CHAPTER ONE

Systems development is systematic process which includes phases such as planning,

analysis, design, deployment, and maintenance. Here, in this tutorial, we will primarily focus
on −

 Systems analysis
 Systems design

Systems Analysis

It is a process of collecting and interpreting facts, identifying the problems, and

decomposition of a system into its components.

System analysis is conducted for the purpose of studying a system or its parts in order to
identify its objectives. It is a problem solving technique that improves the system and
ensures that all the components of the system work efficiently to accomplish their purpose.

Analysis specifies what the system should do.

Systems Design

It is a process of planning a new business system or replacing an existing system by

defining its components or modules to satisfy the specific requirements. Before planning,
you need to understand the old system thoroughly and determine how computers can best
be used in order to operate efficiently.

System Design focuses on how to accomplish the objective of the system.

System Analysis and Design (SAD) mainly focuses on −

 Systems
 Processes
 Technology

What is a System?

The word System is derived from Greek word Systema, which means an organized
relationship between any set of components to achieve some common cause or objective.

A system is “an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together according to

a plan to achieve a specific goal.”

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 CONSTRAINTS OF A SYSTEM

A system must have three basic constraints −

 A system must have some structure and behaviour which is designed to achieve a
predefined objective.
 Interconnectivity and interdependence must exist among the system components.
 The objectives of the organization have a higher priority than the objectives of its
subsystems.

For example, traffic management system, payroll system, automatic library system, human
resources information system.

PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM

A system has the following properties −

Organization

Organization implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of components that helps to
achieve predetermined objectives.

Interaction

It is defined by the manner in which the components operate with each other.

For example, in an organization, purchasing department must interact with production

department and payroll with personnel department.

Interdependence

Interdependence means how the components of a system depend on one another. For
proper functioning, the components are coordinated and linked together according to a
specified plan. The output of one subsystem is the required by other subsystem as input.

Integration

Integration is concerned with how a system components are connected together. It means
that the parts of the system work together within the system even if each part performs a
unique function.

Central Objective

The objective of system must be central. It may be real or stated. It is not uncommon for an
organization to state an objective and operate to achieve another.

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The users must know the main objective of a computer application early in the analysis for a
successful design and conversion.

ELEMENTS OF A SYSTEM

The following diagram shows the elements of a system −

Outputs and Inputs

 The main aim of a system is to produce an output which is useful for its user.
 Inputs are the information that enters into the system for processing.
 Output is the outcome of processing.
Processor(s)
 The processor is the element of a system that involves the actual transformation of
input into output.
 It is the operational component of a system. Processors may modify the input either
totally or partially, depending on the output specification.
 As the output specifications change, so does the processing. In some cases, input is
also modified to enable the processor for handling the transformation.
Control
 The control element guides the system.
 It is the decision–making subsystem that controls the pattern of activities governing
input, processing, and output.
 The behavior of a computer System is controlled by the Operating System and
software. In order to keep system in balance, what and how much input is needed is
determined by Output Specifications.

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Feedback
 Feedback provides the control in a dynamic system.
 Positive feedback is routine in nature that encourages the performance of the system.
 Negative feedback is informational in nature that provides the controller with
information for action.
Environment
 The environment is the “super system” within which an organization operates.
 It is the source of external elements that strike on the system.
 It determines how a system must function. For example, vendors and competitors of
organization’s environment, may provide constraints that affect the actual
performance of the business.
Boundaries and Interface
 A system should be defined by its boundaries. Boundaries are the limits that identify
its components, processes, and interrelationship when it interfaces with another
system.
 Each system has boundaries that determine its sphere of influence and control.
 The knowledge of the boundaries of a given system is crucial in determining the
nature of its interface with other systems for successful design.

TYPES OF SYSTEMS

The systems can be divided into the following types −

Physical or Abstract Systems

 Physical systems are tangible entities. We can touch and feel them.
 Physical System may be static or dynamic in nature. For example, desks and chairs
are the physical parts of computer center which are static. A programmed computer is
a dynamic system in which programs, data, and applications can change according to
the user's needs.
 Abstract systems are non-physical entities or conceptual that may be formulas,
representation or model of a real system.
Open or Closed Systems
 An open system must interact with its environment. It receives inputs from and
delivers outputs to the outside of the system. For example, an information system
which must adapt to the changing environmental conditions.
 A closed system does not interact with its environment. It is isolated from
environmental influences. A completely closed system is rare in reality.
Adaptive and Non Adaptive System

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  Adaptive System responds to the change in the environment in a way to improve their
performance and to survive. For example, human beings, animals.
 Non Adaptive System is the system which does not respond to the environment. For
example, machines.
Permanent or Temporary System
 Permanent System persists for long time. For example, business policies.
 Temporary System is made for specified time and after that they are demolished. For
example, A DJ system is set up for a program and it is dissembled after the program.
Natural and Manufactured System
 Natural systems are created by the nature. For example, Solar system, seasonal
system.
 Manufactured System is the man-made system. For example, Rockets, dams, trains.
Deterministic or Probabilistic System
 Deterministic system operates in a predictable manner and the interaction between
system components is known with certainty. For example, two molecules of hydrogen
and one molecule of oxygen makes water.
 Probabilistic System shows uncertain behaviour. The exact output is not known. For
example, Weather forecasting, mail delivery.
Social, Human-Machine, Machine System
 Social System is made up of people. For example, social clubs, societies.
 In Human-Machine System, both human and machines are involved to perform a
particular task. For example, Computer programming.
 Machine System is where human interference is neglected. All the tasks are
performed by the machine. For example, an autonomous robot.
Man–Made Information Systems
 It is an interconnected set of information resources to manage data for particular
organization, under Direct Management Control (DMC).
 This system includes hardware, software, communication, data, and application for
producing information according to the need of an organization.
Man-made information systems are divided into three types −
 Formal Information System − It is based on the flow of information in the form of
memos, instructions, etc., from top level to lower levels of management.
 Informal Information System − This is employee based system which solves the
day to day work related problems.
 Computer Based System − This system is directly dependent on the computer for
managing business applications. For example, automatic library system, railway
reservation system, banking system, etc.

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 SYSTEMS MODELS

Schematic Models
 A schematic model is a 2-D chart that shows system elements and their linkages.
 Different arrows are used to show information flow, material flow, and information
feedback.
Flow System Models
 A flow system model shows the orderly flow of the material, energy, and information
that hold the system together.
 Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), for example, is used to abstract
a real world system in model form.
Static System Models
 They represent one pair of relationships such as activity–time or cost–quantity.
 The Gantt chart, for example, gives a static picture of an activity-time relationship.
Dynamic System Models
 Business organizations are dynamic systems. A dynamic model approximates the
type of organization or application that analysts deal with.
 It shows an ongoing, constantly changing status of the system. It consists of −
o Inputs that enter the system
o The processor through which transformation takes place
o The program(s) required for processing
o The output(s) that result from processing.

CATEGORIES OF INFORMATION

There are three categories of information related to managerial levels and the decision
managers make.

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Strategic Information
 This information is required by topmost management for long range planning policies
for next few years. For example, trends in revenues, financial investment, and human
resources, and population growth.
 This type of information is achieved with the aid of Decision Support System (DSS).
Managerial Information
 This type of Information is required by middle management for short and intermediate
range planning which is in terms of months. For example, sales analysis, cash flow
projection, and annual financial statements.
 It is achieved with the aid of Management Information Systems (MIS).
Operational information
 This type of information is required by low management for daily and short term
planning to enforce day-to-day operational activities. For example, keeping employee
attendance records, overdue purchase orders, and current stocks available.
 It is achieved with the aid of Data Processing Systems (DPS).
WHY DO WE STUDY SYSTEM ANALYSIS?

System analysis is the process of collecting and interpreting facts, identifying problems, and
decomposition of the system into its components. It is conducted to study or evaluate a
system and its components in order to identify the objects.

Another definition of System analysis is its evaluation of a particular system to identify the
areas of improvements and make any necessary enhancements, if needed.

Objective of System Analysis are:

 First of all, It helps to design systems where subsystems may have conflicting
objectives.

 Also, System analysis helps to achieve inter compatibility and unity of the sub
systems

 It helps in understanding of complex structures.

 Above all, System analysis gives an advantage of understanding and comparing the
subsystems functions with complete system.

Some benefits of System Analysis are as below:

 Reduced costs

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 Efficiency & Flexibility

 Risks

 Better Management

 Better Quality

 Reduced Costs

 Furthermore, Proper system analysis makes the clear path for web application
development by minimizing the future IT requirements.

 Another benefit, gathering of a clear set of requirement for any system will give an
advantage of the precise planning of the resources for development, this will bring
the final product at low cost.

 Efficiency & Flexibility

 System analysis will not only reduce the costs, and also helps to gain flexibility &
flexibility in the system development. Also, it gives clear development targets for
each version by defining the set of requirements

 The greater flexibility of SA is to cater almost every future requirements of business

by mitigating the IT requirement

Risks

 Certainly, this process helps in identifying the potential risks. Its risk management is
carried out to evaluate and mitigate the negative impacts of the potential risks on the
process by deeply consideration of risks against benefits.

Better Management

 System analysis allows for better management through changing the software as per
new business changes. This means final product will be totally controllable.

 If business needs, any changes in the future as per trends because it will be possible
to make changes by mitigating the complete documentation of requirements.

Quality

 Continuous evaluation through system analysis ensures superior quality of system.

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 Tools and techniques are as below:

 Grid Charts

 System flow chart

 Decision Tree

Grid Charts

 Firstly, Grid Charts are method of representing relationship between two set of
factors in tabular form. Also, it helps to remove or eliminate almost every
unnecessary data items.

System flow chart

 Most importantly, Flowcharts are diagrammatic representation of the logical flow of

operations and information in the organization. Even more, A set of standard symbols
are used to draw the flows by clear depicting of the process input and output.

Decision Trees

 Decision trees are most helpful in the situation where a series of outputs effect the
next step.

o In decision trees, various opinions are drawn to understand the final outcome.

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 CHAPTER TWO

Database Design

Introduction

We might have come across the word "Database" quite often. This term carries a high
emphasis on its arms. More often, it is not just related to the developer's perspective but is
quite often used with non-tech groups or communities. Technically, a database is more of a
storage term used to denote the relationship with different forms of data that are coagulated
in a single place. Thus, we can define a database as an organized collection of data,
generally stored and accessed electronically through computer systems. This article is highly
centric to the database design and its association with citable terms and methodologies was
commonly taken into account. We'll be discussing those terms concerning database design
to understand the bits and pieces. Let's talk about it straight away.

What is Database Design?

Database design can be generally defined as a collection of tasks or processes that

enhance the designing, development, implementation, and maintenance of enterprise data
management system. Designing a proper database reduces the maintenance cost thereby
improving data consistency and the cost-effective measures are greatly influenced in terms
of disk storage space. Therefore, there has to be a brilliant concept of designing a database.
The designer should follow the constraints and decide how the elements correlate and what
kind of data must be stored.

The main objectives behind database designing are to produce physical and logical design
models of the proposed database system. To elaborate this, the logical model is primarily
concentrated on the requirements of data and the considerations must be made in terms of
monolithic considerations and hence the stored physical data must be stored independent of
the physical conditions. On the other hand, the physical database design model includes a
translation of the logical design model of the database by keep control of physical media
using hardware resources and software systems such as Database Management System
(DBMS).

Why is Database Design important?

The important consideration that can be taken into account while emphasizing the

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importance of database design can be explained in terms of the following points given
below.

Database designs provide the blueprints of how the data is going to be stored in a system.
A proper design of a database highly affects the overall performance of any application.

1. The designing principles defined for a database give a clear idea of the behavior of
any application and how the requests are processed.
2. Another instance to emphasize the database design is that a proper database design
meets all the requirements of users.

3. Lastly, the processing time of an application is greatly reduced if the constraints of

designing a highly efficient database are properly implemented.

Life Cycle

Although, the life cycle of a database is not an important discussion that has to be taken
forward in this article because we are focused on the database design. But, before jumping
directly on the designing models constituting database design it is important to understand
the overall workflow and life-cycle of the database.

Requirement Analysis

First of all, the planning has to be done on what are the basic requirements of the project
under which the design of the database has to be taken forward. Thus, they can be defined
as:-

Planning - This stage is concerned with planning the entire DDLC (Database Development
Life Cycle). The strategic considerations are taken into account before proceeding.

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System definition - This stage covers the boundaries and scopes of the proper database
after planning.

Database Designing

The next step involves designing the database considering the user-based requirements and
splitting them out into various models so that load or heavy dependencies on a single aspect
are not imposed. Therefore, there has been some model-centric approach and that's where
logical and physical models play a crucial role.

Physical Model - The physical model is concerned with the practices and implementations
of the logical model.

Logical Model - This stage is primarily concerned with developing a model based on the
proposed requirements. The entire model is designed on paper without any implementation
or adopting DBMS considerations.

Implementation

The last step covers the implementation methods and checking out the behavior that
matches our requirements. It is ensured with continuous integration testing of the database
with different data sets and conversion of data into machine understandable language. The
manipulation of data is primarily focused on these steps where queries are made to run and
check if the application is designed satisfactorily or not.

Data conversion and loading - This section is used to import and convert data from the old
to the new system.

Testing - This stage is concerned with error identification in the newly implemented system.
Testing is a crucial step because it checks the database directly and compares the
requirement specifications.

DATABASE DESIGN PROCESS

The process of designing a database carries various conceptual approaches that are
needed to be kept in mind. An ideal and well-structured database design must be able to:

1. Save disk space by eliminating redundant data.

2. Maintains data integrity and accuracy.

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 3. Provides data access in useful ways.

4. Comparing Logical and Physical data models.

Logical

A logical data model generally describes the data in as many details as possible, without
having to be concerned about the physical implementations in the database. Features of
logical data model might include:

1. All the entities and relationships amongst them.

2. Each entity has well-specified attributes.

3. The primary key for each entity is specified.

4. Foreign keys which are used to identify a relationship between different entities are
specified.

5. Normalization occurs at this level.

A logical model can be designed using the following approach:

1. Specify all the entities with primary keys.

2. Specify concurrent relationships between different entities.

3. Figure out each entity attributes

4. Resolve many-to-many relationships.

5. Carry out the process of normalization.

Also, one important factor after following the above approach is to critically examine the
design based on requirement gathering. If the above steps are strictly followed, there are
chances of creating a highly efficient database design that follows the native approach.

To understand these points, see the image below to get a clear picture.

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If we compare the logical data model as shown in the figure above with some sample data in
the diagram, we can come up with facts that in a conceptual data model there are no
presence of a primary key whereas a logical data model has primary keys for all of its
attributes. Also, logical data model the cover relationship between different entities and
carries room for foreign keys to establish relationships among them.

Physical

A Physical data mode generally represents how the approach or concept of designing the
database. The main purpose of the physical data model is to show all the structures of the
table including the column name, column data type, constraints, keys(primary and
foreign), and the relationship among tables. The following are the features of a physical
data model:

1. Specifies all the columns and tables.

2. Specifies foreign keys that usually define the relationship between tables.

3. Based on user requirements, de-normalization might occur.

4. Since the physical consideration is taken into account so there will straightforward
reasons for difference than a logical model.

5. Physical models might be different for different RDBMS. For example, the data type

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 column may be different in MySQL and SQL Server.

While designing a physical data model, the following points should be taken into
consideration:

1. Convert the entities into tables.

2. Convert the defined relationships into foreign keys.

3. Convert the data attributes into columns.

4. Modify the data model constraints based on physical requirements.

Comparing this physical data model with the logical with the previous logical model, we
might conclude the differences that in a physical database entity names are considered table
names and attributes are considered column names. Also, the data type of each column is
defined in the physical model depending on the actual database used.

Glossary

Entity - An entity in the database can be defined as abstract data that we save in our
database. For example, a customer, products.

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Attributes - An attribute is a detailed form of data consisting of entities like length, name,
price, etc.

Relationship - A relationship can be defined as the connection between two entities or

figures. For example, a person can relate to multiple persons in a family.

Foreign key - It acts as a referral to the Primary Key of another table. A foreign key contains
columns with values that exist only in the primary key column they refer to.

Primary key - A primary key is the pointer of records that is unique and not null and is used
to uniquely identify attributes of a table.

Normalization - A flexible data model needs to follow certain rules. Applying these rules is
called normalizing.

Feedback

o Send your Feedback to feedback@[Link]

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 CHAPTER THREE

STAKEHOLDER

We define a stakeholder as follows.

Definition. A stakeholder in the architecture of a system is an individual, team, organization,

or classes thereof, having an interest in the realization of the system.

Most system development projects include representatives from most if not all of these
stakeholder groups, although their relative importance will obviously vary from project to
project. However, if you do not at least consider each class, you will have problems in the
future. You need to balance and prioritize the needs of the different stakeholder groups, so
that when conflicts occur, you can make sound, well-reasoned decisions.

It is also worth noting that, although we don’t consider the architect’s needs explicitly, when
acting in that role you are also an architectural stake- holder. (We assume that you can
represent yourself adequately to ensure that your views are taken into account!)

The primary source of information for functional system requirements is from the various
stakeholders of the new system.
 Stakeholders are all the people who have an interest in the successful implementation
of the system.

Generally, stakeholders are categorized into three groups: users, clients and technical staff.

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 User stakeholders

User stakeholders are those who actually use the system in a daily basis. User roles – that is,

types of system users – should be identified in two dimensions: horizontally and vertically.

Horizontal user roles. The analyst must look for the information flow across departments or
functions (i.e. Inventory system may affect different department like receiving, warehousing,
sales and manufacturing).

Vertical user roles. The analyst must look for the information needs of clerical staff, middle
management and of senior executives. Generally, vertical user roles include:

1. Business operations users. These are the people who use the system to perform the day-
to-day operations of an organization. These operations are called transactions – a piece of
work done in an organization such as “enter an order”.

2. Query users. A person who needs current information from the system. This person may
be the same person as to the business operations user or someone else. A query is a
request for information.

3. Management users. These are people who are responsible for seeing that the company is
performing its daily procedures efficiently and effectively. They need statistics and summary
information from a system.

4. Executive users. A person interested in strategic issues, as well as the daily issues. They
typically want information from the system so that they can compare overall improvements in
resource utilization.

Client stakeholders

 A client stakeholder is a person or group who is providing the funding for the project.
 In many cases, the client is the same group as the executive users. However, the
clients may also be a separate group or people, such as a board of
trustees or executives in a parent company.
 The client or a direct representative on a steering or oversight committee also usually
maintains ongoing approval and release of funds.

Technical stakeholders

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 The technical staffs are the people who ensure that the system operates in the computing
environment of the organization.
 It is the source of technical requirements.
 These people provide guidance in such areas as programming language, computer
platforms, and other equipment.

Traditional software development has been driven by the need of the delivered software to
meet the requirements of users. Although the definition of the term user varies, all software
development methods are based around this principle in one way or another.

However, the people affected by a software system are not limited to those who use it.
Software systems are not just used: They have to be built and tested, they have to be
operated, they may have to be repaired, they are usually enhanced, and of course they have
to be paid for. Each of these activities involves a number – possibly a significant number – of
people in addition to the users.

Each of these groups of people has its own requirements, interests, and needs to be met by
the software system. We refer collectively to these people as stakeholders. Understanding
the role of the stakeholder is fundamental to understanding the role of the architect in the
development of a software product or system.
Principle. The architect must ensure that there is adequate stakeholder representation
across the board, including nontechnology stakeholders (such as acquirers and users) and
technology-focused ones (such as developers, system administrators, and maintainers).

Our Stakeholder Categorization

We classify stakeholders according to their roles and concerns as in the following table.

Acquirers Oversee the procurement of the system or product

Assessors Oversee the system’s conformance to standards and legal regulation

Communicators Explain the system to other stakeholders via its documentation and training materials

Developers Construct and deploy the system from specifications (or lead the teams that do this)

Maintainers Manage the evolution of the system once it is operational

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Production Design, deploy, and manage the hardware and software environments in which the
Engineers system will be built, tested, and run

Suppliers Build and/or supply the hardware, software, or infrastructure on which the system will
run

Support Staff Provide support to users for the product or system when it is running

System Run the system once it has been deployed

Administrators

Testers Test the system to ensure that it is suitable for use

Users Define the system’s functionality and ultimately make use of it

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 CHAPTER FOUR
QUALITIES OF SYSTEM ANALYST
What is System Analyst?
The system analyst is overall responsible for the development of a software. He is the crucial
interface between users, programmers and MIS managers. He conducts a system’s study,
identifies activities and objectives and determines a procedure to achieve the objective. He
has a very important role in the development of a system.

A Systems analyst is a person who is overall responsible for development of a software. He

is the computer professional charged with analyzing, designing and implementing computer
based information systems. He is the crucial interface among users, programmers and MIS
managers. A Systems analyst can be defined as follows:

A Systems analyst is a computer specialist who translates business problems and

requirements into information systems and acts as liaison between IS (Information Systems)
department and rest of the organization.
The analyst conducts a systems study, identifies activities and objectives and determines a
procedure to achieve the objectives. He is the key member of both MIS organization and the
software project team. He is a person with unique skills, experience, personality and
common sense. His role has been emerging with advances in technology.

Roles of a Systems Analyst

The Systems analyst performs the following roles during various phases of SDLC. He works
as a:

 Problem Investigator: The analyst studies the problems and needs of an organization
during feasibility and requirements analysis phases of SDLC. He visits the various
departments of the organization and interviews the users. He analyses the problems of
the current system and collects their new requirements. The analyst initially works as an
investigator by extracting the real problems of the users.

 Problem Solver: The analyst solves the problems of the current system faced by the
users. He determines how people, method and technology can improve the current
system. After feasibility analysis, he presents the system proposal to the management.

 Systems Designer: The analyst creates a detailed physical (current) and logical
(proposed) design of the system.

 Motivator: The analyst motivates users to participate in development and implementation

of the proposed system. This helps to understands user’s feelings about the proposed

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 system. The analyst interprets the thoughts of users and hence, draws conclusions. He
appeals management and users for getting the support in development and
implementation of the proposed system.

 Project Manager: The analyst monitors the development and implementation of software
in relation to quality, cost and time. He works with the project leader for managing the
project properly. For development of small systems, the Systems analyst is generally the
project leader.

QUALITIES OF SYSTEMS ANALYST

Success in systems analysis requires interpersonal and technical skills of the analyst.
The systems analyst is expected to possess the following qualities:
 Qualified: The analyst must be highly qualified in software technology. Besides
software, he should have a good knowledge of hardware and latest communication
and networking technology. He must have a thorough awareness about the working
(manual and computerized) of financial accounting, sales and marketing, invoicing,
inventory control, production and other information systems of different organization.
 Analytical Thinker: The analyst must be capable to extract real problems of the
users by analyzing the existing system. He is expected to provide the best solutions
to the problems. He should be able to provide more than one solution to a single
problem so that the users can select the best one. The systems analyst must be
capable of tackling any problem of the user. He must be a problem solver and not a
problem creator.
 Good Communicator: The analyst must have a good communication and
presentation skills. He must have an excellent command on the language which the
user can understand. There should not be any communication gap between the
systems analyst and users.
 Experienced: The analyst should be experienced in both information and
management technologies. He should be associated with all types of business
concerns ( viz., Manufacturing, Trading, Financial, etc.). The present day systems
analysts are expected to possess a good experience in development of software
using 4GLS (such as Oracle, Sybase, etc.) and object-oriented languages (such as
C++).
 Creator: The analyst should possess excellent creativity skills that help to convert
ideas of the users into concrete plans. He/she should be capable of creating plans
and designing systems by drawing diagrams, charts and other illustrations.
 Trainer: The analyst should be a good teacher for educating and training users in
computer based information systems.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

INFORMATION SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT

Introduction

When someone has an idea for a new function to be performed by a computer, how does
that idea become reality? If a company wants to implement a new business process and
needs new hardware or software to support it, how do they go about making it happen? This
chapter covers the different methods of taking those ideas and bringing them to reality, a
process known as information systems development.

Software development methodologies

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

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The software development process is normally long and tedious. But project managers and
system analysts can leverage software development life cycles to outline, design, develop,
test, and eventually deploy information systems or software products with greater regularity,
efficiency, and overall quality.

What is System Development Life Cycle?

A system development life cycle or SDLC is essentially a project management model. It

defines different stages that are necessary to bring a project from its initial idea or
conception all the way to deployment and later maintenance.

System Development Life Cycle US Guide

In this guide, we’ll break down everything you need to know about the system development
life cycle, including all of its stages. We’ll also go over the roles of system analysts and the
benefits your project might see by adopting SDLC.

7 STAGES OF THE SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

There are seven primary stages of the modern system development life cycle. Here’s a brief
breakdown:

 Planning Stage
 Feasibility or Requirements of Analysis Stage
 Design and Prototyping Stage

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  Software Development Stage
 Software Testing Stage
 Implementation and Integration
 Operations and Maintenance Stage

Now let’s take a closer look at each stage individually.

Planning Stage

Before we even begin with the planning stage, the best tip we can give you is to take time
and acquire proper understanding of app development life cycle.

The planning stage (also called the feasibility stage) is exactly what it sounds like: the phase
in which developers will plan for the upcoming project.

It helps to define the problem and scope of any existing systems, as well as determine the
objectives for their new systems.

By developing an effective outline for the upcoming development cycle, they'll theoretically
catch problems before they affect development.

And help to secure the funding and resources they need to make their plan happen.

Perhaps most importantly, the planning stage sets the project schedule, which can be of key
importance if development is for a commercial product that must be sent to market by a
certain time.

Analysis Stage

The analysis stage includes gathering all the specific details required for a new system as
well as determining the first ideas for prototypes.

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Developers may:

 Define any prototype system requirements

 Evaluate alternatives to existing prototypes

 Perform research and analysis to determine the needs of end-users

Furthermore, developers will often create a software requirement specification or SRS

document.

This includes all the specifications for software, hardware, and network requirements for the
system they plan to build. This will prevent them from overdrawing funding or resources
when working at the same place as other development teams.

Design Stage

The design stage is a necessary precursor to the main developer stage.

Developers will first outline the details for the overall application, alongside specific aspects,
such as its:

 User interfaces
 System interfaces
 Network and network requirements
 Databases

26
They’ll typically turn the SRS document they created into a more logical structure that can
later be implemented in a programming language. Operation, training, and maintenance
plans will all be drawn up so that developers know what they need to do throughout every
stage of the cycle moving forward.

Once complete, development managers will prepare a design document to be referenced

throughout the next phases of the SDLC.

Development Stage

The development stage is the part where developers actually write code and build the
application according to the earlier design documents and outlined specifications.

This is where Static Application Security Testing or SAST tools come into play.

Product program code is built per the design document specifications. In theory, all of the
prior planning and outlined should make the actual development phase relatively
straightforward.

Developers will follow any coding guidelines as defined by the organization and utilize
different tools such as compilers, debuggers, and interpreters.

Programming languages can include staples such as C++, PHP, and more. Developers will
choose the right programming code to use based on the project specifications and
requirements.

Testing Stage

Building software is not the end.

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Now it must be tested to make sure that there aren’t any bugs and that the end-user
experience will not negatively be affected at any point.

During the testing stage, developers will go over their software with a fine-tooth comb, noting
any bugs or defects that need to be tracked, fixed, and later retested.

t’s important that the software overall ends up meeting the quality standards that were
previously defined in the SRS document.

Depending on the skill of the developers, the complexity of the software, and the
requirements for the end-user, testing can either be an extremely short phase or take a very
long time. Take a look at our top 10 best practices for software testing projects for more
information.

Implementation and Integration Stage

After testing, the overall design for the software will come together. Different modules or
designs will be integrated into the primary source code through developer efforts, usually by
leveraging training environments to detect further errors or defects.

The information system will be integrated into its environment and eventually installed. After
passing this stage, the software is theoretically ready for market and may be provided to any
end-users.

Maintenance Stage

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The SDLC doesn’t end when software reaches the market. Developers must now move into
a maintenance mode and begin practicing any activities required to handle issues reported
by end-users.

Furthermore, developers are responsible for implementing any changes that the software
might need after deployment.

This can include handling residual bugs that were not able to be patched before launch or
resolving new issues that crop up due to user reports. Larger systems may require longer
maintenance stages compared to smaller systems.

ROLE OF SYSTEM ANALYST

An SDLC’s system analyst is, in some ways, an overseer for the entire system. They should
be totally aware of the system and all its moving parts and can help guide the project by
giving appropriate directions.

The system analyst should be:

 An expert in any technical skills required for the project

 A good communicator to help command his or her team to success

 A good planner so that development tasks can be carried out on time at each phase
of the development cycle

Thus, systems analysts should have an even mix of interpersonal, technical, management,
and analytical skills altogether. They’re versatile professionals that can make or break an
SDLC.

Their responsibilities are quite diverse and important for the eventual success of a given
project. Systems analysts will often be expected to:

 ️Gather facts and information

 Make command decisions about which bugs to prioritize or what features to cut

 Suggest alternative solutions

 Draw specifications that can be easily understood by both users and programmers

 Implement logical systems while keeping modularity for later integration

 Be able to evaluate and modify the resulting system as is required by project

goals

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  Help to plan out the requirements and goals of the project by defining and
understanding user requirements

BASIC SDLC METHODOLOGIES

Although the system development life cycle is a project management model in the broad
sense, six more specific methodologies can be leveraged to achieve specific results or
provide the greater SDLC with different attributes.

Waterfall Model

The waterfall model is the oldest of all SDLC methodologies. It’s linear and straightforward
and requires development teams to finish one phase of the project completely before moving
on to the next

Each stage has a separate project plan and takes information from the previous stage to
avoid similar issues (if encountered). However, it is vulnerable to early delays and can lead
to big problems arising for development teams later down the road.

Iterative Model

The iterative model focuses on repetition and repeat testing. New versions of a software
project are produced at the end of each phase to catch potential errors and allow developers
to constantly improve the end product by the time it is ready for market.

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One of the upsides to this model is that developers can create a working version of the
project relatively early in their development life cycle, so implement the changes are often
less expensive.

Spiral Model

Spiral models are flexible compared to other methodologies. Projects pass through four main
phases again and again in a metaphorically spiral motion.

It’s advantageous for large projects since development teams can create very customized
products and incorporate any received feedback relatively early in the life cycle.

V-Model

The V-model (which is short for verification and validation) is quite similar to the waterfall
model. A testing phase is incorporated into each development stage to catch potential bugs
and defects.

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It’s incredibly disciplined and requires a rigorous timeline. But in theory, it illuminates the
shortcomings of the main waterfall model by preventing larger bugs from spiraling out of
control.

Big Bang Model

The Big Bang model is incredibly flexible and doesn’t follow a rigorous process or procedure.
It even leaves detailed planning behind. It’s mostly used to develop broad ideas when the
customer or client isn’t sure what they want. Developers simply start the project with money
and resources.

Their output may be closer or farther from what the client eventually realizes they desire. It’s
mostly used for smaller projects and experimental life cycles designed to inform other
projects in the same company.

Agile Model

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The agile model is relatively well-known, particularly in the software development industry.

The agile methodology prioritizes fast and ongoing release cycles, utilizing small but
incremental changes between releases. This results in more iterations and many more tests
compared to other models.

Theoretically, this model helps teams to address small issues as they arise rather than
missing them until later, more complex stages of a project.

BENEFITS OF SDLC

SDLC provides a number of advantages to development teams that implement it correctly.

Clear Goal Descriptions

Developers clearly know the goals they need to meet and the deliverables they must achieve
by a set timeline, lowering the risk of time and resources being wasted.

Proper Testing Before Installation

SDLC models implement checks and balances to ensure that all software is tested before
being installed in greater source code.

Clear Stage Progression

Developers can’t move on to the next age until the prior one is completed and signed off by
a manager.

Member Flexibility

Since SDLCs have well-structured documents for project goals and methodologies, team
members can leave and be replaced by new members relatively painlessly.

Perfection Is Achievable

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All SDLC stages are meant to feed back into one another. SDLC models can therefore help
projects to iterate and improve upon themselves over and over until essentially perfect.

No One Member Makes or Breaks the Project

Again, since SDLCs utilize extensive paperwork and guideline documents, it’s a team effort
and losing one even major member will not jeopardize the project timeline.

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

WHERE IS SDLC USED?

System development life cycles are typically used when developing IT projects.

Software development managers will utilize SDLCs to outline various development stages,
make sure everyone completes stages on time and in the correct order, and that the project
is delivered as promptly and as bug-free as possible.

SDLCs can also be more specifically used by systems analysts as they develop and later
implement a new information system.

What SDLC Model is Best?

It largely depends on what your team’s goals and resource requirements are.

The majority of IT development teams utilize the agile methodology for their SDLC.
However, others may prefer the iterative or spiral methodologies.

All three of these methods are popular since they allow for extensive iteration and bug
testing before a product is integrated with greater source code or delivered to market.

DevOps methodologies are also popular choices. And if you ever need a refresher course
on what is DevOps, you needn't worry as our team at Cloud Defence has got you covered!

What Does SDLC Develop?

SDLC can be used to develop or engineer software, systems, and even information systems.
It can also be used to develop hardware or a combination of both software and hardware at
the same time.

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 CHAPTER SIX

PROJECT MANAGEMENT

What’s the first thought that strikes you when you think of project management? In simple
words, a project is defined as a sequence of activities undertaken for getting a set of tasks
done to achieve the desired business goals successfully. Project Management centres on
planning and managing everything involved in delivering a Project.

In this article, we’ll walk you through the basics of project management and the various
phases of the project life cycle, as well as key management steps to help deliver a
successful and well-executed project. (This article covers the fundamentals of project
management. It does not cover project management methodologies such as traditional/
waterfall or agile methodologies. These are covered in separate articles.)

What is a project?

In order to understand project management, we must first know what a project is.
Everywhere you look, you are surrounded by projects. Whether it’s the construction of a
building, development of a product or service, implementation of a new business process, or
even smaller things such as buying a car or organizing a meeting, etc. Any such effort made
to produce tangible or intangible results can be regarded as a project.

A project is defined as a one-time activity with a series of tasks that produces a specific
outcome to achieve organizational goals. Projects are a set of interdependent tasks that
have a common goal. No matter what the project is, each project is broken down into
objectives and what needs to be done to achieve them, ensuring that the project stays on
track and is completed ‘as per plan’.

There are some things to identify when considering a project, its stakeholders and
characteristics that distinguishes a project from other ongoing business activities.

Projects have several characteristics-

 Every project is unique that creates something new – or improves something existing
 A Project is a temporary (limited time) endeavour with a definite beginning and an
end
 A Project operates within certain constraints of time, budget, scope, quality,
resources and risks

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  A Project is completed when the project’s goals are achieved. A project may be
canceled or discontinued if it is considered to be no longer viable. This happens
quite a lot.

The primary constraints of a project are:

 Time – the schedule for the project to reach completion

 Cost – the budget allocated for the project to meet its objectives and complete it on
time
 Scope – the specific deliverables of the project
 Quality – the standard of the outcome of the project

In order to successfully execute projects, it is critical to manage them within the constraints
of time, scope and quality which are popularly known as the “triple constraints” in project
management (also known as The Project Management Triangle, Iron Triangle and Project
Triangle). Without an organized approach to the task of managing projects and achieving its
objectives, it would be very difficult for organizations to deliver projects successfully with the
required results.

The triple constraints constituting the three most important elements namely- scope, cost,
schedule are imperative for project process. They set the boundaries for the project
execution process, which means that the success or failure of the project depends on
meeting the constraints within acceptable tolerance limits – the deadlines, the scope, and
the budget defined by the stakeholders. All three constraints are inter-connected and any
change in one of them can – and usually will – affect the others.

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What is Project Management?

Project Management is the set of practices involving the application of knowledge, skills,
processes, methods and tools to achieve specific project requirements according to the
project acceptance criteria within agreed budget and timeframe.

Project Management includes various policies and principles to lead a project from the initial
stage until its completion. It involves processes to identify the requirements, create a plan to
establish clear & achievable objectives, and then execute on that plan until the project goals
are achieved.

Project goals and objectives provide a succinct way to communicate specific goals during
the project and evaluate success after the project ends. Furthermore, every project needs a
plan from start to finish that typically depicts how things will get off the ground, how they will
be accomplished and completed.

Project Management Life Cycle Overview

Whether you are handling a huge conglomerate or running a small-sized enterprise, project
management is an integral part of all businesses to be successful. The discipline of project
management is gaining popularity and importance in all major industries.

Organizations big and small across industries are striving to deliver excellence in order to
achieve a global presence. Project management is a significant part of all major project-
centric industries such as construction, engineering, and IT companies, as well as others
such as manufacturing, banking & finance, healthcare, pharma, NGOs, non-profits and
government.

In today’s environment, where companies are embracing mission critical initiatives in areas
such as Digital Transformation, KYC, M&A, business expansion and so on, the need for
managing projects effectively has become mission critical for all organizations.

As mentioned earlier, every project has a start and end and it begins with defining objectives
and goals followed by a project plan to meet those objectives and executing it to accomplish
final goals. To execute projects successfully – to meet its objectives, a clear understanding
of the project management life cycle is essential.

The project management life cycle basically describes the high-level process of delivering a
project and the steps involved to successfully deliver the project. The project management

37
life cycle can be defined as a structured, timely and methodical process for effectively
initiating, planning and executing a project for a successful outcome – which is to meet the
intended objectives of the stakeholders funding the project.

Each project phase addresses a specific aspect of the process of managing a project from
its conception to completion. Although these phases are described sequentially, in practice
many of these phases may overlap or be applied concurrently during the lifetime of a project.

PHASES OF THE PROJECT MANAGEMENT LIFECYCLE

A project life cycle provides a high-level view of the project and the phases are tailored to fit
a project’s needs providing a roadmap to accomplish it. The project management life cycle is
divided into 5 phases: project initiation, planning, execution, monitoring & control, and
closure.

As mentioned briefly earlier, projects can be executed using a “traditional methodology” such
as the “Waterfall methodology” or an Agile method or a mix of the two, which is referred to
by many as the “Hybrid Agile” method. Irrespective of the “execution methodology”, all
projects typically go through these 5 phases from identification/ approval to completion. This
article describes these phases in some detail.

1. Project Initiation

The goal of the initiation phase is to define the project at a broad level in terms of what
needs to be done and achieved in order for it to be successful. This is where the
stakeholders (the people or business unit who will fund the project), the goals, objectives
and deliverables are identified and the resources and the money needed to do the project

38
are determined at a high level. A high level determination is made whether the project is
“feasible or not” based on these.

The key deliverable of this phase is the Project Charter.

Key project management steps involved in the Initiation phase

 Conduct a feasibility study to identify the primary problem the project will solve and
whether the project can deliver a solution to that problem
 Create a business case and define the project at a high level
 Create a Project Charter or project initiation document that outlines the vision,
objectives and goals of the project
 Identify the high-level scope of the project and define the product or service the
project will deliver
 Identify key project stakeholders
 Once the project gets a go-ahead, assemble the project team and establish a project
office

39
A business case, a feasibility study and a Project Charter together fulfil the requirement of
the Initiation phase to determine if the project is to be approved or not. Once the project is
approved, one or more project initiation meetings are held to finalize the project. This is
where the project initiation phase ends and the planning phase begins.

2. Project Planning

This phase begins after the project receives a green light in the Initiation phase.

The Project Planning phase is most critical and requires complete diligence as it lays out the
project’s roadmap. It involves defining the work to be done and figuring out how to
accomplish it. This is especially true for large and/ or complex projects, which are typically
executed using traditional methodologies. Projects that are executed using Agile methods of
execution also go through a planning phase, but the plans may be defined at a high level;
with the detailed execution being left to the team to plan in short iterations or sprints.

The project manager begins setting goals with a project plan. A well-crafted project plan
outlines a detailed project schedule, communication plan to give direction to the team for
producing quality output and handling risks.

During the planning stage, the Project Manager defines the scope of the project and project
management plan that involves the cost, quality, resources and project timeline. The scope
is defined by the project manager with a scope statement and Work Breakdown Structure
(WBS) (the deliverables for the project).

Another crucial activity during this phase is the effort and resource estimation for the
project. The Project Manager, usually working with a team of experts, provides “rough order
of magnitude” (ROM) estimates of all the essential elements of the project, such as effort on
various phases and high level tasks, other non-labor resources and overall budgets based
on that. All of these inputs go into putting together the high-level plan for the project.

Key project management steps involved in the Planning phase:

 Create a Statement of Work document to flesh out the details of project deliverables
 Develop a Work Breakdown Structure
 Create a project plan, assign team members (and other resources) to the various
tasks and build a detailed project timeline

40
  Identify the Project Team roles and other resources for the project. At this stage, the
Project Manager – working with a project staffing function – will most likely identify
specific people for some of the key roles needed for the success of the project.
 Create a risk mitigation plan to identify potential risks and develop a strategy to
minimize them
 Incorporate an effective change management plan for necessary changes in the
project and to avoid bottlenecks
 Create a communication plan to schedule interactions with relevant stakeholders

3. Project Execution

The execution phase involved actually carrying out the activities that are identified in the
project plan. This is where the rubber hits the road and the project ultimately comes to
reality!

This is the stage where planning is turned into action. The project team is built. Specific
people and other resources are assigned to the tasks identified in the project plan. The
project work is carried out in the required sequence in order to complete all of the work in the
most efficient manner possible.

The key outcome of the Execution phase are the various deliverables that are produced in
line with the defined project plan.

The project manager organizes the team members, establishes workflow and constantly
monitors progress, ensuring that work is done as per plan, while maintaining effective
collaboration between the project team and various stakeholders.

Key project management steps involved in the Execution phase:

 Identify and assign the project team Assign the team and other resources to the
project tasks and begin work in the planned manner
 Provide necessary guidance to the team on how tasks should be completed
 Monitor progress of the team
 Communicate with the stakeholders on a regular basis to ensure that the project
deliverables are acceptable

4. Project Monitoring & Control

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This phase typically runs in parallel with the Project Execution phase and involves keeping
the project on track and ensuring that objectives and project deliverables are met.

The project manager reports on the performance of the project and makes sure the project is
going according to plan.. This helps track any deviations from the planned budget, timeline
and quality goals of the project.

Any necessary changes to the project goals are implemented after formal evaluation of the
potential impact to the project goals and acceptance/ approval of the impact by the project
stakeholders.

This phase also involves continuously monitoring the project environment for any risks or
issues that are likely to impact the project performance, and taking the necessary steps to
prevent or mitigate them as proactively as possible, to minimize impact to any of the project
goals.

Key project management steps involved in the Monitoring and Control phase:

 Tracking the progress of various project tasks

 Measure budget, timeline and quality performance of the project
 Review deliverables and track the effort to see if they meet the defined acceptance
criteria
 Conduct user reviews and collect feedback, and take any corrective actions needed
 Track all changes to the project scope (whether from team members or
the stakeholders) and report on their impact to project goals.
 Monitor overall project performance, including all project plan changes, and ensure
that all stakeholders and the project team are on the same page about the project
status and its expected outcomes.

5. Project Closure

Project Closure is the final phase of the project management life cycle, which indicates the
end of the project and the final delivery of the project deliverables.

Project Closure involves completion of the final delivery of a project and its approval by the
stakeholders. Once the project’s closure is formally approved, other aspects of the closure
can be carried out.

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The project manager conducts a “post-project review” meeting. or commonly referred to as
a retrospective- to review the lessons from the project, and the challenges that were faced
during the project. It gives an opportunity to comprehend lessons learned to improve
productivity in the future.

Once the above activities are completed, the project team members are released to other
projects.

Key project management steps involved in the closing phase:

 Conduct a “End of Project” Review or Retrospective and to analyze project

performance and a formal analysis of successes and failures
 Document project closure and provide reports to key stakeholders
 Account used/ unused budget and release remaining resources for other projects

PROJECT MANAGEMENT TOOL USED BY MANAGERS

To be good at project management, you need to be smart, sincere, hard-working, and

multiskilled. However, there’s one more quality that is important for you to become a
successful project manager: the ability to use the right tools and techniques of project
management.
Among the various tools that you can use to manage your projects effectively are data
visualization tools. These tools provide you insightful information about your projects through
charts and help you steer projects in the right direction while ensuring better quality
deliverables.
In this article, I will tell you about project management charts that allow you to visualize and
understand project data easily.
What is a Project Management Chart?
A project management chart is a graphical representation of the data related to a project.
There are different types of project management charts that you can use to eliminate
bottlenecks and make better decisions while developing projects. These charts also come in
handy to streamline project activities, manage resources efficiently, and improve time
management. The most notable thing about project management charts is that they make it
easier to understand the complex project data.
There are several types of charts that project managers use to analyze and monitor different
aspects of their projects. While some project management charts like Gantt charts are used
extensively, there are many others such as Pareto charts and control charts that have limited
usage.

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Why Do You Need Project Management Charts?
For simple and small scale-projects, there is a limited set of data that you need to observe
throughout their life cycles. However, as the complexity of the projects swings up, you need
to keep track of more and more data. This is where project management charts can be of
great help.
The biggest advantage of using project management charts is that they allow you to analyze
and extract useful project information without undergoing a lot of hassle. These charts
arrange data systematically and make it easier for you to evaluate project data.
Here are some key benefits of project management charts that you will find interesting:
 Eliminate the need for moving back and forth to collect project data and thus, saves a
lot of time
 Help you to stay updated about what’s happening with the project
 Promote collaboration among team members
 Allow you to have better clarity and understanding of the project
 Project tracking becomes simple and effective
 Assist in making better changes to project plan and cope up with unexpected issues
Before moving further, I want to make it clear that the aforementioned benefits are the ones
that are common among most project management charts. However, it’s important for you to
know that every project management chart has its own set of benefits that makes it suitable
for use in a particular situation or project.
Hopefully, you have developed a good understanding of how project management charts
allow you to manage your projects smartly. Now, it’s time to get familiar with the project
management charts that are highly popular among managers:

1. Gantt Chart
Gantt charts are undoubtedly the most prominent project management charts that modern
businesses and managers use to control their projects. A Gantt chart provides you the
timeline view of your projects. It allows you to visualize how different tasks/activities of a
project are connected with each other and how they fit in the overall timeline of the project.
A Gantt chart is basically a variation of the bar chart and is quite easy to interpret. The
vertical axis of a Gantt chart represents the tasks of the project while the horizontal axis
represents the time duration.
At present, many leading online project management software like ProofHub offers
interactive Gantt charts to help you stay on top of all your projects.
The best thing about online Gantt chart tool is that they are easy to use and allow team
collaboration. By using online Gantt charts, you’ll be able to plan projects, schedule and
assign tasks, set task dependencies, associate project milestones with tasks, and track

44
progress. Additionally, you can identify the critical path of a project, which lets you estimate
the duration of the project.
Gantt charts provide you a subtle way of organizing all the essential project data in one
place and increase the productivity of your team. Moreover, you can use these charts to
manage your projects using the critical path method (CPM).

2. PERT Chart

PERT chart is another popular project management chart commonly used for scheduling,
controlling, and monitoring the tasks of a project. PERT is the acronym for Program
Evaluation and Review Technique and is one of the most popular project management
methodologies used in a wide variety of industries.
A PERT chart represents the activities and milestones of a project in the form of a network
diagram. Interestingly, the PERT and CPM methods have many similarities and both these
methods are sometimes used simultaneously to manage projects.

45
The most significant difference between the two techniques is that CPM is suitable for
managing project activities having certain time durations, whereas PERT is best for
managing activities with uncertain time durations.
A PERT chart includes circles and arrows. The circles depict the project activities and the
arrows represent the progression among the activities. With a PERT chart, you can identify
both the critical and non-critical activities of a project. Additionally, the chart also provides
information about parallel activities that you can undertake at the same time to speed up
project development without putting excess pressure on the resources.
You may find PERT charts a little complex when using for the first time. However, it will not
take much time for you to understand them and leverage their power to organize projects
constructively.
3. Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)

The work breakdown structure is an organized way of dividing a project into smaller
manageable sections. In general, the WBS chart has a level 1 which contains the main
tasks. The tasks at Level 1 are then divided into sub-tasks and listed in the downward
direction.

46
While the WBS has no stats or figures to display, it certainly is useful in simplifying the way
you manage projects. It allows you to execute a project in a systematic manner and
ensure proper resource allocation.
Work breakdown structure offers a practical way of simplifying a complex project by breaking
it into several tasks and subtasks. By breaking down the project and creating a task
hierarchy, you will be able to formulate a better project plan, schedule and assign work, and
ensure that project work gets executed systematically.
One thing that’s missing in this project management chart is that you cannot define the
dependencies among the tasks and it is not possible to visualize the timeline of the project.
4. Flowchart

Projects that have several processes and have a complex flow of activities are difficult to
manage. A flowchart is the best solution to simplify such types of projects and make your life
easier when you are dealing with complicated projects.
For those of you who don’t know already, a flowchart is a graphical representation of the
project workflow. It includes all the activities and processes that happen between the start
and the end of the project. Boxes and figures of different shapes along with arrows are used
to illustrate the sequence of events and the way they are connected.
Flowcharts are a great way to define the logic that your projects will use and share it with
other people that can be your team members, clients, stakeholders, etc. A flowchart provides
a clear idea about the objectives of the project and also gives an overview of what will
happen during the different project events and phases.
As a manager, you should know that flowcharts are highly effective when used for small
projects. However, creating flowcharts for large projects that have too many processes and
sequences is not feasible. For large-scale projects, flowcharts are used in combination
with Gantt charts for better project management.

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 5. Cause-Effect Chart

One of the key responsibilities of project managers in almost all organizations is problem
solving. As soon as a problem or issue arises during the project development, managers
have to figure out the causes of the problem and take corrective actions to eliminate it.
The cause-effect chart allows managers to highlight all the potential causes that give rise to
a particular problem. In general, the chart contains information about various causes and
their effects that can lead to problems in a project. While creating a cause-effect chart, it is
important that you include all the potential causes of an issue otherwise, it will become
difficult to resolve the problem during the actual project development.
Cause and effect charts are also known as Ishikawa diagrams or fishbone diagrams. The
latter name is due to the fact that these charts look somewhat similar to fish endoskeleton.
Managers from different industries prefer using causes and effect charts to resolve problems
in their projects. One main reason behind the significant popularity of cause and effect charts
is that they are easy to understand. You can use them to perform a comprehensive and
thorough analysis of the problems occurring in your projects and develop feasible solutions
without wasting much of your time and effort.
Apart from problem solving, you can also use cause and effect charts to conduct
brainstorming sessions that can yield innovative ideas and solutions.
6. Pareto Chart

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The next chart on this list of popular project management charts is the Pareto chart. Project
managers use this type of chart when they need more information about their project than
what a typical graph has to offer.
A Pareto chart is the combination of a bar graph and a line graph. By using this chart, you
can highlight some specific factors of your project. Typically, Pareto charts are used for the
identification of problems and complications in a project. It helps you to identify the most
common reasons for the occurrence of a problem and thus you can take appropriate actions
to eradicate the problem.
Pareto charts provide you vital information about your projects that you can use to make
better decisions. Additionally, these charts are suitable to use for almost all the project
management methodologies and are of great aid while performing six sigma analysis.
7. Bar Chart

Bar charts are very common in project management all due to the fact that they are simple,
versatile, and easy to interpret. In project management, these charts are used for visualizing

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a wide variety of project data ranging from the billable & non-billable work hours to the
number of completed & pending tasks.
A typical bar chart has two axes with one axis depicting the different categories to be
compared and the other axis representing the parameter of comparison. Although the bars
can be plotted both horizontally and vertically, the horizontal bar charts are more popular.
While you are managing a project, you may need to visualize some data like how your team
is distributing their work hours across different projects. Bar charts allow you to quickly
access important information about your project.
Almost all the leading project management software employs bar charts to visualize some
part of the project data. These software automatically create and modify bar charts as the
project progresses and new project activities occur.
8. Pie Chart

Pie charts are also very simple and quite popular in project management. Just like bar
charts, they are flexible and can represent different types of project data. These charts are
circular in shape and act as an ideal tool for data segmentation.
The main purpose of using a pie chart is to illustrate the numeric proportions of different
categories that form a collective whole. This type of chart is among the most basic data
visualization tools that you can use for managing projects for all levels of complexities.
While Pie charts may seem perfect to use under any conditions, there’s one particular
limitation that restricts its usage. These charts are specifically good for displaying
proportions of a limited number of categories, preferably less than 10. When the number of
categories becomes too large, the pie chart becomes cluttered, and also it becomes difficult
to understand the proportions just having a mere look.
If you want to use pie charts for your projects, then you can find them integrated into the best
online project management tools & software. Also, you will be able to leverage the power of
modern pie charts to understand your project data with ease.

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 9. Burn-up Chart

Tracking progress is quite essential to assess whether the project will be completed on time
or not. A burn-up chart makes it easier for you to monitor project progress and also provides
information about the pending work.
By using a burn-up chart, you will be able to visualize the total amount of work and the
completed work altogether. Usually, the vertical axis of the chart depicts the number of tasks
or amount of work, whereas the horizontal axis represents the time duration that may be in
hours, days, or weeks.
As a manager, you will find burn-up charts extremely useful for assessing the speed at which
the work is being executed. Furthermore, the data will help you to make adjustments to your
project plan and make it more effective.
There are two key benefits of burn-up charts: they help you to determine if the project
development is going at the right speed, and they can easily accommodate any changes in
the project scope. The latter means that if there is an addition of new work or tasks in a
project, it can be included in the burn-up chart without any trouble.
Although burn-up charts are not available across many project management tools, there are
certain software, like ProofHub, that lets you create interactive burn-up charts for your
projects almost instantaneously.
10. Control Chart

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 11. What Is Critical Path Analysis?

Critical path analysis (CPA) is a project management technique that requires mapping out
every key task that is necessary to complete a project. It includes identifying the amount of
time necessary to finish each activity and the dependencies of each activity on any others.

Also known as the critical path method, CPA is used to set a realistic deadline for a project
and to track its progress along the way.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Critical path analysis is a project planning method that focuses on identifying tasks
that are dependant on other tasks for their timely completion.
 Understanding the dependencies between tasks is key to setting a realistic deadline
for a complex project.

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  Critical path analysis is used in most industries that undertake highly complex
projects.

12. Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT) Chart

A program evaluation review technique (PERT) chart is a graphical representation of a

project's timeline that displays all of the individual tasks necessary to complete the project.

As a project management tool, the PERT chart is often preferred to the Gantt chart because
it identifies task dependencies. However, a PERT chart can be more difficult to interpret.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 PERT charts were first created by the U.S. Navy's Special Projects Office in 1950s to
guide the Polaris nuclear submarine project.1
 A PERT chart uses circles or rectangles called nodes to represent project events or
milestones. These nodes are linked by vectors, or lines, that represent various tasks
and their dependencies.1
 A PERT chart allows managers to evaluate the time and resources necessary to
manage a project.

How Does a PERT Chart Work?

A project manager creates a PERT chart in order to analyse all of a project's tasks while
estimating the amount of time required to complete each one. Using this information, the
project manager can estimate the minimum amount of time required to complete the entire
project.

This information also helps the manager develop a project budget and determine the
resources needed to accomplish the project.

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