time, Within individual categories, we recognize manufacturers of
products that test well for hail durability may be at an elevated products that exceed carefully calibrated reliability indicator
risk of degradation when installed in a hot, humid location. thresholds as test category high achievers. In the year-in-
review section (p. 35), we further showcase manufacturers
Intelligent solar project development eschews an of products that consistently exceed our high achiever
oversimplified solar-as-a-commodity approach to project requirements in the reliability discipline.

RELIABILITY DISCIPLINE CRITERIA

Category Evaluation Method High Achiever
Backsheet Ultraviolet Durability DH1000 + [3 x (UV65 + TC50 + HF10)] + UV6.5 No backsheet cracking
Damp Heat DH2000 + B-O LID <2% degradation
Hail Durabilty Test HDT + TC50 + Hot Spot >20-joule impact
Potential-Induced Degradation PID192 + UV2 <2% degradation
Static and Dynamic Mechanical Load SML + DML + TC50 + HF30 <2.5% degradation
Thermal Cycling TC600 <2% degradation
Ultraviolet-Induced Degradation UV220 <2% degradation

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 18

BACKSHEET ULTRAVIOLET DAMP HEAT (DH)
DURABILITY TEST (BUDT) RETC’s Thresher Test includes a DH testing sequence to
RETC’s Thresher Test program incorporates a durability characterize a PV module’s ability to withstand prolonged
testing sequence to probe glass-on-backsheet PV module exposure to humid, high-temperature environments. This
designs for vulnerabilities to UV exposure and prevent sequence takes place inside an environmental chamber and
backsheet-related failures. This BUDT sequence starts with exposes modules to a controlled temperature of 85°C (185°F)
1,000 hours of damp heat exposure to weaken polymeric and a relative humidity of 85% for a set amount of time. The
bonds. Subsequently, test samples are exposed to three DH sequence for the Thresher Test has a 2,000-hour duration
consecutive rounds of rear-side UV exposure, followed of exposure (DH2000), which is twice the duration typically
by 50 thermal cycles and 10 humidity-freeze cycles. This required for product certification (DH1000). Subsequently,
Thresher Test sequence improves new product designs and samples undergo a modified boron-oxygen light-induced
project reliability by screening unreliable or incompatible degradation (B-O LID) test, as B-O LID can impact certain
backsheet materials out of the market before they make it p-type passivated emitter rear contact (p-PERC) and other
into the field. advanced PV cells.

For PV modules with glass-on-backsheet packaging, there Reviewing the aggregated data in this testing sequence,
is a strong correlation between module reliability and RETC notes that newer high-efficiency PV module
backsheet durability. The polymeric backsheet’s role is technologies appear more susceptible to damp heat as
to protect the PV cells and interconnects from moisture compared to more mature aluminum back surface field
intrusion, environmental contamination, corrosion, and (Al‑BSF) PV cell technologies. Moreover, these vulnerabilities
degradation. Ultraviolet (UV) aging is the primary aging seem to be increasing over time. This downward trend
factor for polymeric backsheet materials. In a worst- indicates that module companies must pay better attention
case scenario, UV aging can cause backsheet cracking, to DH test results when qualifying new products for market
compromising module performance and safety. entry. In double-glass module designs, for example, it is a

DH SEQUENCE
BUDT* HIGH ACHIEVERS 40%
Manufacturer (in alphabetical order)
JA Solar 35% 36%
LONGi Solar
SolarSpace 30%
*Applies to glass-on-backsheet models only.
Percentage of Modules

25%

For test category high achiever recognition in the 2024 23%

20% 21%
PV Module Index Report, RETC required that all glass-on-
backsheet PV module models withstand BUDT exposure 18%
without cracking occurring in the polymeric material. 15%

We considered evidence of backsheet cracking during

visual inspection to be a red-flag result in this sequence 10%
because it presents a potential electrical safety hazard.
Early results, aggregated here in our preliminary June 5%
2024 report release, are promising, with 100% of test
samples meeting our high achiever requirements for 3%
0%
0%
BUDT. We will incorporate additional BUDT data into our 0–1.00 1.01–2.00 2.01–3.00 3.01–4.00 4.01–5.00 ≥5.00
final September 2024 report release. Note that glass-on- Power Loss (%)
glass module designs, which provide a superior level of
DH SEQUENCE HIGH ACHIEVERS
UV resistance and PV cell protection, are not subject to Astronergy, ES Foundry, LONGi Solar, Runergy, and Trina Solar
the BUDT sequence. met our DH test category high achiever criteria.

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 19

 With Al-BSF technologies, which still dominated the market

DH KEY TAKEAWAYS as recently as 2018, rear-side aluminum acted as a barrier

that helped mitigate moisture-driven damage. Today’s
• DH results trended downward on a year- market share leader, p-PERC solar cell technology, is more
over-year basis.. susceptible to damage due to moisture as compared
to legacy Al-BSF cells. Meanwhile, the newer high-
• 26% of models tested met DH high achiever efficiency cells growing in market share—such as n-type
criteria. tunnel oxide passivated contact (n-TOPCon) and n-type
silicon heterojunction (n-HJT) technologies—are more
• 18% of models tested returned a DH red-
susceptible than p-PERC to voltage-driven degradation and
flag result. electrochemical corrosion from moisture ingress.

• 5 different manufacturers recognized as DH

For the test category high achiever recognition in the
high achievers.
2024 PV Module Index Report, RETC required that test
samples withstand DH2000 exposure with less than 2%
degradation in maximum power. We considered maximum
best practice to use double layers of polyolefin elastomer power degradation greater than or equal to 5% a red-flag
(POE) encapsulant, as research has shown that single or result that could compromise a product’s ability to perform
double layers of ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) can lead to reliably over a 25- or 30-year period. Concerningly, 18% of
corrosion due to acetic acid buildup in the field. models returned a red-flag result in this sequence.

HAIL DURABILITY TEST (HDT)

Within the context of the Thresher Test program, the HDT is
an optional rather than a core sequence. However, recent HDT HIGH ACHIEVERS
catastrophic loss events indicate that beyond-certification Manufacturer (in alphabetical order)

testing is required to ensure that large-scale solar projects JA Solar

can withstand severe weather events over a 25- or 30-year LONGi Solar
project life. This is especially true for projects deployed in
hail-prone locations, including Texas and other high-growth which results in a modest kinetic impact energy of 2 joules.
solar markets in the United States. While these minimum pass-fail test criteria served the industry
well for decades, they have not prevented catastrophic loss
Virtually all PV module designs are unscathed by the basic events in large-scale projects deployed in hail-prone regions.
ballistic-impact tests found in IEC certification standards. To
pass IEC 61215-2, a module design must withstand 11 impacts To address this gap, RETC’s HDT sequence expands upon
of 25-mm (1-in.) ice balls traveling at their terminal velocity, existing IEC standards to probe vulnerabilities to glass
breakage and cell cracking and classify products based on
severe hail resilience. This sequence exposes modules to
45-mm diameter (1.8-in.–diameter) freezer iceball impacts,
followed by 50 thermal cycles and hot-spot endurance
testing per IEC 61215. Final characterization includes visual
inspection, electroluminescence testing, and maximum
power measurements.

For test category high achiever recognition in the 2024

PV Module Index Report, RETC required that HDT samples
withstand an effective kinetic energy of at least 20 joules
while achieving a Class A rating for hail durability. A Class A
hail classification indicates that a test sample experienced
less than 1% maximum power degradation upon completion

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 20

 of the HDT sequence without incurring significant visual To better assist industry stakeholders with product design
abnormalities or defects. Modules with fully tempered front and qualification, RETC is working with leading subject
glass generally outperform those with heat-strengthened matter experts to develop a new and vastly improved
front glass in the HDT sequence. hail-impact–characterization testing standard. This new
standard will test modules to failure using synthetic
Because the hail durability test is an optional sequence hailstone proxies, characterizing impact resilience
within the Thresher Test program, RETC did not establish according to a highly granular staircase methodology. The
a red-flag threshold in this category. Having said that, resulting information-rich hail resiliency curves will improve
catastrophic financial losses to fielded projects resulting the fidelity and accuracy of state-of-the-art financial hail
from severe hail are clearly a warning sign to the entire risk models that technical advisers, such as VDE Americas,
industry. To avoid a crisis of confidence, solar projects must use to inform site selection and product specification to
be resilient to normal conditions of use. A reliable bulk prevent catastrophic module field failures and project
power system requires durable PV modules and solar assets. financial losses.

POTENTIAL-INDUCED DEGRADATION
(PID)
RETC’s Thresher Test includes a PID testing sequence to sequence calls for a 192-hour duration of exposure (PID192),
characterize a PV module’s ability to withstand degradation double that required for product certification (PID96).
due to shunting (PID-s) and surface polarization (PID-p). This
sequence places rack-mounted modules in an environmental PID risks vary according to cell technology. Traditional Al-
chamber, which controls temperature and humidity, and BSF technologies are at risk of PID-s. New high-efficiency
exposes them to a voltage bias of several hundred volts with cell technologies (such as p-PERC, n-TOPCon, and n-HJT) are
respect to the mounting structure. The Thresher Test PID vulnerable to both PID-s and PID-p. While some amount of PID
is reversible with UV light exposure, NREL has shown that this
recovery is not field representative. As a result, we expect that
the rear-side post-PID UV light soak step will be removed from
PID SEQUENCE both the IEC 61215 standard and the Thresher Test.
60%

For test category high achiever recognition in the 2024 PV

54% Module Index Report, RETC required that PV module models
50%
withstand PID192 exposure with less than 2% degradation
in maximum power. At the other end of the spectrum, we
Percentage of Modules

40% considered maximum power degradation greater than

or equal to 5% a red-flag result. While the percentage of
red-flag results was relatively low (6%), PID results have
30%
29% trended downward on a year-over-year basis due to PID-p
in n-TOPCon and n-HJT technologies.
20%

10% PID KEY TAKEAWAYS

8% • 83% of models tested met PID high achiever
2% 6%
0% criteria.
0%
0–1.00 1.01–2.00 2.01–3.00 3.01–4.00 4.01–5.00 ≥5.00
Power Loss (%) • 6% of models tested returned a PID red-flag
PID SEQUENCE HIGH ACHIEVERS result.
Astronergy, ES Foundry, GEP VN, Gstar*, JA Solar, LONGi Solar,
Qcells*, REC Solar, Runergy, SEG Solar, Silfab Solar, SolarSpace, • 16 different manufacturers were PID high
Talesun, Trina Solar, VSUN Solar, and Yingli Solar* met our PID test achievers.
category high achiever criteria. (*Positive bias only.)

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 21

STATIC & DYNAMIC MECHANICAL SDML SEQUENCE
LOAD (SDML) 60%
The Thresher Test includes an SDML sequence to characterize
57%
a PV module’s ability to withstand transportation stressors,
50%
snow and ice loads, and dynamic push-pull loads associated
with hurricanes, typhoons, and other high-wind events. After

Percentage of Modules
static mechanical loading, dynamic mechanical loading 40%
subjects PV modules to 1,000 cycles of +1,000 pascal (Pa)
and –1,000 Pa loads at a frequency of three to seven cycles
per minute. Subsequently, test samples in an environmental 30%

chamber undergo TC50 testing followed by HF30 testing.

Measurements taken upon completion capture post-SDML
20%
performance characteristics. 21%

Double-glass PV modules, where both sheets of glass have 10%

11%
the same thickness, generally outperform other product
7%
designs in the SDML sequence. PV cells packaged between 4%
0%
identical sheets of glass are effectively placed in a neutral axis, 0–1.00 1.251–2.5 2.51–3.75 3.751–5 ≥5.00
which reduces cell fracture risks. Glass-backsheet module Power Loss (%)
designs, which perform well in the HDT sequence, tend to
SDML SEQUENCE HIGH ACHIEVERS
underperform in the SDML sequence. This is especially true Aptos Solar, Astronergy, ES Foundry, Gstar, JA Solar, LONGi Solar,
if the module junction box contacts the torque tube while Runergy, Silfab Solar, SolarSpace, Trina Solar, and Yingli Solar met
the module is under load, as this can cause cell breakage. our SDML test category high achiever criteria.

For test category high achiever recognition in the 2024 PV considered maximum power degradation greater than or
Module Index Report, RETC required that PV module models equal to 5% to be a red-flag result. In this testing category,
withstand SDML exposure with less than 2.5% degradation we note that 68% of samples qualified as high achievers
in maximum power. At the other end of the spectrum, we whereas 7% returned red-flag results.

SDML KEY
TAKEAWAYS
• 68% of models tested met
SDML high achiever criteria.

• 7% of models tested returned

an SDML red-flag result.

• 11 different manufacturers
were SDML high achievers.

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 22

 THERMAL CYCLING (TC)
The Thresher Test includes a TC testing sequence to
characterize a PV module’s ability to withstand stresses
associated with diurnal and annual temperature fluctuations.
This sequence calls for cycling modules in an environmental
chamber between two temperature extremes—85°C (185°F)
on the high end and –40°C (–40°F) on the low end. The
Thresher Test calls for a 600-cycle TC sequence (TC600),
triple that required for product certification (TC200). The
goal of TC testing is to probe module designs for thermal
fatigue failure modes, ensuring a long operational lifetime.
TC sequence results are especially relevant for project
deployment in operating environments characterized by
wide diurnal-to-nocturnal temperature swings.

Historically, a best PV module design practice for TC

resilience was to use all-silver paste and lead-based
soldering. As the industry switched from all-silver pastes to
silver-aluminum–based ones and, in some cases, unleaded
solder coatings, researchers and testing laboratories have
noted some variations in TC results. For example, paste
selection can affect the adhesiveness of the metallization
layer bonded to PV cell contacts, as observed with
n-TOPCon–type PV cells. Meanwhile, n-HJT technologies the amorphous silicon layer(s). All else being equal, p-PERC
are susceptible to TC degradation due to the relatively low- and n-TOPCon tend to perform reasonably well in the TC
temperature soldering process required to avoid damaging sequence, though perhaps not as well as traditional Al-BSF
cell technologies. Having more busbars on the PV cells

TC SEQUENCE tends to lead to better TC results, assuming the pastes and

solder coatings are robust.
60%

55%
For test category high achiever recognition in the 2024 PV
50% 52% Module Index Report, RETC has required that PV module
45%
models withstand TC600 exposure with less than 2%
degradation in maximum power. At the other end of the
Percentage of Modules

40%
spectrum, we considered maximum power degradation
35% greater than or equal to 5% a red-flag result. In this test
30% category, we note that 67% of samples qualified as high
achievers whereas 9% returned red-flag results.
25%

20%

15%
15% 15% TC KEY TAKEAWAYS
10%
9% 9% • 67% of models tested met TC high achiever
5%
criteria.
0% 0%
0–1.00 1.01–2.00 2.01–3.00 3.01–4.00 4.01–5.00 ≥5.00
• 9% of models tested returned a TC red-flag
Power Loss (%)
result.
TC SEQUENCE HIGH ACHIEVERS
Aptos Solar, Astronergy, ES Foundry, Gstar, JA Solar, LONGi Solar, • 11 different manufacturers were TC high
Qcells, Runergy, SolarSpace, Trina Solar, and Yingli Solar met our
achievers.
TC test category high achiever criteria.

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 23

ULTRAVIOLET-INDUCED
DEGRADATION (UVID) UVID KEY TAKEAWAYS
The Thresher Test includes a UVID testing sequence to
• UVID is a high risk in new PV cell
characterize a PV module’s ability to withstand ultraviolet-
induced degradation. This optional testing sequence
technologies and irreversible under normal
exposes test samples to 220 kWh/m2 of UV exposure field conditions.
(UV220), nearly 15 times the UV exposure required for
• 40% of models tested met UVID high
product certification (UV15). For context, UV15 equates
achiever criteria.
to roughly 70 days of field exposure, meaning that UV220
approaches 2.8 years of UV exposure in the field. The latter • 40% of models tested returned a UVID red-
is notably still well within the wear-in period of the Weibull flag result.
bathtub curve that basic PV module certification testing is
intended to cover. • 10%–16% degradation was noted in some
products, and both sides degraded.
In the 2022 edition of the PV Module Index Report, RETC
noted that some new cell technologies—most notably,
n-TOPCon—appeared susceptible to UVID. To test the
potential for UV degradation in novel cell technologies, For Thresher Tests conducted between Q2 2023 and Q1
we worked with technical subject matter experts at NREL 2024, RETC did not require that manufacturers submit
and elsewhere to develop a rigorous beyond-certification samples for the UVID sequence. However, many module
UVID testing sequence. The initial results of our study companies elected to do so voluntarily. For test category
indicate there is indeed cause for alarm. The level of UVID high achiever recognition in the 2024 PV Module Index
susceptibility in commercial PV cell technologies merits Report, we required that PV module models withstand
industrywide discussion and dialogue. UV220 exposure with less than 2% degradation in maximum
power. At the other end of the spectrum, we considered
Specifically, surface passivation and antireflective coating maximum power degradation greater than or equal to 5%
dielectric layers in p-PERC, n-TOPCon, and n-HJT cell a red-flag result. Trina Solar and VSUN Solar met our test
technologies appear susceptible to permanent and category high achiever criteria.
irreversible breakdown under UV exposure. This effect
happens and reaches saturation during the first few years In the UVID category, we note that 40% of samples qualified
of operation, when predictable investor returns are most as high achievers, while 40% of samples returned red-flag
critical. Notably, the effect signature is indicative of short- results. Alarmingly, we observed double-digit power loss in
circuit current and open-circuit voltage degradation rather some mass-produced, commercially available PV modules,
than fill factor degradation. indicating that these products could degrade 10%–16% in
the first three years of in-field operation. A double-digit
degradation in maximum power would far exceed the
allowable limits found in module warranty terms and PV
system power guarantees.

Without immediate and collective action, UVID has the

potential to become a major reliability issue for industry
stakeholders. To do its part, RETC is now requiring the
UVID sequence as a core component of its Thresher Test
program. We also support industry efforts to include UVID
as an input to the energy simulations that inform solar
project financial models. Industry stakeholders may need to
consider whether a reduction in module nameplate ratings
is required to account for this degradation mode, similar to
the early-onset degradation deratings applied to some thin-
film technologies.

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 24

MODULE PERFORMANCE
Reliability Performance

A bankable solar project financial Indicators Indicators

pro forma relies on independent Highest

Achievers
third-party PV module
performance characterization.

T
o meet investor expectations, solar project engineers Quality
Indicators
must be able to accurately and confidently model
energy yields for any project location. This is
exceedingly difficult given the rapid rate of technological
innovation and solar market expansion. From a materials during product development. In parallel, our work assures
science or mechanical engineering perspective, PV modules owners, insurers, financiers, and independent engineers
today are substantially different from those the industry that mass-produced PV products will perform as expected
installed just five or ten years ago. Meanwhile, solar has during commercial operations. Our state-of-the-art testing
eclipsed other energy sources to become the leading laboratories use calibrated and certified equipment under
source of new power generation capacity globally. audited and controlled conditions. Performance characteristics
captured under these rigorous testing conditions represent
As solar projects increase in scale, number, and distribution, the true measure of PV module performance.
project stakeholders must remain vigilant regarding
performance risks. How do different technologies perform PERFORMANCE INDICATORS
under low-irradiance conditions or in relation to changing & RESULTS
sun angles? Is a specific bill of materials susceptible to For the 2024 PV Module Index Report, RETC identified
irradiance- or temperature-induced degradation under seven important performance evaluation categories. As
expected conditions of use? Will modules and systems summarized in the “Performance Discipline Criteria” table,
perform as expected under the peak power conditions the categories include specific extended testing sequences
critical to energy yield optimization? Laboratory data allow as well as important figures of merit. The source data in this
for a science- and engineering-based understanding of both discipline derive from either RETC’s Thresher Test or our
short- and long-term PV system performance. California Energy Commission (CEC) testing. Within individual
categories, we recognize manufacturers of products that
As a highly accredited provider of product certification exceed thoughtfully calibrated performance indicator
and bankability testing, RETC plays an essential role in PV thresholds as test category high achievers. In the year-in-
performance characterization and optimization. Our laboratory review section (p. 35), we further showcase manufacturers
and outdoor testing services help manufacturers identify cell- of products that consistently exceed our high achiever
level degradation mechanisms and module-level failure modes requirements in the performance discipline.

PERFORMANCE DISCIPLINE CRITERIA

Category Evaluation Method High Achiever
Module Efficiency CEC testing >21%
Incidence Angle Modifier CEC or Thresher Testing >88% at 70° AOI
Light- and Elevated Temperature–Induced
B-O CID + LETID486 <0.5% degradation
Degradation
Light-Induced Degradation Outdoor light soaking per IEC 61215-2 ≤0.5% degradation
PAN File Characterization IEC 61853-1 and Performance Ratio (PR) >85% PR
PTC-to-STC Ratio CEC testing ≥94%
Temperature Coefficient of Power CEC or Thresher Testing <0.3%/°C (abs)

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 25

 MODULE EFFICIENCY
RETC captures PV module conversion efficiency data as part
of its CEC testing for manufacturers. To qualify for various
solar incentive programs around the United States, PV
module models must be included on an eligible equipment
list that the CEC maintains. Importantly, the CEC does not
accept manufacturers’ self-reported data. RETC is one of the
accredited third-party laboratories most active in CEC testing.

Nominal module conversion efficiency is determined by

dividing a product’s nameplate maximum power rating
under standard test conditions by its total aperture area.
While conversion efficiency is a key figure of merit for PV
modules, it is also in many cases a function of PV module
cell technology. For example, the p-type passivated emitter
rear contact (p-PERC) PV cells that are popular today offer
improved initial efficiency at time zero as compared to efficiency in Year 0—or during a factory or laboratory flash
legacy aluminum back surface field (Al-BSF) technologies. test—is a meaningful metric only if it correlates with high
Meanwhile, n-type tunnel oxide passivated contact efficiency over a 25- to 30-year operating life. As the red-flag
(n-TOPCon) and n-type silicon heterojunction (n-HJT) PV results in the reliability section of this report have shown,
cell technologies provide manufacturers with a roadmap for ensuring that operating solar assets provide expected
even higher-efficiency product designs in the future. financial returns requires significant technical due diligence.
Over the life of a PV power system, module conversion
While conversion efficiency advancements provide value efficiency has as much to do with the materials that make up
throughout the industry and contribute to the widespread the module’s laminate stack as it does with cell efficiency.
adoption of solar energy, project stakeholders must remain Chasing high-efficiency solar cell designs is a fool’s errand
diligent regarding performance risk. High conversion if device-level maximum power output degrades in the field
due to material incompatibilities, poor-quality materials, or
MODULE EFFICIENCY SEQUENCE poor manufacturing processes related to the laminate stack.
30%
30% In the 2024 PV Module Index Report, RETC has recognized
manufacturers of PV module models with conversion
25%
efficiencies greater than 21% as test category high achievers.
This level of performance is indicative of sophisticated high-
Percentage of Modules

22% efficiency cell designs. We have not applied red-flag criteria

20%
in this category. In this testing category, we note that 56%
19% 19%
of samples qualified as high achievers.
15%

10%
MODULE EFFICIENCY
KEY TAKEAWAYS
5% • 56% of models tested met efficiency high
4% 4% 4% achiever criteria.

0% 0% • 4% of models tested achieved ≥23%

<17 17–18 18.1–19 19.1–20 20.1–21 21.1–22 22.1–23 ≥23
PV Module Aperture Area Efficiency (%) efficiency.

MODULE EFFICIENCY HIGH ACHIEVERS • 5 different manufacturers were efficiency

Astronergy, Mission Solar, Qcells, REC Solar, and Silfab Solar met
high achievers.
our module efficiency test category high achiever criteria.

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 26

 INCIDENCE ANGLE MODIFIER (IAM)
RETC captures IAM data as part of the Thresher Test
program or during its CEC testing for manufacturers. IAM is
IAM KEY TAKEAWAYS
a performance characteristic that accounts for changes in • 27% of models tested met IAM high
PV module output based on changing sun angles relative to achiever criteria.
the plane of the array. To characterize IAM, RETC conducts
electrical characterization tests at different incidence • 10 different manufacturers were IAM high
angles, ranging from 0° to 90° as prescribed in IEC 61853‑2. achievers.
These accredited third-party laboratory data mitigate
performance risk and facilitate project bankability reviews.

IAM is an important part of a module’s PAN file, a performance 88% at a 70° angle of incidence (AOI) as test category high
characterization software file that informs energy production achievers. This level of performance is indicative of a low-loss
and financial performance models. Specifically, IAM accounts optical design under typical conditions of use. We have not
for how much light transmits through the surface of the applied red-flag criteria in this category. In this testing category,
module glass and encapsulants and reaches the PV cell when we note that 27% of samples qualified as high achievers.
the solar angle of incidence is not normal to the plane of the
array. IAM measurements are essential for understanding LIGHT- & ELEVATED TEMPERATURE–
module performance at different times and seasons, INDUCED DEGRADATION (LETID)
especially early or late in the day or in wintertime when the RETC’s Thresher Test program requires a LETID testing
sun is more frequently closer to the horizon. It is also relevant sequence to investigate a product’s susceptibility to light-
for understanding geographical affects, such as module and elevated temperature–induced degradation. This
performance at latitudes farther from the equator. sequence includes three 162-hour rounds of 75°C (167°F)
temperature exposure in an environmental chamber while
In the 2024 PV Module Index Report, RETC has recognized connected to a power supply simulating maximum power
manufacturers of PV module models with an IAM greater than operation under full sun conditions. The sequence also
incorporates a boron-oxygen current-induced degradation

IAM SEQUENCE (B-O CID) preconditioning step. LETID test results are most
relevant for identifying hydrogenation state changes in
30%
boron-doped p-PERC and similar PV cells. LETID results are
also used as an input to energy production software models.
27%
25%
25%

LETID HIGH ACHIEVERS

Percentage of Modules

20%
Manufacturer (in alphabetical order)
19%
Astronergy
15%
Gstar

13% 13% JinkoSolar

10% LONGi Solar
Runergy
SEG Solar
5%
Silfab Solar
SolarSpace
2%
0%
0.84–0.85 0.851–0.86 0.861–0.87 0.871–0.88 0.881–0.89 ≥0.89 Talesun
IAM at 70° Angle of Incidence (%) Trina Solar

IAM HIGH ACHIEVERS VSUN Solar

Dehui Solar, ES Foundry, JA Solar, JinkoSolar, LONGi Solar, Meyer Waaree
Burger, Qcells, Runergy, Silfab Solar, and SolarSpace met our IAM
Yingli Solar
test category high achiever criteria.

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 27

 LID SEQUENCE
LETID KEY TAKEAWAYS 60%

55% 57%
• LETID results trended upward on a year-
50%
over-year basis.
45%
• 82% of models tested met LETID high

Percentage of Modules
40%
achiever criteria.
35%
• 0% of models tested returned a LETID red- 30%
flag result.
25%
26%
20%

15%
LETID is a form of module degradation that affects specific
high-efficiency PV cell technologies. For example, boron- 10%
11%
doped p-PERC PV cells require advanced hydrogenation 5%
processes to mitigate extreme boron-oxygen light-induced 1%
0%
3% 3%
degradation (B-O LID), which introduces LETID risks. Gallium- 0–0.5 0.51–1 1.01–1.5 1.51–2 2.01–2.5 ≥2.5

doped p-PERC PV cells, which do not require advanced Power Loss (%)
hydrogenation, are not as susceptible to LETID. LETID risk is
LID HIGH ACHIEVERS
low in n-type PV cell technologies. Cadmium telluride thin- Astronergy, GEP VN, Gstar, JA Solar, JinkoSolar, LONGi Solar,
film devices are not susceptible to LETID. Meyer Burger, Qcells, Runergy, SEG Solar, Silfab Solar, SolarSpace,
Talesun, Trina Solar, VSUN Solar, Waaree, and Yingli Solar met our
LID test category high achiever criteria.
For test category high achiever recognition in the 2024 PV
Module Index Report, RETC required that PV module models
withstand B-O CID plus LETID486 exposure with less than risks. So module designers need to balance B-O LID versus
0.5% degradation in maximum power. At the other end of LETID risk exposure. Cadmium telluride thin-film devices
the spectrum, we considered maximum power degradation and n-type PV cell technologies are not susceptible to LID.
greater than or equal to 2.5% a red-flag result. In this testing
category, we note that 82% of the test samples qualified as For test category high achiever recognition in the 2024 PV
high achievers whereas 0% returned red-flag results. Module Index Report, RETC required that PV module models
withstand the LID sequence with less than or equal to 0.5%
LIGHT-INDUCED DEGRADATION (LID) degradation in maximum power. At the other end of the
The Thresher Test program requires a LID sequence to spectrum, we considered maximum power degradation
investigate a product’s susceptibility to light-induced greater than or equal to 2.5% a red-flag result. In this testing
degradation. LID is a type of degradation resulting from category, we note that 57% of the test samples qualified as
initial exposure to sunlight that impacts some PV cell high achievers whereas 3% returned red-flag results.
types but not others. PV modules that are prone to LID
might experience a relatively rapid rate of performance
degradation over a relatively short time in the field—ranging
from a few hours to a few weeks, depending on the PV cell
LID KEY TAKEAWAYS
technology—before performance stabilizes. This LID test
sequence consists of outdoor light soaking in accordance • 57% of models tested met LID high achiever
with IEC 61215-2. criteria.

LID affects advanced PV cell technologies. For example, LID

• 3% of models tested returned an LID red-
risk is low in gallium-doped p-type PV cell technologies but flag result.
high in boron-doped p-type PV cells. While manufacturers
• 17 different manufacturers were LID high
can use advanced hydrogenation processes to reduce B-O
achievers.
LID risk in boron-doped p-PERC cells, this introduces LETID

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 28

 PAN FILE CHARACTERIZATION
PAN files are text-only software files that characterize
PV module performance parameters in accordance
with IEC 61853-1. RETC uses state-of-the-art equipment
under controlled conditions to generate its third-party
PAN files, which provide an independent and bankable
characterization of PV module performance. These small files
do a lot of heavy lifting in the context of the PV performance
modeling used to inform project bankability assessments.
Once imported into industry-standard software, such
as PVsyst, these independently verified module-specific
performance parameters allow for accurate and bankable
energy production estimates.

To identify test category high achievers, RETC conducted

PVsyst simulation using its third-party PAN files. These
simulations assume a 10 MW utility-scale solar plant in
Midland, Texas, deployed using fixed-tilt ground mounts
and 500 kVA–rated central inverters. While minor design
details may vary per simulation—based on product-specific
capacity ratings and so forth—the DC-to-AC inverter loading
ratios are functionally equivalent. We then aggregated and
compared the results of these simulations on the basis of
annual performance ratio.

PAN FILE SEQUENCE

30%
In the 2024 PV Module Index Report, RETC has recognized
manufacturers of PV module models that returned
25% a performance ratio greater than 85% in our PVsyst
25%
simulations. We have not applied red-flag criteria in this
23%
category. Key drivers of PAN file performance include
Percentage of Modules

20%
low-light performance and bifaciality factor. In this testing
18% category, we note that 65% of the test samples qualified as
15% high achievers.
15%

10%
10%
8% PAN KEY TAKEAWAYS
5%
• 65% of models tested met PAN file high
3% achiever criteria.
0%
0%
<83 83–84 84.1–85 85.1–86 86.1–87 87.1–88 88.1–89 ≥89
• 23% of models tested achieved a >88%
Performance Ratio PR (%)
performance ratio.
PAN FILE HIGH ACHIEVERS
Astronergy, Gstar, JinkoSolar, LONGi Solar, Qcells, Runergy, • 10 different manufacturers were PAN file
SolarSpace, Trina Solar, VSUN Solar, and Yingli Solar met our PAN
high achievers.
file test category high achiever criteria.

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 29

PTC-TO-STC RATIO PTC-TO-STC RATIO SEQUENCE
In the 1990s, researchers working on the Photovoltaics for 35%
Utility-Scale Applications (PVUSA) project developed a set
of performance rating parameters intended to simulate 32% 32%
30%
environmental conditions a module might experience in
the real world. The primary differences between PVUSA test
conditions (PTC) and standard test conditions (STC) are cell 25%
temperature and wind speed. Specifically, PTC parameters

Percentage of Modules
call for an elevated cell temperature as compared to
standard test conditions, which results in a lower nominal 20%

power rating.
18%
15%
RETC captures PTC and STC performance data as part of
its CEC testing for manufacturers. A high PTC-to-STC ratio
is of particular interest to project stakeholders as a figure 10% 11%
of merit. Products with a high PTC-to-STC metric generally
utilize cell technologies that experience less power
5%
reduction at elevated temperatures.
4% 4%

In the 2024 PV Module Index Report, RETC has recognized 0% 0%

0%
<89 89–90 90.1–91 91.1–92 92.1–93 93.1–94 94.1–95 ≥95
manufacturers of PV module models that achieved a PTC-
PTC-to-STC Ratio (%)
to-STC ratio greater than or equal to 94% as test category
high achievers. We have not applied red-flag criteria in this PTC-TO-STC HIGH ACHIEVERS
Astronergy, Auxin Solar, Qcells, REC Solar, Silfab Solar, and Trina
category. In this testing category, we note that 50% of the
Solar met our PTC-to-STC ratio test category high achiever
test samples qualified as high achievers. criteria.

PTC-TO-STC KEY TAKEAWAYS

• 50% of models met PTC-to-STC ratio high
achiever criteria.

• 18% of models achieved a ≥95% PTC-to-STC

ratio.

• 6 manufacturers were PTC-to-STC ratio high

achievers.

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 30

 TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT
RETC captures temperature coefficient data as part of In the 2024 PV Module Index Report, RETC has recognized
the Thresher Test program or during its CEC testing for manufacturers of PV module models with temperature
manufacturers. This performance characteristic accounts for coefficient values less than 0.3%/°C (absolute) as test
changes in PV module maximum power, current, and voltage category high achievers. We have not applied red-flag criteria
based on changing cell temperature conditions. Specifically, to temperature coefficient results. In this category, we note
the temperature coefficient describes the percentage that 27% of the test samples qualified as high achievers.
change in power for each degree Celsius (%/°C) relative to
standard test conditions (25°C).

Module output power decreases as cell temperature rises.

Therefore, all temperature coefficients of power are negative
values (such as -0.3%/°C). For data visualization purposes,
however, we are showing these data as absolute values,
according to the distance of the number from 0. A lower
value in the temperature coefficient chart indicates improved
performance under elevated temperature conditions. Results
in this category are largely driven by specific properties of
the PV cell p-n junction, with n-HJT PV cells providing the
best performance, followed by n-TOPCon, p-PERC, and
p-type Al-BSF technologies, in that order.

TEMP COEFFICIENT SEQUENCE

45%

40%

38%
35%
Percentage of Modules

30%

25%

23%
20%

15% 17%
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT
10%
10% KEY TAKEAWAYS
5% 6% • 27% of models met temperature coefficient
4% 1%
0%
0% high achiever criteria.
<0.21 0.211– 0.241– 0.271– 0.301– 0.331– 0.361– ≥0.39
0.24 0.27 0.30 0.33 0.36 0.39
• 6% of models achieved a temperature
Temperature Coefficient of Power (%/°C Abs)
coefficient ≤0.24%/°C (absolute).
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT HIGH ACHIEVERS
Astronergy, JinkoSolar, Meyer Burger, Qcells, REC Solar, Runergy, • 7 manufacturers were temperature
and Silfab Solar met our temperature coefficient test category
coefficient high achievers.
high achiever criteria.

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 31

MODULE QUALITY Reliability Performance
Indicators Indicators

Sourcing high-quality PV modules Highest

optimizes energy yields, investor Achievers

confidence, decarbonization benefits,

and energy security.
Quality

T
Indicators
o meet the expectations of solar project
stakeholders, fielded PV modules and systems must
withstand harsh operating conditions while meeting
or exceeding performance predictions over a 25- to 30- with third-party factory witness BOM verification, RETC’s
year service life. Products and materials that appear very comparative Thresher Test program data helps to ensure
similar on paper may perform, wear out, or break down very that fielded projects meet the expectations of stakeholders
differently under actual conditions of use. A commitment to by empowering them to discriminate between high- and
quality often accounts for these differences. low-quality products.

Fielding high-quality PV modules is a complex and QUALITY INDICATORS & RESULTS

interconnected undertaking, especially in the context of For the 2024 edition of the PV Module Index Report, RETC
a terawatt-scale market. A commercially viable product applied three evaluation categories for the quality discipline.
design must exceed beyond-certification bankability As summarized in the “Quality Discipline Criteria” table, these
testing requirements. Module companies must manufacture categories include third-party factory BOM verification and
such products at high volumes without any reduction in cross-disciplinary reliability and performance evaluations.
durability and performance. Inspectors and auditors must These criteria reflect the fact that commercial PV modules
verify that factories are controlling quality in their supply must excel in both reliability and performance to meet
chain management, material handling, and manufacturing stakeholder expectations. A product’s ability to meet user
processes. Accredited laboratories must analyze and test expectations is the ultimate measure of quality.
random product samples leaving the factory and arriving at
the project site. In the year-in-review section (p. 35), we celebrate
manufacturers of products that check all quality discipline
Imagine two nominally equivalent solar power systems boxes as “Overall Highest Achievers.” Note, however, that
installed in identical operating environments with the due diligence for project procurement is considerably more
expectation of a 25-year service life. In a downside scenario, complex than simply entering into a supply agreement with a
the PV modules at Project A fail prematurely and need to be manufacturer we have recognized for high achievement in PV
replaced in Year 12. In an upside scenario, the PV modules module manufacturing. Even the best module manufacturers
at Project B exceed expectations and remain in service sometimes make PV modules that underperform in Thresher
until Year 50. In practice, the only difference between Test sequences. Buyers who want to source high-quality
these wildly different outcomes might be a seemingly BOMs and avoid low-quality ones should request a copy of
insignificant bill of materials (BOM) change. When combined RETC’s Thresher Test report from the manufacturer.

QUALITY DISCIPLINE CRITERIA

Category Evaluation Method
Bill of Materials Third-party factory bill of materials verification
High Achievement in Reliability Product recognized as high achiever in three or more reliability categories*
High Achievement in Performance Product recognized as high achiever in three or more performance categories
*Glass-on-backsheet products must meet high achiever requirements for BUDT plus at least three additional reliability test sequences.

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 32

RED FLAGS
Throughout the 2024 PV Module Index Report, RETC has
highlighted red-flag results for specific testing sequences.
These red flags are measured values that raise questions
about whether a product design can perform reliably in the
field and meet stakeholder expectations over a 25- or 30-
year lifetime. A red flag result in a specific testing sequence
could be indicative of an immature cell technology, an
incompatible BOM, a departure from quality during a
manufacturing or assembly process, or an expected
statistical variance in mass manufacturing.

To set its red-flag thresholds, RETC relied on its best

engineering judgement. We polled internal and external
subject matter experts who participate in IEC project team
meetings and industry working groups. We compared
Thresher Test data across multiple years. We considered samples are more likely to experience a red-flag result
experimental and anecdotal evidence connecting trends in (14% of test samples) than to meet our “Overall Highest
laboratory test data with observed field failure or degradation Achiever” standards (8% of test samples). These overall
modes. We looked for outliers in our annual test results. results underscore the importance of technical due
Based on this holistic analysis, we set red-flag thresholds for diligence throughout the industry value chain. Achieving
specific test categories to highlight test results that are likely overall excellence in PV module manufacturing requires
to correlate with elevated technical risk in field deployments. rigorous product design qualification and continuous
quality management. Moreover, sourcing these high-quality
RETC’s summary data analysis comparing test category products requires an adherence to best practices for
outcomes across this report indicates that individual test product procurement.

SUMMARY DATA & RED FLAGS BY MODEL

PV Module Index Report High Achievement Red Flag
Test Category Threshold Percentage Threshold Percentage
Backsheet Ultraviolet Durability No cracking 100% Backsheet cracking 0%
Potential-Induced Degradation <2% degradation 83% ≥5% power degradation 6%
Light- and Elevated Temperature–Induced
<0.5% degradation 82% ≥2.5% power degradation 0%
Degradation
Static and Dynamic Mechanical Load <2.5% degradation 68% ≥5% power degradation 7%
Thermal Cycling <2% degradation 67% ≥5% power degradation 9%
PAN File Characterization >85% PR 65% — —
Light-Induced Degradation ≤0.5% degradation 57% ≥5% power degradation 3%
Module Efficiency >21% 56% — —
PTC-to-STC Ratio ≥94% 50% — —
Ultraviolet-Induced Degradation <2% degradation 40% ≥5% power degradation 40%
Temperature Coefficient of Power <0.3%/°C (abs) 27% — —
Incidence Angle Modifier >88% at 70° AOI 27% — —
Damp Heat <2% degradation 26% ≥5% power degradation 18%
Hail Durability Test >20-joule impact 17% — —
OVERALL See p. 17 8% — 14%

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 33

BILL OF MATERIALS (BOM)
VERIFICATION BOM VERIFICATION HIGH
Holding PV modules to a higher standard by probing
ACHIEVER
manufacturing and material quality is the fundamental Manufacturer (in alphabetical order)

concept behind our Thresher Test program. Basic IEC and UL Astronergy
certification tests focus primarily on ensuring performance ES Foundry
and safety over the wear-in phase of the product’s lifetime, GEP VN
meaning the first few years of outdoor operation. More Gstar
rigorous testing is required to ensure PV modules can
JA Solar
withstand the expected 25- to 30-year service life implied
JinkoSolar
by modern PV module warranties. The Thresher Test—
LONGi Solar
and the heuristic thresholds applied to its various testing
Qcells
sequences—are intended to identify high-quality module
types and models, much as a thresher machine separates Runergy

the wheat from the chaff. SEG Solar

SolarSpace
Though beyond-certification testing is essential for Talesun
identifying high-quality PV modules, it is only the first of Trina Solar
many technical due diligence steps required to construct VSUN Solar
a long-lifetime solar project. After entering into a high-
Waaree
volume supply agreement, stakeholders must remain
Yingli Solar
vigilant to deviations from quality product designs. This

is the role of third-party factory BOM verification, which

ensures that products delivered to the project site will
continuously meet the high bar established by the rigorous
Thresher Test.

As a placeholder for on-site sample witness and BOM

verification, RETC has elected to recognize in the 2024 PV
Module Index Report those manufacturers who used an
independent third party to randomly select PV modules from
inventory for the Thresher Test. Random sampling ensures
that manufacturers do not cherry-pick only the highest-
quality PV modules for the Thresher Test. This practice
demonstrates that a module company is committed to
transparency and has full confidence in its manufacturing
quality programs.

“To procure high-performing modules

within a specific test sequence or
discipline, contact manufacturers
directly to request a model- and
BOM-specific Thresher Test report.”
—Cherif Kedir, RETC

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 34

A YEAR IN REVIEW
Analyzing our annual PV module test results, 8% of models tested met
RETC’s rigorous standard for our top accolade—namely, recognition as an
“Overall Highest Achiever”—whereas 14% of models tested showed some
sort of red flag.

In this preliminary June 2024 release of the PV Module Index To achieve RETC’s top honor, module companies had to
Report, RETC has recognized 23 module manufacturers for meet our high achievement criteria in three disciplines:
some form of high achievement across the 14 different testing module reliability, performance, and quality. In other
sequences included within the reliability and performance words, “Overall Highest Achiever” status effectively
disciplines. To capture the results of any remaining long- indicates that RETC recognizes these companies for
duration testing sequences, we will publish a final report “High Achievement in Reliability,” “High Achievement in
release in September 2024. Performance,” and “High Achievement in Quality.” This is
an exceptionally high bar to pass. RETC commends these
To identify top PV module models and manufacturers in our module companies for consistently achieving excellence in
data set, we first evaluated data distributions within specific module manufacturing.
sequences. We then identified thresholds for high achievement
and red-flag results based on engineering best judgment and a Based on a thorough review of these data and results, we
review of scientific literature. Subsequently, we analyzed these have identified nine manufacturers that met our rigorous
summary data and established holistic criteria for recognition, 2024 PV Module Index Report criteria for our “Overall
which are included in this report for transparency. Highest Achiever” recognition.

INDEX
ULE RE
OD

2024
PO
M
PV

RT

HIGHEST ACHIEVER

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 35

While we applaud high achievement in solar manufacturing, While outlier results make for excellent cautionary tales,
the red-flag results presented and discussed in this report industry stakeholders must also remain vigilant to pervasive
demonstrate the importance of technical due diligence. and systemic problems, as these tend to be difficult to see
After all, 75% more test samples returned a red-flag result in real time. As early as Q1 2022, RETC provided industry
(14% of models) compared to overall highest achiever stakeholders with an early warning about the potential
results (8% of models). This discrepancy should be a red flag for ultraviolet-induced degradation in advanced n-type
for underinformed buyers, owners, independent engineers, PV cells. Two years later, the industry at large has finally
and investors. Without beyond-certification test data, you acknowledged that UVID is not only a real problem but
are more likely to procure modules that test poorly in one also potentially a widespread one—and third-party testing
or more reliability or performance sequences than modules laboratories around the world have largely adopted our
that excel across multiple disciplines. UVID testing recommendations.

Representing an extreme downside scenario, one of the Novel technologies tend to degrade in novel ways.
PV module models submitted to RETC for the Thresher Test Collectively, we need to anticipate and test new products
last year returned red-flag results in both a reliability and a and technologies accordingly. As the solar market grows
performance test sequence. Upon further investigation, we in scale and sophistication, industry stakeholders must
learned that these test samples had not come directly out remain vigilant regarding the technical risks inherent to
of a factory but rather had been resold at a discount out of a an accelerated pace of change and the short time frames
warehouse, where they had been stored for an unknown period. between innovation and mass production. As long as the
This double red-flag result is a reminder that the bitterness of solar industry continues to innovate and evolve, there will
poor quality remains long after the sweetness of low price is be a need for data-driven technical due diligence. Caveat
forgotten. If a deal seems too good to be true, it usually is. emptor. Let the buyer beware.

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 36

 2024 AWARDEES

INDEX
ULE RE
OD

2024
PO
M
PV

RT

HIGHEST ACHIEVER

INDEX
ULE RE
OD
2024
PO
M
PV

RT

HIGH ACHIEVEMENT IN

PERFORMANCE

INDEX
ULE RE
OD
2024
PO
M
PV

RT

TEST CATEGORY
HIGH ACHIEVER

In Alphabetical Order within Award Category

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 37

 2024 SUMMARY OF RESULTS
RELIABILITY DISCIPLINE HIGH ACHIEVERS
BACKSHEET ULTRAVIOLET DURABILITY TEST (BUDT)
JA Solar • LONGi Solar • SolarSpace
DAMP HEAT (DH)
Astronergy • ES Foundry • LONGi Solar • Runergy • Trina Solar
HAIL DURABILITY TEST (HDT)
JA Solar • LONGi Solar
POTENTIAL-INDUCED DEGRADATION (PID)
Astronergy • ES Foundry • GEP VN • Gstar • JA Solar • LONGi Solar • Qcells • REC Solar • Runergy • SEG Solar • Silfab Solar •
SolarSpace • Talesun • Trina Solar • VSUN Solar • Yingli Solar
STATIC AND DYNAMIC MECHANICAL LOAD (SDML)
Aptos Solar • Astronergy • ES Foundry • Gstar • JA Solar • LONGi Solar • Runergy • Silfab Solar • SolarSpace • Trina Solar • Yingli Solar
THERMAL CYCLING (TC)
Aptos Solar • Astronergy • ES Foundry • Gstar • JA Solar • LONGi Solar • Qcells • Runergy • SolarSpace • Trina Solar • Yingli Solar
ULTRAVIOLET-INDUCED DEGRADATION (UVID)
Trina Solar • VSUN Solar

PERFORMANCE DISCIPLINE HIGH ACHIEVERS

MODULE EFFICIENCY
Astronergy • Mission Solar • Qcells • REC Solar • Silfab Solar
INCIDENCE ANGLE MODIFIER (IAM)
Dehui Solar • ES Foundry • JA Solar • JinkoSolar • LONGi Solar • Meyer Burger • Qcells • Runergy • Silfab Solar • SolarSpace
LIGHT- AND ELEVATED TEMPERATURE–INDUCED DEGRADATION (LETID)
Astronergy • Gstar • JinkoSolar • LONGi Solar • Runergy • SEG Solar • Silfab Solar • SolarSpace • Talesun • Trina Solar •
VSUN Solar • Waaree • Yingli Solar
LIGHT-INDUCED DEGRADATION (LID)
Astronergy • GEP VN • Gstar • JA Solar • JinkoSolar • LONGi Solar • Meyer Burger • Qcells • Runergy • SEG Solar • Silfab Solar •
SolarSpace • Talesun • Trina Solar • VSUN Solar • Waaree • Yingli Solar
PAN FILE CHARACTERIZATION
Astronergy • Gstar • JinkoSolar • LONGi Solar • Qcells • Runergy • SolarSpace • Trina Solar • VSUN Solar • Yingli Solar
PTC-TO-STC RATIO
Astronergy • Auxin Solar • Qcells • REC Solar • Silfab Solar • Trina Solar
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT
Astronergy • JinkoSolar • Meyer Burger • Qcells • REC Solar • Runergy • Silfab Solar

QUALITY DISCIPLINE HIGH ACHIEVERS

BILL OF MATERIALS (BOM) VERIFICATION
Astronergy • ES Foundry • GEP VN • Gstar • JA Solar • JinkoSolar • LONGi Solar • Qcells • Runergy • SEG Solar • SolarSpace •
Talesun • Trina Solar • VSUN Solar • Waaree • Yingli Solar
HIGH ACHIEVEMENT IN RELIABILITY
Astronergy • ES Foundry • Gstar • JA Solar • LONGi Solar • Runergy • SolarSpace • Trina Solar • Yingli Solar
HIGH ACHIEVEMENT IN PERFORMANCE
Astronergy • ES Foundry • Gstar • JA Solar • JinkoSolar • LONGi Solar • Qcells • REC Solar • Runergy • Silfab Solar • SolarSpace •
Trina Solar • Yingli Solar

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 38

 LOOKING AHEAD
With the emergence of novel PV cell technologies, the industry
has entered a new realm of more complex I-V curve characterization.

I
ndustry analysts expect that the market share for Though it is tempting to view each new cell technology
advanced PV cell technologies—many of which are as an advancement over previous technologies, it is also
already in mass production—will rapidly increase over true that novel cell technologies, especially those based
the next five to ten years. Broadly speaking, these emergent on n-type cell designs, present interesting and unique
PV cell technologies are the result of developments in measurement challenges.
n-type wafer production and progress in surface passivation
and back-contacting methods. These newer technologies Module characterization challenges include the power
include n-type tunnel oxide passivated contact (n-TOPCon), rating of advanced PV devices. There are many factors that
n-type back-contact (n-BC), n-type passivated emitter rear affect the accuracy and uncertainty of power ratings for any
totally diffused (n-PERT), and n-type silicon heterojunction PV module, regardless of cell type. However, equipment
(n-HJT) PV cells. The most mainstream of these novel n-type operators and technicians must adjust their flash-testing
technologies is the n-TOPCon cell. measurement and calibration procedures for advanced PV
cell technologies to accurately measure power. The intent of
In recent years, many module companies have evolved these procedural changes is to address metastability issues,
away from traditional aluminum back surface field spectral mismatch, I-V corrections, device linearity, high
(Al-BSF) technologies to higher efficiency p-type capacitance, and hysteresis. Hysteresis and metastability
passivated emitter rear contact (p-PERC) PV cells. Today, are of particular interest to industry stakeholders, as both
manufacturers are converting p-PERC production lines have the potential to contribute upward of 1%–2% to
into n-TOPCon lines. This is relatively easy to do, as maximum power measurements, which are foundational to
p-PERC and n-TOPCon share many production processes. product benchmarking.

MARKET SHARE FOR DIFFERENT PV CELL TECHNOLOGIES

100%
Si-based tandem
90%

80%
Back contact (p and n-type)
70%
World Market Share

60%
Si-heterojunction (SHJ)
50%
on n-type mono-Si
40%

30% TOPCon on n-type mono-Si

20%

15%
PERC on p-type mono-Si
10%
S&P ITRPV
5% Global 4%
2024
Data Al-BSF
0%
SPGI2023 2024 2026 2028 2030 2034
Year
Data sources: S&P Global (2023); ITRPV 2024 (2024–2034).

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 39

 HYSTERESIS High-precision and high-accuracy
The hysteresis phenomenon presents a challenge for measurements are critical to the
accurate device power measurement of n-type silicon-
based PV devices, which have high internal capacitance.
entire solar industry ecosystem and
During flash testing, this internal capacitance causes charge value chain.
build-ups and internal delay effects in I-V measurements.
Normally, solar simulator (flash tester) technicians use an
actively controlled electrical load to measure the I-V curve CUSTOMIZATION
of a PV module under simulated solar irradiance. Internal Working at the forefront of technological advancement and
device capacitance can result in differences between the adoption, RETC has observed that a traditional one-size-
load voltage and the PV module output voltage during the fits-all module power measurement approach is obsolete.
sweep, causing hysteresis errors. With n-type PV modules, Emergent n-TOPCon and n-HJT PV modules are complex
it is not always possible to fully eliminate the hysteresis devices that require careful characterization—and, in most
effects using multi-slope or other non-linear (and sometimes cases, some measurement customization. The same is true
proprietary) sweep algorithms. Measuring capacitance-free for next-generation Perovskite-based solar cells, not to
I-V curves requires new, custom test methods that produce mention cadmium-telluride thin-film devices. As the industry
stable current values across a range of voltages. advances technologically, the measurement complexity
required to achieve an essential level of accuracy is increasing.
METASTABILITY In many cases, additional test steps—such as light soak
Metastability is another phenomenon that presents preconditioning to stabilize metastability in advanced silicon-
challenges for PV module characterization. Low-level based devices or annealing normalization in thin-film devices
light soaking can cause power measurements of n-type are increasing the burden on testing laboratories.
PV modules to increase by 1% to 2%. Researchers first
documented this metastability issue in n-HJT modules, noting High-precision and high-accuracy measurements are critical
that short-circuit current (Isc), fill factor, and maximum power to the entire solar industry ecosystem and value chain.
ratings increased with light soaking and then gradually Researchers, manufacturers, and testing laboratories must
decreased under dark conditions. The fact that Isc changes now holistically optimize test methodologies—namely,
significantly makes it particularly challenging to work with preconditioning methods, flash recipe, spectral mismatch,
technologically matched calibration modules. Calibration and I-V correction procedures—on a technology-specific
procedures typically start from a “known” calibrated Isc basis. Maintaining quality control requires updating
value, such as Isc at standard test conditions or some standard operating procedures to capture technology-
other irradiance setpoint. Technicians and operators must specific adaptations. Moreover, it is critical to maintain
consider metastability whenever characterizing I-V curves a complete calibration traceability chain and adhere to
for n-TOPCon or n-HJT PV modules. scientific measurement methods and principles.

To ensure a worthwhile future, RETC is involved in

METASTABILITY DEGRADATION
global round-robin efforts to improve the performance
& RECOVERY
characterization of next-generation PV technologies. We
are actively contributing to IEC project teams responsible
for revising relevant solar product standards. Collaborating
with colleagues within the VDE Group, we are writing and
publishing new product standards that will improve fielded
project resiliency and insurability. This cutting-edge work
Pmax

is foundational to the global power transition. It benefits

solar industry stakeholders and all of the businesses and
communities relying on clean power. After all, the success
of future solar products and projects starts with precise,
Light Dark Light Dark Light Dark Light Dark
reproducible, and repeatable PV module performance
measurements.
Time

Annual Report: PV MODULE INDEX 2024 40

RETC (Renewable Energy Test Center) is a leading engineering services
and certification testing provider for renewable energy products with
headquarters in Fremont, California. Since its founding in 2009, RETC has
partnered with manufacturers, developers, and investors to test a wide
range of products including modules, inverters, battery energy storage
systems (BESS), and racking assemblies. As a member of the VDE Group,
RETC is helping to provide customers worldwide with a one-stop shop for
testing, inspection, certification, and data services that de-risk renewable
energy projects. At RETC, we are united in the belief that our work enables
a safer and more sustainable world.

[Link]

2024 PV Module Index Report • © RETC, LLC 2024 • Preliminary SNEC Edition, Published June 2024