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Chapter 1 – Topics to be Covered

 Topics to be addressed in this chapter

 Definition of OCF
 OCF vs Pipe flow

 Type of Flows

 Type of Channels

 Channel geometry

 Effect of viscosity and gravity

 Velocity and Pressure distribution in OCF

 Correction factors

Introduction on OCF 1 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Definition: OCF

 An open channel is the one in which stream is not
completely enclosed by solid boundaries and therefore
has a free surface subjected to atmosphere pressure
 The flow in such channels is not caused by some external
head, but rather by gravitational component along the
slope of channel. Thus open channel flow is also referred
to as free surface flow or gravity flow
 A free surface is the interface between two fluids of
different densities
 To a hydraulic engineer, water is the most common fluid
with air as the overlying fluid

Definition of OCF 2 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Definition: OCF

 Examples of open channel are

 Natural flows: rivers, streams, creeks etc
 Human-made systems: irrigaton canals, sewers, drains,
laboratory flumes etc

Due to presence of
free surface in OCF,
the analysis of OCF is
much more difficult
than that of pipe flow

Definition of OCF 3 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Open Channels

Artificial channels

Canal River
Definition of OCF 4 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Open Channels

Classification of OCF 5 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Few Examples of OCF

Canal
Tunnel

Drop Culvert
Examples of OCF 6 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Total Head in OCF

V2
 Total head at a cross-section is: H  z  y  
2g
where H = total head
z = elevation of the channel bottom
y = vertical depth of flow
V2/2g = velocity head
 = velocity correction factor

Energy of OCF 7 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Energy in OCF

Energy of OCF 8 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – OCF and Pipe Flow

Energy of OCF 9 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – OCF vs Pipe Flow

OCF and Pipe Flow 10 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – OCF vs Pipe Flow

OCF and Pipe Flow 10 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Channel Geometry

 A channel built with constant cross-section and constant

bottom slope is called a PRISMATIC CHANNEL

 Otherwise, the channel is NON-PRISMATIC

 The slope of a channel can be expressed as –

 An angle = 1 degree
 As percent = 1%

 Or as fraction = 0.01 or 1 in 100

Channel Geometry 12 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Channel Geometry

 THE CHANNEL SECTION is the cross-section of a channel taken

normal to the direction of the flow
 THE VERTICAL CHANNEL SECTION is the vertical section passing
through the lowest or bottom point of the channel section

Channel Geometry 13 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Geometric Elements of Channel Section

 THE DEPTH OF FLOW, y, is the vertical distane of the lowest

point of a channel section from the free surface

Channel Geometry 14 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Geometric Elements of Channel Section

 THE DEPTH OF FLOW SECTION, d, is the depth of flow

normal to the direction of flow

Channel Geometry 15 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Geometric Elements of Channel Section

 TOP WIDTH, T: is the width of channel

section at the free surface
 WETTED AREA, A: it is the cross-
sectional area of the flow section of
the channel
 WETTED PERIMETER, P: it is the length
of channel boundary in contact with
the flowing water at any section
 HYDRAULIC RADIUS, R = A/P: it is the
ratio of cross-sectional area of flow to A
the wetted perimeter
 HYDRAULIC DEPTH, D = A/T: is the
ratio of the water area to the top
width
Channel Geometry 16 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Wetted Perimeter

 The wetted perimeter does not include the free surface

Examples of R for common geometries shown in figures below

Channel Geometry 17 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Channel Geometry

 Trapezoidal Section

Channel Geometry 18 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Geometric Elements of Channel Section

Channel Geometry 19 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Types of flow in open channels

 CRITERIA: change in flow depth with respect to time and space

Classification of OCF 20 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Steady and Unsteady Flow

 Steady Flow: when depth, mean velocity or discharge at a section do not

change with time, the flow is said to be steady
y u Q
   0 for fixed x
t t t
 Example: Flow in a flume with constant Q, winter or dry season flow in a river
 Unsteady Flow: when depth, mean velocity or discharge at a section is
changing with time, the flow is said to be unsteady

y u Q
   0 for fixed x
t t t
 Example: Flood flow in a river, Tidal flow

Classification of OCF 21 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Uniform Flow

 Flow in the open

channels is also
classified as being
uniform or non-uniform
depending upon the
depth y
 Uniform flow
encountered in long
straight sections
 Depth of uniform flow is
called normal depth yn

Classification of OCF 22 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Uniform Flow

 Uniform Flow: Flow in the open channel is said to be uniform when depth,
mean velocity or discharge do not change along the length of a channel
y u Q
   0 for fixed t
x x x
 Example: Flow in a flume with constant Q
 For uniform flow: S0 = Sw = Sf  parallel to each other
 Steady - Uniform Flow:
y u Q y u Q
     0
t t t x x x
 Example: Flow in a flume with constant Q
 Unsteady-Uniform Flow: which means the water surface fluctuates from
time to time but parallel to channel bottom which is impossible

Classification of OCF 23 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Non-uniform Flow

 Non-uniform Flow or Varied flow: Flow in the open channel is said to be

non-uniform when depth, mean velocity or discharge is changing along
the length of a channel.
y
0
x
 Three Types:
 Gradually Varied Flow (GVF): depth change is gradual, example: flow
behind a dam, flow u/s of a sluice gate
 Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF): depth change is rapid, example: hydraulic
jump or drop
 Spatially Varied Flow (SVF): if some flow is added to or subtracted from
the system, the resulting varied flow is a SVF, example: road side gutter

Classification of OCF 24 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Uniform and Non-uniform Flow

 Obstructions cause the flow depth to vary

 Rapidly varied flow (RVF) occurs over a short distance near the
obstacle
 Gradually varied flow (GVF) occurs over larger distances and
usually connects UF and RVF

GVF
y
0
x

RVF
y
 0
x

Classification of OCF 25 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Steady Non-uniform Flow

Classification of OCF 26 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Non-uniform Flow

 Spatially Varied Flow (SVF): Transverse or Lateral inflow or outflow

Classification of OCF 27 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Effect of Viscosity

 Effect of viscosity relative to inertia is represented by Reynolds Number
 Reynolds No, Re = Inertia force/Viscous force = VL/ν = VR/ν
where, V = a characteristic velocity taken to be the mean velocity
L = a characteristic length taken to be the hydraulic radius R (A/P)
ν = Kinematic viscosity of water = 10-6 m2/s at 20°C
In OCFs
Remember in pipe flows
For Laminar flow: Re <= 500
(viscous forces are strong) Re = VD/ν = 4VR/ν
For transitional flow: 500 < Re < 1000 For Laminar flow: Re <= 2000
For Turbulent flow: Re >= 1000 For Turbulent flow: Re >= 4000
(viscous forces are weak)
 For most OCF, Re > 106 , only overland flow or sheet flow are laminar,
remaining all flows are turbulent

Type of OCF 28 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Effect of Gravity

 Effect of gravity relative to inertia is represented by a dimensionless
number called Froude Number (Fr)-
InertiaForce V V
 Froude No, Fr   
GravityForce gL gD
where, V = a characteristic velocity taken to be the mean velocity
L = a characteristic length taken to be the hydraulic depth D (A/T)
T = free surface or top width

 When, Fr = 1, V  gD , flow is said to be in critical state  inertia

forces and gravitational forces are equal
 When, Fr < 1, V  gD , flow is said to be in sub-critical state  gravity
forces are strong
 When, Fr > 1, V  gD , flow is said to be in super-critical state 
gravity forces are weak

Type of OCF 29 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Critical Depth

 Critical depth yc occurs at Fr = 1

 At low flow velocities (Fr < 1, subcritical flow)  y > yc
 At high flow velocities (Fr > 1, supercritical flow)  y < yc

Type of OCF 30 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Types of Channels

 Natural Channels: developed by natural processes ie rivers,
streams, creeks, estuaries etc
 Artificial Channels: channels developed by human efforts for
carrying water for various purposes ie. navigation channels,
irrigation canals, drains etc. It is easier to treat artificial channels
 Prismatic (constant shape and bottom slope)
 Canal (long channel of mild slope)
 Flume (channel built above ground)
 Chute and drop(channel with steep slope)
 Culvert (pipe flowing only partially full)
 Open Channels: A channel without any cover at the top eg. canals,
rivers, streams etc
 Covered Channels: A channel having cover at the top ie. partially
filled conduits carrying water eg. tunnels, sewers etc

Channel Type 31 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Types of Channels

 Prismatic Channels: A channel with constant bed slope and cross-
section along its length ie. artificial channels (rectangular,
trapezoidal, triangular, parabolic, circular channels)
 Non-prismatic Channels: A channel with varying bed slope and
cross-section along its length ie. all natural channels
 Rigid Boundary Channels: Rigid channels are those in which the
boundary is not deformable ie. lined canals or non erodible unlined
canals
 Mobile Boundary Channels: When the boundary of a channel is
mobile and flow carries sediment through suspension and in contact
with the bed, such channels are classified as mobile channels
 Small Slope Channels: A channel having small bed slope
 Large Slope Channels: A channel having large bed slope
Channel Type 32 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Example
 A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 6 m and side slope of
2:1. Compute the discharge and determine the state of flow if the
depth of flow is 1.5 m and mean velocity is 2.3 m/s.
 Solution:
Given: b = 6 m, s = 2, h = 1.5 m, V = 2.3 m/s
A = (b+sh)h = (6+2*1.5) * 1.5 = 13.5 m2
P = b + 2h√(1+s2) = 6 + 2*1.5*√(1+22) = 12.71 m
T = b + 2sh = 6 + 2*2*1.5 = 12 m
Rh = A/P = 13.5/12.71 = 1.06 m
D = A/T = 13.5/12 = 1.13 m
Q = AV = 13.5*2.3 = 31.05 m3/s
Re = VRh/ν = 2.3*1.06/10-6 = 2.44*106
Fr = V/√(gD) = 2.3/√(9.81*1.13) = 0.69 < 1
So, the flow is subcritical turbulent
State of OCF 33 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Practice Problem

 A circular channel 2.75 m in diameter carries a discharge of 6.55

m3/s at a depth of 1.1 m. Determine the state of flow.

State of OCF 34 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Velocity Profile

 In order to understand the velocity distribution in an OCF, it is

customary to plot the isovels, which are the equal velocity lines
at a cross-section

Velocity Distribution 35 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Velocity Distribution

 Thevelocity distribution in an OCF is quite non-uniform

because of
 Non-uniform shear stress along the wetted perimeter
 Presence of free surface on which the shear stress is zero

 Velocity is zero on bottom and sides of channel due to no-

slip condition
 Maximum velocity is usually below the free surface

 In most cases, velocity also varies in the streamwise

direction, therefore, the flow is 3D
 Avg. velocity at any vertical, Vav = (V0.2y + V0.8y)/2 or V0.6y

Velocity Distribution 36 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Velocity Distribution

Velocity Distribution 37 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Example on Velocity

 Velocity measurements at a station on a certain river have

shown that the velocity distribution equation is given by:
u = 2.5y – y2 + C,
where, u is the general velocity in m/s, y is the height in m
measured from bottom and C is a constant
The bottom velocity is measured to be 0.1 m/s and the total
water depth is 2.0 m.
Calculate (i) the constant C, (ii) the surface velocity, (iii) the
mean velocity, (iv) the maximum velocity, (v) Manning
coefficient, and (vi) unit discharge.

Velocity Distribution 38 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Example on Velocity

(i) Constant, C: substitute U = 0.1 at y = 0.0 in the eq.

0.1 = 2.5 x 0.0 – 0.02 + C  C = 0.1
So, the eq becomes: U = 2.5y – y2 + 0.1
(ii) Surface Velocity: substitute y = 2.0 in the eq.
US = 2.5 x 2.0 – 2.02 + 0.1 = 1.1 m/s
(iii) Mean Velocity:
y
1 1 y3  y2
U mean   U dy  1.25 y 2   0.1y   1.25 y   0 .1
Y 0 y 3  3
substitute y = 2.0 in the eq.
4
U mean  1.25  2   0.1  1.267 m / s
3
Velocity Distribution 39 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Example on Velocity

(iv) Max Velocity: Umax means du/dy = 0

du/dy = 2.5 – 2y = 0  y = 1.25 m
substitute y = 1.25 in the eq
Umax = 2.5 x 1.25 – 1.252 + 0.1 = 1.66 m/s
(v) Manning’s n: assume, S = 8 x 10-5 and for wide channel y=R

U mean 
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
n
1

R S or 1.267  .2 2 / 3. 8  10 5
n

1/ 2

So, n = 0.0112
(vi) Unit discharge, q:
q = y x Umean = 2 x 1.267 = 2.534 m3/s/m

Velocity Distribution 40 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Pressure Distribution

Hydrostatic pressure distribution in still water

Pressure distribution in a
channel with large slope
Pressure distribution in a channel with small slope

Pressure Distribution 41 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Pressure Distribution

Pressure Distribution 42 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Pressure Distribution

Pressure Distribution 43 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Fundamental Equations

 Conservation of Mass:
Q  Av
 Conservation of Momentum
 F  Q(v2  v1 )
 Conservation of Energy
v2
H  z y
2g

Fundamental Equations 44 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Correction of Momentum Flux

 True transfer of momentum:

 dA
 2
v
A
 Average transfer
Qv
 Conservation of Energy

 v dA  v dA
2 2

A  A
Qv v 2 A
Correction Factor 45 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Correction of Energy Flux

 True transfer of energy:

1 3
A 2 v dA
 Average transfer
1
Qv 2
2
 Conservation of Energy

 v dA  dA

3 3
v
A A 3
Qv 2
v A
Correction Factor 46 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Correction factors

 Properties of  and 
 Equal to unity for uniform flow (otherwise greater than 1)
  is more sensitive to velocity variations than 
 and  used generally for complex cross-sectional
shapes (eg, compound sections, natural channels etc)

Correction Factor 47 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Example on Correction factors

Velocity profile of a 6m depth channel is below:

z (m) 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
u (m/s) 0.0 2.95 3.31 3.62 3.95 4.12 4.51
where, u is the velocity at a distance z from channel bottom
along a vertial in a wide channel. Calculate  and .
Solution:
h
q   udz  uz
0
0  4.51
 1[  2.95  3.31 3.62  3.95  4.12]  20.21 m2 / s
2
Correction Factor 48 Open Channel Flow

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Chapter 1 – Example on Correction factors

Solution:
q 20.21
U   3.37m / s
h 6.0
h

 u dz u z
3
3

 0
3 3
Uh Uh
1.0 03  4.513
 [  2.953  3.313  3.623  3.953  4.123 ]  1.25
3.37  6
3
2
Correction Factor 49 Open Channel Flow

Chapter 1 – Example on Correction factors

Solution:
h

 u dz u z
2
2

 0
2 2
U h U h
1.0 02  4.512
 [  2.952  3.312  3.622  3.952  4.122 ]  1.11
3.37  6
2
2

Correction Factor 50 Open Channel Flow

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