Laboratory 4

Sedimentary Rocks Laboratory

Pamela J. W. Gore

Department of Geology, Georgia Perimeter College

Clarkston, GA 30021

Copyright © 1998-2004 Pamela J. W. Gore

This lab introduces sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks

are important because they contain the historical record of
ancient environments and life on Earth. Throughout this
course we will be studying sedimentary rocks, the fossils
they contain, and the history that they record.

Sediment is loose particulate material, which can form in

several ways. Sediment may be derived from the weathering
and erosion of pre-existing rock (it is called terrigenous, or
detrital, or clastic sediment). Sediment also may be
formed from chemical, biochemical, or biological materials
(such as minerals formed by the evaporation of sea water,
sea shells, or plant remains). Sedimentary rocks are
formed when sediment is compacted and cemented
together. Approximately 75% of the rocks exposed at the
Earth's surface are sedimentary rocks.

Sediment accumulates in sub-aqueous environments, such

as lakes, rivers, bays, deltas, beaches, and ocean basins.
Sediment also may be deposited in other types of
environments, such as deserts or glaciated areas. The
characteristics of the sediment (grain size, shape, sorting,
and composition), and the sedimentary structures are clues
to the environment in which the sediment was deposited.
IDENTIFYING SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks are grouped according to their origin into

(1) terrigenous sedimentary rocks (also called detrital
or clastic sedimentary rocks), which form from fragments of
pre-existing rocks, (2) chemical and biochemical
sedimentary rocks, which form as chemical precipitates, or
from the shells of organisms, and (3) organic
sedimentary rocks, composed of organic matter or carbon.

I. TERRIGENOUS (CLASTIC OR DETRITAL)

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

Terrigenous sedimentary rocks are those which are

derived from pre-existing rocks. They are composed of
rock fragments and mineral grains which have been
weathered, eroded, transported, deposited, and
cemented together to form a sedimentary rock. They
are sometimes referred to as extrabasinal, because
they are derived from rocks outside of the basin of
deposition. The individual grains (or clasts) in these
rocks are mechanically durable (to withstand abrasion
during transport), and chemically stable. Typical clasts
are made of quartz, feldspar, muscovite, clay minerals,
or rock fragments.

Texture

There are three "textural components" to most

clastic sedimentary rocks:
1. Clasts (gravel, sand, silt)
2. Matrix (fine-grained material surrounding
clasts)
3. Cement (silica, calcite, or iron oxide - the "glue" that holds the
rocks together).
 Clasts and
matrix
(labelled),
and iron
oxide cement

(reddish
brown color
surrounding
clasts)

Clast size

Most terrigenous sedimentary rocks are classified

by the size of the clasts they contain. The size ranges of sedimentary
grains are given below:

Gravel > 2 mm

Sand 1/16 - 2 mm

Silt 1/256 - 1/16 mm

Clay < 1/256 mm

Sedimentary rocks with gravel-sized clasts are

sometimes referred to as rudites or rudaceous
rocks. Rudite means "gravel". Arenaceous
sedimentary rocks or arenites are those with
 sand-sized grains. Arenite means "sand".
Argillaceous sedimentary rocks or argillites are
those with mud. (Mud is defined as a mixture of
silt and clay.) Argillite means "mud". In general, it
takes higher energy (higher water velocity) to
transport larger grains.

Clast shape

Shape of clasts is important in naming the

coarser-grained sedimentary rocks (those with
gravel-sized clasts). Gravel may be rounded or
angular (based on the sharpness of the corners of
the clasts). Gravel rapidly becomes rounded in the
first few miles of transport.

Sorting

Sorting refers to the distribution of grain sizes in a

rock. If all of the grains are the same size, the
rock is "well sorted". If there is a mixture of grain
sizes, such as sand and clay, or gravel and sand,
the rock is "poorly sorted".

Classification of Terrigenous Sedimentary Rocks

(See Table 1)
A. Rocks with gravel-sized clasts

Conglomerate and breccia contain

gravel-sized clasts surrounded by finer-
grained matrix. Conglomerates have
rounded clasts. If the particles are
angular, the rock is a breccia. In a
conglomerate, the larger clasts are generally more rounded
than the smaller clasts.
 Conglomerate

Breccia
B. Rocks with sand-sized clasts

Sandstones contain sand-sized clasts.

Sand grains may be either rounded or
angular, and they are generally more or
less the same size (this is called well
sorted). The sand grains are held
together by cement, which may be silica
(quartz), calcite, or iron oxide. (Calcite
will fizz in hydrochloric acid; iron oxide
makes the rock red, brown, or orange).
(Arenite is another word for sandstone;
the word is derived from the material
that covered the floor of the Roman
arenas where the gladiators fought.)
Sandstones are classified according to
the composition of the sand grains into
three main groups:

1. Quartz sandstone or
quartz arenite is
composed mainly of
quartz sand grains.

Quartz sandstone or quartz

arenite
2. Arkose is composed
mainly of pink or white
feldspar grains, with quartz, and
generally some muscovite mica or
sand-sized rock fragments.

Arkose
 3. Litharenite (meaning
rock-sand) or lithic
sandstone or
graywacke is
predominantly composed
of dark sand-sized rock
fragments, with some
mica, quartz, and
feldspar grains in a clay-
rich matrix. A wacke is
defined as a "dirty" sand. The term
"graywacke" is best used loosely;
there is no strict definition of the
term with which all geologists agree.
A litharenite is more strictly defined
as a rock primarily composed of
sand-sized rock fragments.

Litharenite or lithic sandstone

sometimes called graywacke
4.

 Rocks with silt-sized grains

Siltstone is intermediate in texture between
sandstone and shale. The grains are difficult to
see with the naked eye because they are so small,
but the rock has a distinct gritty feel to the
fingernails.
 Clay-dominated rocks
Shale or claystone is a fine-grained rock
composed of tiny (less than 1/256 mm) clay
minerals, mica, and quartz grains. The individual
grains are too small to see with the naked eye or
a hand lens, and the rock feels smooth to the
touch (not gritty).
Shale and claystone differ in the way that they
break.
 Shale is fissile; this means that it splits
readily into thin, flat layers.
 Claystone, on the other hand, is not fissile, and breaks
irregularly.

Claystone is not fissile

Shale is fissile
(variety = kaolin or kaolinite)
The color of shale or claystone may reveal something about
its composition.
 Black shales contain organic matter (they are
sometimes called bituminous shales).
 Red shales contain iron oxide.
 Kaolin, a type of white claystone mined in Georgia, is
composed of the mineral kaolinite (used in the
manufacture of china, coatings for glossy paper,
rubber, etc.).

Mud is defined as a mixture of silt and clay. Rocks with both

silt and clay are referred to as mudstones or mudshales,
depending on whether or not they are fissile.
II. CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS

Chemical, biochemical, and organic sedimentary rocks

are sometimes referred to as intrabasinal because they
form within the basin of deposition, rather than being
transported into it. They include chemical precipitates
(such as rock salt and gypsum), as well as the
accumulated remains of organisms which lived within
the basin (such as limestones composed of fossil
shells).
We will be dividing chemical and biochemical
sedimentary rocks into four groups: evaporites,
siliceous rocks, ironstones, and carbonate rocks.
A. Evaporites
Evaporites are chemical precipitates, which form by
precipitation of dissolved minerals from water during
evaporation. There are numerous evaporites, but we
will concentrate on three:
1. Travertine (calcite - CaCO3) -
Travertine forms by evaporation of
cave, spring, or river waters. It consists
of intergrown calcite crystals, and fizzes
in acid. Travertine is a dense, crystalline
rock with tan and white color bands. It
is especially common in limestone
caverns where it forms flowstone and
dripstone, including stalactites and
stalagmites, recognized in the lab their
cylindrical shape and internal "tree-ring-
like" appearance. Travertine which
forms around springs is a more porous,
light-colored rock, which is generally
called tufa. Because travertine is
composed of calcite, it is also mentioned
with the carbonate rocks, below.
 2. Rock gypsum (gypsum - CaSO4.2H2O) -
Rock gypsum is softer than your
fingernail (you can scratch it), and may
be glassy with obvious cleavage,
granular, or have a fibrous, satiny
luster. It ranges from colorless to white
to pink. Gypsum forms by precipitation
from sea water after about 80% of the
water has evaporated. Gypsum is
altered to anhydrite (CaSO4), by
removal of water, generally caused by
burial to depths greater than several
hundred meters. For purposes of lab, we
will not need to distinguish between
gypsum and anhydrite.
3. Rock salt (halite - NaCl) - Rock salt is a
glassy, crystalline rock which can be
easily recognized by its salty taste. It
ranges from colorless, to white, gray,
pink or orange, due to impurities. Halite
forms by precipitation from sea water
after about 90% of the water has
evaporated.

B. Siliceous Sedimentary Rocks

Siliceous rocks are dominated by silica (SiO2), which
precipitates from solution within the basin of deposition.
(They do not include quartz sandstones which are
extrabasinal in origin.) The most common siliceous
sedimentary rocks are chert, opal, and diatomite.

1. Chert (microcrystalline quartz - SiO2). Chert

is a very fine grained silica sediment of
chemical or biochemical origin. Some chert
contains siliceous skeletons of micro-
organisms known as radiolarians, which can
 be seen in thin section. Other chert forms
through the replacement of limestone, often
preserving carbonate textures such as
oolites, although the rock has been
completely altered to silica.

Chert can be recognized by its extremely fine

grain size, smooth feel, and hardness
(scratches glass). Chert varies in color, and
may be black, white, tan, gray, or greenish
gray. A red variety is called jasper. Opal is
related to chert, but contains varying
amounts of water, which produces the
characteristic iridescence. Flint is sometimes
used as a synonym for chert, but the term is
used loosely and best reserved for artifacts
such as arrowheads.

2. Diatomite (diatomaceous earth) is a soft,

white, powdery rock of low density,
composed of the siliceous (silica) skeletons of
microscopic algae called diatoms. Diatomite
can be distinguished from chalk because it
does not react with hydrochloric acid. It can
be distinguished from kaolinite by its low
density (may float on water).

C. Sedimentary ironstones
Some sedimentary rocks are dominated by iron-bearing
minerals such as hematite. Common examples of
sedimentary ironstones include:
 Precambrian banded iron formations
 Paleozoic oolitic hematite or oolitic
ironstone beds such as those exposed along
Red Mountain in Birmingham, Alabama
  Iron oxide concretions in sandstone,
commonly known as "bog iron ore"

D. Carbonate rocks
Carbonate rocks are made up of carbonate minerals. These
are minerals which contain a carbonate (CO3) group, such as:
Calcite (CaCO3)
Aragonite (CaCO3)
Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)

Calcite and aragonite are polymorphs of calcium

carbonate. Calcite is the stable form, and aragonite is
metastable. Aragonite will alter to calcite over a long
period of time. Rocks which contain abundant calcium
carbonate are often referred to as calcareous rocks.
Carbonate rocks most commonly form in warm shallow
seas in areas such as southern Florida and the
Bahamas. Dolomite frequently forms by chemical
replacement of calcium carbonate in limestones after
deposition.
Carbonate minerals are easy to identify because they
react with hydrochloric acid. Calcite and aragonite
effervesce (fizz) readily in hydrochloric acid. Dolomite
will fizz weakly, only after it has been powdered. (It will
not be necessary to distinguish calcite from aragonite in
the lab.)
The rocks which contain carbonate minerals are:
 Limestone (primarily composed of the minerals calcite
and aragonite). Limestones are generally gray (but
may be tan, pink, white, black, or other colors).
 Dolostone (primarily composed of the mineral
dolomite). Weathered surfaces of dolostones are
commonly yellowish or brownish gray because of the
presence of small amounts of iron associated with the
magnesium in dolomite.

Textures of carbonate rocks

Terrigenous rocks are composed of clasts, matrix, and
cement. Carbonate rocks have similar textural
components, which go by the following names:
1. Allochems (Analogous to clasts.) Includes:
o intraclasts
o oolites
o fossils
o pellets)
2. Matrix (microcrystalline calcite or lime mud)
3. Spar (calcite cement).

The textures of carbonate rocks are best studied in thin

section, however, some of the larger allochems such as
intraclasts, oolites, and fossils are visible in hand
specimens.

Classification of carbonate rocks

There are numerous types of carbonate rocks, and they can be classified by their
textures and the allochems they contain. Several different classification schemes
for carbonate rocks are in existence. One of the simpler classifications is based on
texture alone, and uses the following terms:
Limestone dominated by gravel-sized
Calcirudite
particles
Limestone dominated by sand-sized
Calcarenite
particles
Limestone dominated by silt-sized
Calcisiltite
particles
Limestone dominated by mud- or
Calcilutite
clay-sized particles

This classification scheme is fairly general, and does

not specify anything about the types of allochems
present. A more detailed list of types of carbonate
rocks is below.
1. Micrite. Micrite is an abbreviation for
microcrystalline calcite. "Microcrystalline" refers to
the texture, which consists of clay-sized particles
 of lime mud. Basically, this is a rock that is all
matrix with no allochems or spar. Micrite results
from the lithification of lime mud, most of which
originates from the breakdown of the hard
"skeletons" secreted by calcareous algae which
live in warm, shallow seas. Calcilutite is another
name for a limestone dominated by lime mud.

We can recognize micrite by its fine grain size and

reaction to hydrochloric acid. The color of micrite
is variable, ranging from gray to tan, or other
colors.

2. Fossiliferous limestone. Fossiliferous limestone

(sometimes called skeletal limestone) contains
fossils, or the remains of ancient plants or
animals. Many organisms have calcareous shells
or skeletons, and their remains may accumulate in
lime mud to form fossiliferous limestone.

Fossiliferous Limestone,
Ordovician, northwestern Georgia

3. Coquina. Coquina is a type of fossiliferous

limestone made up of fossil shells with little or no
matrix. It is porous and light-colored, and the
shells are frequently broken, abraded, and fairly
well sorted. The shells are gravel-sized (greater
than 2 mm), and coquina is a calcirudite.
 Coquina

4. Chalk. Chalk is a type of fossiliferous limestone

made up entirely of microscopic shells. These tiny
shells are coccoliths, the remains of planktonic
marine algae called coccolithophores. Coccoliths
are too small to see using an ordinary light
microscope; they can only be viewed with an
electron microscope. The texture of chalk is
similar to that of micrite or calcilutite, but chalk is
white in color, less dense, and less compact than
micrite. Chalk may be distinguished from other
white fine-grained sedimentary rocks (such as
kaolinite or diatomite) because it fizzes readily in
hydrochloric acid.
5. Oolitic limestone. Oolites (or ooids) are tiny
concentric spheres of calcium carbonate which
range between 0.1 and 2.0 mm in diameter. On a
cut or broken surface they look circular, and
internal concentric laminations may be seen with a
handlens or microscope. Oolites are not fossils!
They form by the precipitation of aragonite under
certain conditions in warm shallow seas, probably
under the influence of blue-green algae. Because
oolites are less than 2 mm in diameter, oolitic
limestone is calcarenite. (Structures resembling
oolites that are larger than 2.0 mm in diameter
are called pisolites).
 Oolitic limestone,
Lower Paleozoic, eastern Tennessee
Scale in cm

Oolitic Limestone
6. Intraclastic limestone. Intraclasts are flat, gravel-
sized chips of limestone in a lime mud matrix. Intraclasts form when tidal
flats covered by lime mud dry up, experience cracking, and break into flat,
gravel-sized chips. These chips of lime mud are redistributed by the tides,
and accumulate to form intraclastic limestone. Intraclasts may be
internally layered, reflecting the layering in the tidal flat sediments.
Because intraclasts are gravel-sized, intraclastic limestone is calcirudite.
Intraclastic limestone is similar to conglomerate or breccia, but may be
distinguished from them because both the clasts and the matrix of an
intraclastic limestone are made of calcium carbonate, and will fizz readily
in hydrochloric acid.
 Intraclastic Limestone
7. Pelleted or peloidal limestone. Pellets are
small (less than 1 mm) aggregates of
microcrystalline calcite, many of which are fecal in
origin. Unlike oolites, they have no internal
structure. Pellets are so small that they generally
cannot be seen in hand specimens, but they can
be seen in thin sections using a microscope.
8. Crystalline limestone. Crystalline limestone
generally consists of a coarse mosaic of
intergrown calcite crystals, resulting from the
post-depositional alteration of some other type of
limestone. Allochems may or may not be visible.
9. Travertine. Travertine was discussed above
under evaporites. It consists of a mosaic of
intergrown calcite crystals. Travertine is a dense,
crystalline rock with tan and white color bands. In
lab, stalactites and stalagmites can be recognized
by their cylindrical shape and internal "tree-ring-
like" appearance. Texturally, travertine is
essentially a carbonate rock made up entirely of
spar.
10. Dolostone. Dolostone is made up of the
mineral dolomite, a calcium-magnesium
carbonate. Most dolostones form by the chemical
replacement of calcium carbonate through the
action of magnesium-rich fluids. A dolostone may
retain the texture of the original limestone, but it
is typically dense and compact with a fine-grained
texture. Dolomite fizzes weakly in hydrochloric
 acid, and only after the rock is scratched or
powdered.

III. ORGANIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Organic sedimentary rocks are primarily composed of

organic matter or carbon. In general, they do not contain
minerals, because minerals are by definition inorganic.
Peat is a sediment composed of plant fragments. Coal is its
lithified equivalent. The plant fossils in coal generally
indicate deposition in fresh-water swamps. Peat is
transformed by burial pressure and temperature to lignite
(a soft, black or brownish, coal-like material). Lignite alters
to sooty bituminous coal with greater depth and duration
of burial, and higher temperatures (basically, low grade
metamorphism). With increasing metamorphism, the
bituminous coal alters to anthracite coal (a hard, shiny
coal). (Many books consider anthracite to be, in fact, a
metamorphic rock.)
Plant fragments

Peat

Lignite

Bituminous coal

Anthracite coal

Summary

Here is an outline of the major rock types mentioned in this

lab.
 1. Terrigenous (or clastic, or detrital) sedimentary
rocks
o Conglomerate
o Breccia
o Sandstone (types of sandstone: quartz
sandstone, arkose, litharenite)
o Siltstone
o Shale and claystone
2. Chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks
o Rock gypsum
o Rock salt
o Chert
o Diatomite
o Ironstone

Types of ironstone:

 banded iron ore

 oolitic hematite or oolitic
ironstone
 bog iron ore
o Dolostone
o Limestone

Types of limestone:

 Micrite
 Fossiliferous limestone
 Coquina
 Chalk
 Oolitic limestone
 Intraclastic limestone
 Pelleted or peloidal
limestone
 Crystalline limestone
 Travertine

 Organic sedimentary rocks

 Coal
Types of coal:
 Peat
 Lignite
 Bituminous coal
 Anthracite coal

Go to Sedimentary Rock Classification Table

Go to Sedimentary Rocks Lab - Exercises
Return to Contents

This page created by Pamela J. W. Gore

Georgia Perimeter College
July 1, 1998
Modified December 21, 1998
Updated December 1, 2003

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