CHAPTER 7:

HUMAN NUTRITION

By Ms. Stephanie B 1
Learning objectives
7.1 Diet
Core
1. Describe what is meant by a balanced diet
2. State the principal dietary sources and describe the importance of:
a) carbohydrates
b) fats and oils
c) proteins
d) vitamins, limited to C and D
e) mineral ions, limited to calcium and iron
f) fibre (roughage)
g) water
3. State the causes of scurvy and rickets
2
Learning objectives
7.2 Digestive system
Core
1. Identify in diagrams and images the main organs of the digestive system,
limited to:
a) alimentary canal: mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum
and ileum) and large intestine (colon, rectum, anus)
b) associated organs: salivary glands, pancreas, liver and gall bladder
2. Describe the functions of the organs of the digestive system listed in 7.2.1, in
relation to:
a) ingestion – the taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body
b) digestion – the breakdown of food
c) absorption – the movement of nutrients from the intestines into the blood
d) assimilation – uptake and use of nutrients by cells
e) egestion – the removal of undigested food from the body as faeces 3
Learning objectives
7.3 Physical digestion
Core
1. Describe physical digestion as the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without
chemical change to the food molecules
2. State that physical digestion increases the surface area of food for the action of enzymes
in chemical digestion
3. Identify in diagrams and images the types of human teeth: incisors, canines, premolars
and molars
4. Describe the structure of human teeth, limited to: enamel, dentine, pulp, nerves, blood
vessels and cement, and understand that teeth are embedded in bone and the gums
5. Describe the functions of the types of human teeth in physical digestion of food
6. Describe the function of the stomach in physical digestion
Supplement
7. Outline the role of bile in emulsifying fats and oils to increase the surface area for
chemical digestion 4
Learning objectives
7.4 Chemical digestion
Core
1. Describe chemical digestion as the break down of large insoluble molecules into
small soluble molecules
2. State the role of chemical digestion in producing small soluble molecules that can
be absorbed
3. Describe the functions of enzymes as follows:
a) amylase breaks down starch to simple reducing sugars
b) proteases break down protein to amino acids
c) lipase breaks down fats and oils to fatty acids and glycerol
4. State where, in the digestive system, amylase, protease and lipase are secreted
and where they act
5. Describe the functions of hydrochloric acid in gastric juice, limited to killing harmful
microorganisms in food and providing an acidic pH for optimum enzyme activity 5
Learning objectives
7.4 Chemical digestion
Supplement
6. Describe the digestion of starch in the digestive system:
a) amylase breaks down starch to maltose
b) maltase breaks down maltose to glucose on the membranes of the
epithelium lining the small intestine
7. Describe the digestion of protein by proteases in the digestive system:
a) pepsin breaks down protein in the acidic conditions of the stomach
b) trypsin breaks down protein in the alkaline conditions of the small
intestine
8. Explain that bile is an alkaline mixture that neutralises the acidic mixture
of food and gastric juices entering the duodenum from the stomach, to
provide a suitable pH for enzyme action 6
Learning objectives
7.5 Absorption
Core
1. State that the small intestine is the region where nutrients are absorbed
2. State that most water is absorbed from the small intestine but that some
is also absorbed from the colon
Supplement
3. Explain the significance of villi and microvilli in increasing the internal
surface area of the small intestine
4. Describe the structure of a villus
5. Describe the roles of capillaries and lacteals in villi

7
Diet
 Diet = The food an animal eats every day.
 Most animals need six types of nutrient in their diet. These are:
i. carbohydrates
ii. proteins
iii. fats
iv. vitamins
v. minerals
vi. water
 The diet should also contain fibre, which is not absorbed, but simply
passes through the digestive system and out in the faeces.
 Balanced diet = A diet which contains all of these nutrients, in the correct
amounts and proportions.
8
Energy needs
 Every day, a person uses up
energy. The amount you use partly
depends on:
• how old you are,
• which sex you are and
• what job you do.
 The energy you use each day
comes from the food you eat. If
you eat too much food, some of the
extra will probably be stored as fat.
If you eat too little, you may not be
able to obtain as much energy as
you need. This will make you feel
tired.
 One gram of fat contains about
twice as much energy as one
gram of protein or carbohydrate.
9
Nutrients
 As well as providing you with energy, food is needed for many other
reasons. To make sure that you eat a balanced diet you must eat foods
containing carbohydrate, fat and protein.
 You also need each kind of vitamin and mineral, fibre and water-nutrients.
If your diet doesn’t contain all of these nutrients, your body will not be
able to work properly.

1. Carbohydrates
• Needed for energy
• Staple food supplies most of the
carbohydrate in people’s diets, in
the form of starch
• E.g. potatoes, wheat (bread,
pasta), rice, maize
10
Nutrients
2. Fats and oils
• Needed for energy and to make cell membranes
• Excess fat and oil stored under the skin in adipose tissue
✓ acts as an insulator, reducing heat loss
✓ forms a later around body organs, providing
mechanical protection
• E.g. cooking oil, meat, eggs, dairy products, oily fish

3. Proteins
• Needed to build new cells, for growth
• Used to make proteins in the body such as
haemoglobin, insulin and antibodies
• E.g. meat, fish, eggs, dairy products, peas,
beans, nuts and seeds 11
4. Vitamins Vitamins: Organic substances needed in tiny amounts

Vitamin Foods that contain it Why it is needed Deficiency disease

Citrus fruits (oranges, To make the Scurvy- causes pain

limes), raw stretchy protein in joints and muscles,
vegetables collagen, found in and bleeding from
skin and other gums and other
C tissues; keeps places; this used to be
tissues in good a common disease of
repair sailors, who had no
fresh vegetables
during long voyages
Butter, egg yolk, can Helps calcium to Rickets- the bones
be made by the skin be absorbed, for become soft and
when sunlight falls on making bones and deformed; this disease
it teeth was common in young
D
children in industrial
areas, who rarely got
out into the sunshine
12
5. Minerals Minerals: Inorganic substances needed in tiny amounts

Mineral element Foods that Why it is needed Deficiency disease

contain it
Milk and other For bones and Brittle bones and
dairy products teeth; for blood teeth; poor blood
clotting clotting

Calcium, Ca

Liver, red meat, For making Anaemia- in which

egg yolk, dark haemoglobin, the there are not
green vegetables red pigment in enough red blood
Iron, Fe blood which carries cells so the tissues
oxygen do not get enough
oxygen delivered to
13
them
6. Water
 Water is an important solvent.
 Cytoplasm is a solution of many substances in water. The
spaces between our cells are also filled with a watery
liquid.
 Inside our cells, chemical reactions (metabolic reactions)
are happening all the time. They can only take place if the
chemicals that are reacting are in solution. If a cell dries
out, then the reactions stop, and the cell dies.
 The liquid part of blood, plasma is also mostly water. It contains many
dissolved substances, which are transported around the body in the blood.
 Water is also needed to dissolve enzymes and nutrients in the alimentary
canal, so that digestion can take place.
 We also need water to get rid of waste products. The kidneys remove a
waste product called urea, which is dissolved in water to form urine. 14
Fibre
 Fibre helps to keep the alimentary canal working properly. Food moves
through the alimentary canal because the muscles contract and relax to
squeeze it along. This is called peristalsis .
 The muscles are stimulated to do this when there is food in the alimentary
canal. Soft foods do not stimulate the muscles very much. The muscles
work more strongly when there is harder, less digestible food, like fibre, in
the alimentary canal. Fibre keeps the digestive system in good
working order, and helps to prevent constipation.
 All plant foods, such as fruits and vegetables, contain fibre. This is
because the plant cells have cellulose cell walls. Humans cannot digest
cellulose.
 One common form of fibre is the outer husk of cereal grains, such as
oats, wheat and barley. This is called bran. Some of this husk is found in
wholemeal bread. Brown or unpolished rice is also a good source of15fibre.
Digestion
There are 5 stages in the way an animal
deals with food:
1. Ingestion
• taking food and drink into the body
through the mouth (eating).

2. Digestion
• the breakdown of large, insoluble food
molecules into small, water- soluble
molecules using mechanical and
chemical processes.
3. Absorption
• moving digested molecules from the
alimentary canal into the bloodstream
or the lymph so they can be
transported around the body. 16
Digestion
4. Assimilation - movement of absorbed food molecules
into cells where they are used and become part of the cells.
5. Egestion - getting rid of food that could not be
digested (e.g. dietary fibre) by passing it as faeces.

17
The alimentary canal
► The alimentary canal is a long tube which starts from the mouth, runs
through the stomach and intestines and ends at the anus. The
alimentary canal, liver and pancreas make up the digestive system.
► The wall of the alimentary canal contains muscles, which contract and
relax to make food move along. This movement is called peristalsis .
► Sometimes, it is necessary to keep the food in one part of the
alimentary canal for a while, before it is allowed to move to the next
part. Special muscles can close the tube
completely in certain places. They are
called sphincter muscles .
► To help the food to slide easily through
the alimentary canal, it is lubricated with
mucus. Mucus is made in goblet cells
which occur along the alimentary canal. 18
The alimentary canal

19
The digestive system

20
The mouth
► Food is ingested using the teeth, Events
lips and tongue. The teeth then during
ingestion
bite or grind the food into smaller
pieces, increasing its surface area.
► The tongue mixes the food with
saliva, and forms it into a bolus.
The bolus is then swallowed.
► The salivary glands make saliva
which contains:
1. Water – helps dissolve substances in the food, allowing us to taste
2. Mucus – helps the chewed food to bind together to form a bolus;
and lubricates the bolus so that it slides down the oesphagus easily.
3. Amylase – enzyme that begins to digest starch in food to maltose.
21
Alimentary canal- the oesophagus
►2 tubes leading down from the back of the mouth:
i. In front- trachea or windpipe, which takes
air down to the lungs.
ii. Behind the trachea- the oesophagus
which takes food down to the stomach
► Epiglottis - A piece of cartilage covering
the entrance to trachea: stops food from going down
into the lungs when swallowing.
► The movement of food down the oesophagus
occurs by peristalsis.
► The entrance to the stomach from the oesophagus Peristalsis in the
oesophagus is a wave of
is guarded by a ring of muscle called a sphincter. contraction to pass food to
This muscle relaxes to let the food pass into the the stomach
stomach. 22
Alimentary canal- the stomach
► Pits in the stomach wall (gastric pit) contain:
• Goblet cells- secrete mucus
• Cells which produce protease enzyme (pepsin)-
digest proteins to polypeptides
• Cells which make hydrochloric acid- kills any
bacteria in the food
► The walls of the stomach make a digestive juice known
as gastric juice- containing pepsin and hydrochloric acid.
As a result, the enzyme pepsin works in an acid pH of 1.5
to 2.0.
► The stomach has strong, muscular walls that contract and
relax to churn the food and mix it with the enzymes and
mucus. The mixture is called chyme. This muscular
action is a type of mechanical digestion. A gastric pit

► The stomach can store food for quite a long time. ** Rennin is only produced in the
After some time, the pyloric sphincter at the stomach of young mammals. It causes
milk that they get from their mothers to
bottom of the stomach opens and lets the chyme coagulate. The milk proteins are then
into the duodenum. broken down by pepsin.
Alimentary canal- the small intestine
► The small intestine is the part
between the stomach and the
colon. It is about 5m long.
► It is called the small intestine
because it is quite narrow
(smaller than large intestine).
► Different parts of the small
intestine have different names:
• First part, nearest to the
stomach is the duodenum.
• Second part, is the jejunum.
• The last part, nearest to the
colon, is the ileum.
24
The pancreas
► The pancreas (lying just underneath the stomach)
is connected to the duodenum by the pancreatic
duct. Pancreatic juice flows down the duct to into
the duodenum to act on food from the stomach.
► Pancreatic juice contains:
• Amylase - breaks down starch to maltose
• Trypsin (a protease)- breaks down
proteins to polypeptides
• Lipase - breaks down fats to fatty acids
and glycerol
► These enzymes do not work well in acid environments, but
the chyme which has come from the stomach contains
hydrochloric acid. Pancreatic juice contains the alkali,
sodium hydrogencarbonate which partially neutralises the
acid.
Bile
► Besides pancreatic juice, another liquid
is secreted into the duodenum: bile
► Bile is a yellowish green, alkaline,
watery liquid:
• Made in the : liver
• Stored in the : gall bladder
• Flows to the duodenum along a
tube called the bile duct.
• Functions of bile:
i. helps to neutralise the acidic
mixture from the stomach.
ii. helps to digest fats
26
Bile
► Bile contains bile salts which emulsify
the fats.
• The bile salts break up large drops of fat into
very small ones, making it easier for the lipase
in the pancreatic juice to digest them.
• Emulsification is a type of mechanical
digestion. Large globules of fat
are emulsified to
► Bile also contains yellowish bile pigments.
smaller globules to
• These are made by the liver when it breaks increase their surface
down old red blood cells. area

• The bile pigments are made from

haemoglobin.
• The pigments are not needed by the body, so
they are eventually excreted in the faeces. 27
Digestion
Large carbohydrate molecules, such as polysaccharides, have to be
broken down into simple sugars (monosaccharides). Proteins are
broken down to amino acids. Fats are broken down to fatty acids and
glycerol.
Simple sugars, water, vitamins and minerals are already small
molecules, and they can be absorbed just as they are. They do not
need to be digested.
Nutrient Enzyme that breaks Small molecule produced
it down
Starch Amylase Simple sugars
Protein Protease Amino acids
Fat Lipase Fatty acids and glycerol 28
Mechanical and chemical digestion
Often the food an animal eats is in quite large pieces. These pieces
of food need to be broken up by teeth, and by churning movements
of the alimentary canal. This is called mechanical digestion.
Once pieces of food have been ground up, the large molecules
present are then broken down into small ones. This is called
chemical digestion. It involves a chemical change from one sort of
molecule to another. Enzymes are involved in this process.

Key Definition

Mechanical digestion - the breakdown of food into smaller pieces

without chemical change to the food molecules
Chemical digestion - the breakdown of large insoluble molecules into
small soluble molecules
29
Digestion of carbohydrates

30
Digestion of fats

31
Digestion of proteins

32
33
Teeth
 Teeth help with the ingestion and
mechanical digestion of the food we eat.
 Mechanical digestion mainly occurs in the
mouth by means of the teeth through a
process called mastication (chewing).
 Teeth can be used to bite off pieces of
food. They then chop, crush or grind them
into smaller pieces.
 This gives the food a larger surface
area, which makes it easier for
enzymes to work on the food in the
digestive system.
 It also helps soluble parts of the food to Key Definition
dissolve. Ingestion - taking of substances, e.g. food
and drink, into the body through mouth. 34
Teeth
 The part of the tooth which is embedded in the
gum is called the root. The part which can be
seen is the crown. The crown is covered with
enamel. Enamel is the hardest substance made
by animals. It is very difficult to break or chip it.
However, it can be dissolved by acids.
 Under the enamel is a layer of dentine, which is
rather like bone. Dentine is quite hard, but not
as hard as enamel. It has channels in it which
contain living cytoplasm.
 In the middle of the tooth is the pulp cavity. It
contains nerves and blood vessels. These
supply the cytoplasm in the dentine with food
and oxygen.
 The root of the tooth is covered with cement.
This has fibres growing out of it. These attach
the tooth to the jawbone, but allow it to move
slightly when biting or chewing.
Types of teeth
 Most mammals have four kinds of teeth:
i. Incisors are the sharp-edged, chisel-shaped teeth at the front
of the mouth. They are used for biting off pieces of food.
ii. Canines are the more pointed teeth at either side of the incisors.
iii. Premolars
iv. Molars are the large teeth towards the back of the mouth.
They are used for chewing food.
 In humans, the ones right at the back are sometimes called wisdom
teeth. They do not grow until much later in the persons development than
the others. Canine Premolar

Molar

Incisor 36
Types of teeth Teeth in human
upper jaw

37
Types of teeth
 Mammals also differ from other animals in having two sets of teeth:
i. The first set is called the deciduous teeth or milk teeth .
• In humans, these start to grow through the gum, one or two at a
time, when a child is about five months old. By the age of 24 to 30
months, most children have a set of 20 teeth. This first set of teeth
begins to fall out when the child is about seven years old.
ii. Twenty teeth to replace the ones which fall out, plus 12 new teeth,
make up the second, complete set of permanent teeth .
• There are 32 altogether. Most people have all their permanent teeth
by about 17 years of age.

38
Dental decay
 Bacteria in the mouth, together with substances from saliva, form a sticky film
over teeth, especially next to the gums and in between the teeth. This is called
plaque .
 Plaque is soft and easy to remove at first, but if it is left it hardens to form
tartar which cannot be removed by brushing.

Gum disease
 If plaque is not removed, the
bacteria in it may infect the
gums. The gums swell,
become inflamed, and may
bleed when you brush your
teeth.
 This is usually painless, but if the bacteria are allowed to spread they
may work down around the tooth root. The tooth becomes loose, and
39
needs removing.
Dental decay
Tooth decay
• If sugar is left on the teeth,
bacteria in the plaque will feed
on it.
• They use it in respiration,
changing it into acid.
• The acid gradually dissolves
the enamel covering the tooth,
and works its way into the
dentine.
• Dentine is dissolved away
more rapidly than the enamel.
If nothing is done about it, the
tooth will eventually have to be
taken out.
40
Keeping teeth and gums healthy
1. Don’t eat too much sugar .
• The rule is to eat sweet things only once or twice a day, preferably with
your meals. The worst thing you can do is to suck or chew sweet things
all day long. And don’t forget that many drinks also contain a lot of
sugar.
2. Use a fluoride toothpaste regularly .
• Fluoride makes your teeth more resistant to decay. Drinking water
which contains fluoride, or brushing teeth with a fluoride toothpaste,
makes it much less likely that you will have to have teeth filled or
extracted. Regular and thorough brushing also helps to remove plaque,
which will prevent gum disease and reduce decay.
3. Make regular visits to a dentist .
• Regular dental check-ups will make sure that any gum disease or tooth
decay is stopped before it really gets a hold. 41
Villi (cover the small intestine)
► The inner wall of all parts of the small intestine is covered with millions of
tiny projections. They are called villi (singular: villus). Each villus is about
1 mm long.
► Cells covering the villi make enzymes. The enzymes do not come out into
the lumen of the small intestine, but stay close to the cells which make
them. These enzymes complete the digestion of food.

42
Structure
of a villus

43
Villi
► The cell membrane on the
surface of each villus is
folded to form many tiny
microvilli.
► Enzymes in the villi complete
the digestion of food:
• Maltase - breaks
down maltose to glucose
► Glucose, amino acids, fatty
acids, glycerol, vitamins,
mineral ions and water are
absorbed through these The villi that line the small intestine
greatly increase its internal surface area.
membranes. 44
Absorption of digested food
► Digested food including simple sugars, amino
acids, fatty acids and glycerol are small enough
to pass through the wall of the small intestine
and into the blood by diffusion or active
transport. This is called absorption.
► Water soluble food molecules (glucose, amino
acids, minerals, vitamins C & B)
• Enters capillaries in the villi
• Transported by the hepatic portal vein to
the liver
► Fat-soluble food molecules (fatty acid,
glycerol, vitamins A,D,E & K)
• Enters lacteals (lymph capillaries) in the villi Key Definition
• Transported in the lymph to lymphatic Absorption - the movement of small food
molecules and ions through the wall of the
vessels and then the heart intestine into the blood
45
Adaptations of the small intestine
► Thesmall intestine is especially adapted to allow absorption to take place
very efficiently as below:

46
Alimentary canal- the large intestine
► Undigested food cannot be absorbed in the
small intestine.
• It travels on, through the caecum, past
the appendix and into the colon
• Caecum: a pouch connected to the
junction of the small and large intestine.
• The colon and rectum are sometimes
called the large intestine,
► Inthe colon, more water and salt are
absorbed. However, the colon absorbs
much less water than the small intestine.

47
Alimentary canal- the large intestine
► By the time the food reaches the rectum, most
of the substances which can be absorbed have
gone into the blood. All that remains is:
i. Indigestible food (fibre or roughage) This mixture forms
ii. Bacteria the faeces, which
iii. Some dead cells from the inside of the are stored in the
alimentary canal. rectum.
► Eventually, the faeces are passed out at
intervals through the anus. This process is
called egestion.
► Bile salts are absorbed and returned to the liver
Key Definition
by the blood circulation.
Egestion the passing out of food that has not been
digested or absorbed, as faeces, through the48 anus.
Assimilation
► After they have been absorbed into the blood, the
nutrients are taken to the liver, in the hepatic
portal vein. .
► The liver processes some of them, before they go
any further. Some of these nutrients can be
broken down, some converted into other
substances, some stored and the remainder left
unchanged.
► The nutrients, dissolved in the blood plasma, are
then taken to other parts of the body where they
may become assimilated as part of a cell.
Key Definition
*Hepatic portal vein- carries Assimilation - the movement of digested food
digested food from the small molecules into the cells of the body where they are
intestine to the liver used, becoming part of the cells 49
Assimilation
► The liver carries out a number of important functions as part of
assimilation:
a. Glucose
• Stores glucose by removing it from the blood and storing it as
glycogen. This helps to regulate the concentration of glucose in
the blood.
b. Amino acids
• Uses amino acids to make proteins, such as those involved with
blood clotting
• Breaks down excess amino acids
c. Fatty acids and glycerol
• Converts fatty acids and glycerol into fat which is stored around
the body (e.g. under the skin)
• Produces cholesterol from fats
50
Let’s answer!
The diagram shows the human digestive system.
a. Name each of the parts labelled A to J on the
diagram.
A: Salivary glands
B: Oesophagus
C: Stomach
D: Pancreas
E: Duodenum
F: Ileum
G: Colon
H: Rectum
I: Anus
J: Liver 51
Let’s answer! [ANSWERS]
The diagram shows the human digestive system.
a. Name each of the parts labelled A to J on the
diagram.
A: Salivary glands
B: Oesophagus
C: Stomach
D: Pancreas
E: Duodenum
F: Ileum
G: Colon
H: Rectum
I: Anus
J: Liver 52
Let’s answer!
The diagram shows the human digestive system.
b. Give the letters (not the name) of each of the
following parts:
i. Two parts where amylase is secreted- A, E

ii. two parts where protease is secreted- C, E

iii. one part where lipase is secreted- E

iv. the part where hydrochloric acid is secreted- C

v. the two parts that make up the small intestine- E, F

vi. two parts where water is absorbed- F, G

vii. the part where egestion takes place- I

53
Let’s answer! [ANSWERS]
The diagram shows the human digestive system.
b. Give the letters (not the name) of each of the
following parts:
i. Two parts where amylase is secreted- A, E

ii. two parts where protease is secreted- C, E

iii. one part where lipase is secreted- E

iv. the part where hydrochloric acid is secreted- C

v. the two parts that make up the small intestine- E, F

vi. two parts where water is absorbed- F, G

vii. the part where egestion takes place- I

54
Important definitions in this chapter
 Digestion: the breakdown of large, insoluble food
molecules into small, water-soluble molecules using
mechanical and chemical processes.
 Mechanical digestion: the breakdown of food into
smaller pieces without chemical change to the food
molecules
 Chemical digestion: the breakdown of large insoluble
molecules into small soluble molecules
 Ingestion: taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into
the body through mouth
55
Important definitions in this chapter
Absorption: the movement of small food
molecules and ions through the wall of the intestine
into the blood
Egestion: the passing out of food that has not
been digested or absorbed, as faeces, through the
anus
Assimilation: the movement of digested food
molecules into the cells of the body where they are
used, becoming part of the cells.
56
Summary of digestion in the alimentary canal
Part of the Juices Where Enzymes in Substrate Product Other Functions
canal secreted made juice substances of other
in juice substances

Mouth Saliva Salivary Amylase Starch Maltose - -

glands
Oesophagus None - - - - - -
Pepsin Proteins Polypeptides Hydrochloric Acid
acid environment
for pepsin;
kills bacteria
Gastric In pits of wall in food
Stomach
juice of stomach
Rennin (only Milk protein Curdled milk - -
in young protein
mammals)

All the digestive juices contain water and mucus.

Water is for: (i) Digestion of large molecules to small ones (ii) Solvent for nutrients and enzymes
Mucus : (i) Acts as a lubricant (ii) forms a covering over the inner surface of the alimentary canal, preventing enzymes
from digesting the cells 57
Summary of digestion in the alimentary canal
Part of the Juices secreted Where made Enzymes in Substrate Product Other Functions of
canal juice substances in other
juice substances

Amylase Starch Maltose

Sodium Reduces
Pancreatic Trypsin Proteins Polypeptides
Pancreas hydrogen acidity of
juice Lipase Fats Fatty acids carbonate chyme
Duodenum and glycerol
Bile Liver, - - - Bile salts Emulsify fats
stored in
gall bladder Bile Excretory
pigments products
Ileum No juice By cells Maltase Maltose Glucose - -
secreted; covering
Sucrase Sucrose Glucose and
enzymes the villi
fructose
remain in or
on the cells Lactase Lactose Glucose and
covering the galactose
villi Peptidase Polypeptides Amino acids
Lipase Fats Fatty acids
58
and glycerol