Parul University
Parul Institute of Engineering and Technology (Diploma Studies)
Basic Physics (03692155)
1. State characteristics of magnetic field lines.
➢ They are said to originate from the north pole and end at the south pole. This is only
a convention.
➢ The lines of forces of a particular magnet do not intersect with each other.
➢ Tangent to the line of force gives the direction of the magnetic field acting at that
point.
➢ A line of force is continuous: starts from the north pole and ends at the south pole.
➢ There is no line of force within the magnet.
2. Define magnetic field and magnetic field intensity.
The space around a magnet or the space around a conductor carrying current in which its
magnetic influence can be experienced is called a magnetic field.
𝐍
➢ The S. I. Unit of magnetic field (B) is or 𝐍𝐀−𝟏 𝐦−𝟏 or tesla (T) or weber/(meter)2
𝐀𝐦
i.e. (Web/m2).
Magnetic intensity: - The degree to which a magnetic field can magnetize a material is
represented in terms of magnetizing force or magnetic intensity (H)
3. Explain the difference between diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and ferromagnetic
materials.
Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
Diamagnetic substances are Paramagnetic substances Ferromagnetic substances
those substances that are are those substances that are those substances that
feebly repelled by a magnet. are feebly attracted by a are strongly attracted by a
magnet. magnet.
When placed in the magnetic The lines of force prefer to ➢ The lines of force
field, the lines of force tend pass through the substance tend to crowd into
to avoid the substance. rather than air. the specimen.
When placed in a non- When placed in a When placed in a
uniform magnetic field, it nonuniform magnetic field, nonuniform magnetic field,
moves from a stronger to a it moves from a weaker to it moves from a weaker to
weaker field (feeble a stronger field (feeble a stronger field (strong
repulsion). attraction). attraction).
When a diamagnetic rod is When a paramagnetic rod When a ferromagnetic rod
freely suspended in a uniform is freely suspended in a is freely suspended in a
magnetic field, it aligns itself uniform magnetic field, it uniform magnetic field, it
in a direction perpendicular aligns itself in a direction aligns itself in a direction
to the field. parallel to the field. parallel to the field very
quickly.
if a watch glass containing a if a watch glass containing if a watch glass containing
small quantity of diamagnetic a small quantity of a small quantity of
liquid is placed on two paramagnetic liquid is ferromagnetic liquid is
dissimilar magnetic poles, the placed on two dissimilar placed on two dissimilar
liquid shows depression in magnetic poles, the liquid magnetic poles, the liquid
the middle. shows an elevation in the shows an elevation in the
middle. middle.
When a diamagnetic When a paramagnetic When a ferromagnetic
substance is placed in a substance is placed in a substance is placed in a
magnetic field, it is weakly magnetic field, it is weakly magnetic field, it is
magnetized in the direction magnetized in the direction strongly magnetized in the
opposite to the inducing field. of the inducing field. direction of the inducing
field.
On removal of the external On removal of the external On removal of the external
magnetic field, diamagnetic magnetic field, magnetic field,
substances lose their paramagnetic substances ferromagnetic substances
magnetism. lose their magnetism. do not lose their
magnetism. i.e., they are
permanent magnets.
The relative magnetic The relative magnetic The relative Magnetic
permeability of diamagnetic permeability of a permeability of a
substances is always less than paramagnetic substance is ferromagnetic substance is
unity. always greater than unity. large i.e. much more than
μr < 1 μr > 1 unity.
μr > 1
From the relation μr = 1 + From the relation μr = 1 + From the relation μr = 1 +
χm , as μr < 1, χm is χm , as μr > 1 therefore, χm , as μr > 1 therefore, χm
negative. Hence χm must be positive. mustvbe positive. Hence
susceptibility of diamagnetic Hence susceptibility of susceptibility of
substances is negative. paramagnetic substances is ferromagnetic substances is
positive and has a small positive and has a large
value. value.
The susceptibility of Susceptibility of With the rise in
diamagnetic does not change paramagnetic substances temperature, the
with temperature. varies inversely as the susceptibility of
temperature of the ferromagnetic materials
substance 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑥𝑚 ∝ decreases. At a certain
1 temperature, ferromagnetic
𝑖. 𝑒 they lose their
𝑇 passes over to
magnetic character with
paramagnetic.
the rise in temperature.
4. Define magnetic flux.
➢ Magnetic flux is defined in the same way as electric flux is defined.
➢ Magnetic Flux: - The magnetic flux linked through any surface placed in a magnetic
field is the number of magnetic field lines crossing this surface normally.
➢ Magnetic Flux is a scalar quantity and is denoted by 𝟇.
➢ Magnetic flux through a plane of area A placed in a uniform magnetic field B can be
written as,
⃗ ∙A
ϕ=B ⃗
ϕ = BAcos𝜃
➢ Where θ = Angle between B and A.
➢ The notion of the area as a vector.
➢ The SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb) or tesla meter square (Tm 2).
5. State the full form of the laser.
Laser is the acronym for,
L-Light
A-Amplification by
S-Stimulated
E-Emission of
R-Radiation
6. State properties of lasers.
Laser light has three unique characteristics that make it different than "ordinary" light,
which is as follows,
➢ It is highly monochromatic means that it consists of one single color or wavelength.
Even though some lasers can generate more than one wavelength, the light is
extremely pure and consists of a very narrow spectral range.
➢ It is highly directional means that the beam is well collimated (very parallel) and
travels over long distances with very little spread.
➢ It is highly coherent means that all the individual waves of light are moving
precisely together through time and space, i.e., they are in phase.
7. State applications of lasers.
Lasers are now widely used in various fields.
1. In Industry
for welding, melting, etching, surface hardening, and surface processing.
For cutting and drilling holes in materials.
For testing the quality of the material.
For the annealing (heating and cooling) process of the material.
2. In Medicine
To perform bloodless and microsurgery.
To treat retinal detachment problems.
To treat diseases like cancers and tumors.
To drill microscopic holes in cell walls without damaging them.
3. A powerful laser torch can be used to destroy airplanes, missiles, etc.
4. It is also used to determine precisely the location and motion as well as size of distant
objects, which is done by the beam reflected from the object. This is known as LIDAR.
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It is used in fiber optics communication.
It is used in holography.
It is used to accelerate some chemical reactions.
It is used in the nuclear fusion process.
8. Difference between spontaneous and stimulated emission.
Spontaneous Emission
A particle from a higher energy state passes to a lower energy state spontaneously
emitting a photon hυ.
This emission depends on the type of particle and type of transition. It is not caused by
extraneous effects and is a random process. The radiations emitted are mixture of
quanta having various wavelengths. Thus, radiations are incoherent and has broad
spectrum.
A particle can pass from an excited state to normal state emitting quanta (photons) not
only spontaneously but also when forced to it, under the effect of another external
quantum.
According to Einstein, an interaction between the excited atom and a photon can trigger
the excited atom to make a transition to the ground state. Therefore, the transition
generated a second photon which is identical to the triggering photon. The radiations
are thus coherent with the stimulating incident radiation.
9. State the principle of fiber optic cables.
Total Internal Reflection: -
When the light passes through an interface between two media, it gets partly reflected
and partly refracted in the following figure, consider the case, where ‘A’ is a point-like
source in the denser medium having higher refractive index, and emitting light rays in all
directions. Suppose the denser medium is glass. Now, whenever a ray of light passes
from an optically denser medium to a rarer medium, the refracted ray is bent away from
the normal i.e., the angle of refraction is greater than the angle of incidence.
First of all, consider a ray AB striking the interface at an angle i and is refracted at an
angle r, for that ∠𝑟 > ∠𝑖 . As the angle of incidence increases the angle of refraction
also increases. But for a particular value of angle of incidence, the refracted ray emerges
along the surface of separation. This particular angle is known as the “Critical Angle”
as shown in the figure.
The angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90 o is called the critical angle
‘C’ of the denser medium with respect to the rarer medium.
Now consider the rays, which are incident at an angle greater than the critical angle i.e.
no refraction occur means the angle of refraction is greater than 90o and thus the angle of
the incident ray is reflected in the same medium means the 100% reflection will take
place. This phenomenon is called Total Internal Reflection .
10. Explain the structure of fiber optic cable.
➢ There are many different cable designs available today. Depending on the
configuration, the cable may include a core, a cladding, a protective tube, a
polyurethane compound, and one or more protective jackets.
➢ The fiber cable consists of a core at the center and cladding outside the core. The core
is generally a cylindrical dielectric glass with a refractive index of n1 and the cladding
is the second stealth or cover made of glass with a lower refractive index of n2 than
the core refractive index, figure. The cladding in turn covered by a buffer jacket. This
buffer jacket provides protection for the fiber from the external mechanical influence
that could cause fiber breakage or excessive optical attenuation.
➢ Surrounding the buffer jacket there is a layer of strength members called Kevlar (a
yarn-type material) which increases the tensile strength of the cable. Again, an outer
protective tube is filled which polyurethane, which prevents moisture from coming
into contact with the fiber.
➢ When light propagate through the fiber, the light is transmitted within the core. The
cladding keeps the light waves within the core because. The refractive index of the
cladding material is less than that of core.
➢ The type of cable construction used to depend on performance requirements of the
system and both the economic and environmental constructions.
11. State applications of fiber optic cables.
The application and uses of optical fiber can be seen in:
Medical Industry
Communication
Defense
Industries
Broadcasting
Lighting and Decorations
Mechanical Inspections
Optical Fibers uses in the medical industry
Because of its extremely thin and flexible nature, it is used in various instruments to
view internal body parts by inserting them into hollow spaces in the body. It is used as a
laser during surgeries, endoscopy, microscopy, and biomedical research.
Optical Fibers used in Communication
In the communication system, telecommunication has major uses of optical fiber cables
for transmitting and receiving purposes. It is used in various networking fields and even
increases the speed and accuracy of the transmission data. Compared to copper wires,
fiber optics cables are lighter, more flexible, and carry more data.
Optical Fibers used in Defense Purpose
Fiber optics are used for data transmission in high-level data security fields of military
and aerospace applications. These are used in wirings in aircraft, hydrophones for
SONARs, and seismic applications.
Optical Fibers are used in Industries
These fibers are used for imaging in hard-to-reach places such as they are used for
safety measures and lighting purposes in automobiles both in the interior and exterior.
They transmit information at lightning speed and are used in airbags and traction
control. They are also used for research and testing purposes in industries.
Optical Fibers used for Broadcasting
These cables are used to transmit high-definition television signals which have greater
bandwidth and speed. Optical Fiber is cheaper compared to the same quantity of copper
wires. Broadcasting companies use optical fibers for wiring HDTV, CATV, video-on-
demand, and many applications.
Uses of Optical Fiber for Lightening and Decorations
By now, we got a fair idea of what is optical fiber and it also gives an attractive,
economical and easy way to illuminate the area and that is why it is widely used in
decorations and Christmas trees.
Optical Fibers Used in Mechanical Inspections
On-site inspection engineers use optical fibers to detect damages and faults which are at
hard-to-reach places. Even plumbers use optical fibers for the inspection of pipes.
12. State types of fiber optic cables
The optical fiber cable is classified based on three factors – the refractive index, the
materials used, and the mode of propagation of light.
The basis of the refractive index OFC is of two types:
Step Index Fibers: It comprises a core enclosed by the cladding, which has a single
uniform index of refraction.
Graded Index Fibers: The refractive index of the optical fiber decreases as the radial
distance from the fiber axis increases.
Based on materials, OFC is of two types:
Plastic Optical Fibers: The poly (methyl methacrylate) is used as a core material for
the transmission of light.
Glass Fibers: This fiber cable consists of extremely fine glass fibers.
Based on the mode of propagation of light, OFC is divided into:
Single-Mode Fibers: Used for long-distance transmission of signals.
Multimode Fibers: Used for short-distance transmission of signals.