Chapter 8: Bonding
General Concepts
8.1: Types of Chemical Bonds.
Chemical bonds: forces that hold groups of atoms together and make them function as a
unit.
A bond will form if the energy of the aggregate is lower than that of the separated atoms.
Bond length: The distance where the energy is minimal.
Bond energy: which is the energy required to break the bond.
We can obtain information about the strength of a bonding interaction by measuring the bond
energy.
Types of chemical bonds:
1. Ionic bonds
2. Covalent bonds
Ionic bonds: Electrostatic attraction of closely packed oppositely charged ions (cation-
anion)
• electrons are transferred to form ions.
• Result an ionic compound when a metal reacts with a nonmetal.
• The energy of interaction between a pair of ions can be calculated using Coulomb’s law:
E = (2.31 ×10-19 [Link]) (Q1Q2\ r)
E: energy (J).
r : the distance between the ion centers (nm).
Q1 and Q2 are the numerical ion charges.
when the sign is negative indicates an attractive force.( the ion pair has lower energy than the
separated ions)
Coulomb’s law also can be used to calculate the repulsive energy when two like-charged ions
are brought together. In this case the energy will have a positive sign.
Example:
In solid sodium chloride the distance between the centers of the Na+ and Cl- ions is 0.276 nm,
calculate the ionic energy per pair of ions.
E = (2.31 x 10-19 J . nm) [(+1) (-1)/0.276 nm] = -8.37 x 10-19 J
Covalent Bonds: Electrons are shared by nuclei.
• Result a molecule when nonmetal atoms bond together.
• If two identical atoms bond together equal sharing of electrons (nonpolar covalent
bond), like: H2, O2, N2, F2.
• If two different atoms bond together unequal sharing of electrons (polar covalent
bond), like: HF, HCl, HBr, H2O, NH3.
8.2: Electronegativity
The ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons to itself.
Example:
Example:
Which of the following has covalent character?
LiCl or AlCl3
LiCl has ionic character, AlCl3 has covalent character.
8.3: Bond Polarity and Dipole Moments
A molecule that has a center of positive charge and a center of negative charge is called
dipolar or to have a dipole moment.
Diatomic molecule (two-atom) that has a polar bond, it is polar molecule.
Polyatomic molecules, the structure and charge distribution determine which the
molecule is polar or not.
Nonpolar
Polar
Nonpolar
8.4: Ions: Electron configurations and sizes.
Atoms in stable compounds have a noble gas electron configuration.
Example:
The formation of an ionic compound from calcium and oxygen.
Ca2+: [Ar]
O2-: [Ne]
Predicting Formulas of Ionic Compounds
The chemical compounds are always electrically neutral-they have the same quantity of
positive and negative charges.
Examples:
1. An ionic compound from Ca2+ an O2- has the formula: CaO
2. An ionic compound formed between aluminum and oxygen.
Al: [Ne]3s23p1
O: [He]2s2 2p4
2Al + 3O 2Al3+ + 3O2-
Al3+: [Ne]
O2-: [Ne]
The formula of this compound is Al2O3
3. An ionic compound formed between magnesium and chlorine.
Mg: [Ne] 3s2
Cl: [Ne] 3s23p5
Mg + Cl2 Mg2+ + 2Cl-
Mg2+: [Ne]
Cl-: [Ar] The formula of this compound is MgCl2
Metal in groups 1A, 2A, and 3A: lose electrons.
Nonmetal in groups 6A and 7A: gain electrons.
Hydrogen behaves as a nonmetal and gain one electron to form the hydride ion
(H-): [He]
Sizes of Ions:
The size of positive ion is smaller than the size of its parent atom.
The size of negative ion is larger than the size of its parent atom.
The size of isoelectronic ions (ions containing the same number of electrons), depend on
nuclear charge (number of protons):
Example: Arrange the following ions according to their size.
O2-, F-, Na+, Mg2+ , Al3+
1. All these ions have the electronic configuration of neon.(10 electrons)
2. The nuclear charge : O2- (Z= 8), F- (Z = 9), Na+ (Z = 11), Mg2+ (Z = 12), Al3+ (Z = 13)
As the nuclear charge increase, the size of the ion decrease.
Size arrangement: O2-> F-> Na+> Mg2+ > Al3+
Examples:
8.10: Lewis Structure
The Lewis structure of a molecule shows how the valence electrons are arranged among the
atom in the molecule.
Lewis structure for ionic compound:
Example:
-
The formation of KBr, K+: [Ar] no valence electrons, and Br :[Kr] has 8 valence electrons.
The Lewis structure for KBr is
Lewis structure for molecule with covalent bond (for elements in 1st and 2nd periods)
Examples:
1. The formation of H2 molecule where it share 2 electrons. That is, it follows a Duet rule.
H: 1s1
2. The formation of F2 molecule where 8 electrons are required to fill valence orbital. That is,
it follows the Octet rule.
F: [He]2s2 2p5
He and Ne do not form bonds because they already have filled valence orbital.
Examples:
Draw Lewis structure for H2O
3. We distribute the remaining electrons to achieve a noble gas electron configuration for each
atom.
8 – 4 = 4 electrons
Hydrogen is satisfied with 2 electrons (duet rule). Oxygen needs 8 electrons (octet rule)
Draw Lewis structure for CO2
3. We distribute the remaining electrons to achieve a noble gas electron configuration for each atom.
16 – 4 = 12 electrons
each Oxygen has 8 electrons, but the carbon has only 4 electrons. This cannot be the correct Lewis
structure.
Suppose there are 2 shared electron pairs between the carbon and each oxygen:
Draw Lewis structure for CN-
Forming a bond between carbon and nitrogen using a pair of electrons,
then distribute the remaining electrons (10 – 2 = 8 electrons)
8.11: Exceptions of the Octet Rule
1. Electron- deficient atoms (Boron, and Beryllium).
2. Third –row and heavier elements exceed the octet rule by using their empty valence d
orbitals.
Electron-deficient atoms:
Example:
Boron tends to form compounds in which boron has fewer
than 8 electrons around it.
BF3
B has 6 electrons around it.
BF3 Reactive toward electron-rich molecules such as water and ammonia.
In this stable compound, boron
has 8 electrons around it.
atoms exceed octet rule:
Example:
Sulfur in SF6 has 12 electrons around it.
Sulfur have 3s, 3p, and 3d orbitals.
3d orbitals remain empty
The sulfur atom in can has 12 electrons
using the 3s and 3p orbitals to hold
8 electrons, with the extra 4 electrons placed
In the empty 3d orbitals.
Example:
Example:
The Lewis structure for the triiodide ion (I3-)
22 – 4 =18 electrons remain.
Example:
8.13: Molecular Structure: the VSEPR Model
VSEPR model:
Valence shell electron-pair repulsion.
It is useful in predicting the geometries of molecules.
It postulate that the structure around a given atom is determined by minimizing electron-
pair repulsions.
VSEPR formula:
ABxEn
Where A : central atom
B: bonding around the central atom, x: number of bonding
E: lone pairs around the central atom, n: number of lone pairs
Examples:
What is the structure of BeCl2?
The VSEPR formula is: AB2
The minimum repulsion, when this
molecule has a linear structure with
180° bond angle
VSEPR formula: AB3
The structure that satisfies minimum repulsion
is trigonal planar with 120° bond angle.
VSEPR formula: AB4
The structure that satisfies minimum repulsion
is tetrahedral with 109.5° bond angle.
examples
AB2: BeCl2, CO2
AB3: BF3
Polarity:
+ Nonpolar
AB4: CH4, CF4, CCl4, PCl4
AB5: PCl5, PBr5
AB6: SF6, PCl6-
Examples:
What is the molecular structure of SnCl2?
Lewis structure :
VSEPR formula: AB2E
The molecular structure that has
Minimum electron pairs repulsion is bent (V-shape), with bond angle < 120°
What is the molecular structure of NH3?
Lewis structure:
VSEPR formula: AB3E
The molecular structure that has
Minimum electron pairs repulsion is trigonal pyramidal,
with bond angle 107°
What is the molecular structure for H2O?
Lewis structure:
VSEPR formula: AB2E2
The molecular structure that has minimum electron
pairs repulsion is bent (V-shape), with bond angle 104.5°
What is the molecular structure for SF4?
Lewis structure:
VSEPR formula: AB4E
The molecular structure that has minimum electron
pairs repulsion is see-saw, with bond angles < 90° and <120°
What is the molecular structure for BrCl3?
Lewis structure:
VSEPR formula: AB3E2
The molecular structure that has minimum electron
pairs repulsion is T-shape, with bond angle 90°
What is the molecular structure for I3-?
Lewis structure:
VSEPR formula: AB2E3
The molecular structure that has minimum electron
pairs repulsion is linear, with bond angle 180°
What is the molecular structure for BrF5?
Lewis structure:
VSEPR formula: AB5E
The molecular structure that has minimum electron
pairs repulsion is square pyramidal, with bond angle 90°
What is the molecular structure for XeF4?
Lewis structure:
VSEPR formula: AB4E2
The molecular structure that has minimum electron
pairs repulsion is square planar, with bond angle 90°
• NOTES:
• Lone pairs require more room than bonding pairs and tend to compress the angles
between the bonding pairs.
• For the VSEPR model, multiple bonds count as one effective electron pair.
• All molecules with VSEPR formulas ABxEn are polar, except:
AB2E3 and AB4E2 are nonpolar.
41
Determine the molecular structure for:
ICl4-
BH3
SO2