Transportation Engineering – II
Course Instructor
Engr. Imtiaz Ahmed
Sight Distances
SIGHT DISTANCE
Common to all classes of highways and streets are several
principal elements of alignment design including Sight Distance
(SD).
The safe and efficient operation of vehicles on the road depends
very much on the visibility of the road ahead of the driver. It is of
utmost importance that drivers have the capability of seeing
clearly ahead.
Sight distance is the length of roadway ahead visible
to the driver.
SIGHT DISTANCE
For safety on highways, the designer should provide sight
distance of sufficient length so that drivers can control the
operation of their vehicles to avoid striking an unexpected object
in the travelled way.
It should be considered in the preliminary stages of design when
both the horizontal and vertical alignment are still subject to
adjustment.
Types of Sight Distances
1. Stopping Sight Distance (applied on all highways)
2. Decision SD (applied at complex locations)
3. Passing SD (applied at two lane highways)
4. Intersection SD (intersections)
Sight Distance in Design
For safety, should provide sight distance of sufficient
length so that drivers can control the operation of
their vehicles to avoid striking an unexpected object
in the traveled way - STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
(SSD)
Certain 2-lane roads should have sufficient sight
distance to enable drivers to occupy the opposing
traffic lane for passing other vehicles without risk of
crash - PASSING SIGHT Distance (PSD)
Sight Distance
• Distance a driver can see ahead at any
specific time
• Must allow sufficient distance for a
driver to perceive/react and stop,
swerve etc when necessary
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
• The minimum sight distance required for a driver to stop
a vehicle after seeing an object in the roadway without
hitting the object (AASHTO GREEN BOOK).
• The available sight distance on a highway that allows a
vehicle traveling near the design speed to stop before
reaching a stationary object in its path.
• Distance travelled by the vehicle from the time driver
sees (sights) an object to the time vehicle comes to a
complete stop.
Perception reaction Braking Distance (d2)
distance
SSD Influences
• Length of vertical curves
• Sag vertical curves at night
times
• Under pass, obstruction or
sign boards on other side
• Horizontal curves design
SSD Influences
• Length of vertical curves
• Sag vertical curves at
night times
• Under pass, obstruction or
sign boards on other side
• Horizontal curves design
SSD Influences
• Length of vertical curves
• Sag vertical curves at night
times
• Under pass, obstruction
or sign boards on other
side
• Horizontal curves design
SSD Influences
• Length of vertical curves
• Sag vertical curves at night
times
• Under pass, obstruction or
sign boards on other side
• Horizontal curves design
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD)
Perception Reaction Distance (Reaction distance)
The distance traversed by the vehicle from the instant the driver
sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes
are applied; and (Characterized by no speed reduction)
Braking Distance
The distance needed to stop the vehicle from the instant brake
application begins. (Deceleration Zone)
Brake Reaction Time
The interval between the instant that the driver recognizes the existence of an object
or hazard ahead, and the instant when the brakes are actually applied.
The time used in design should be large enough to include the reaction times needed by
nearly all drivers under most highway conditions.
Min. reaction times - 1.64 sec (0.64 sec for alerted drivers + 1sec for the unexpected
signal)
Max. reaction time – 3.5 sec (under similar circumstances)
Typical reaction time – 2.5 sec (for approx. 90% drivers, including older drivers)
Perception Reaction Distance
Simply Speed * time (sec)
Speed:
For highway design: use design speed
For analysis (Forensic): use estimated or actual (if possible) speed
Perception Reaction Time:
321 drivers (Johansson and Ruma): drivers expected to use
brakes
Median: 0.66 sec
90th percentile: >= 1.5 sec
Unexpected, response time increased by ~ 1 sec
Some drivers took over 3.5 seconds to respond even under
simple test condition
AASHTO recommends 2.5 sec which accommodates approx.
90% drivers.
Perception Reaction Distance
D= u*tr (fps)
D= 1.47 u * tr (speed in mph)
Where:
tr= perception reaction time
U= initial speed (fps or mph)
Braking Distance
Horizontal distance needed to stop the vehicle
after the brakes are applied.
Braking distance is a function of
1. Speed (u)
2. Friction (f)
3. Grade (G)
4. Deceleration rate (a)
Braking Distance
• Assumes a rate of deceleration, driver may brake
harder
• a = 11.2 ft/sec2 normal
• a = 14.8 ft/sec2 emergency, use tables from AASHTO
• Friction is a function of pavement condition (wet,
icy), tire, and roadway surface
BD = U2
30[ (a) ± G]
(g)
Where:
BD = braking distance (ft)
U= speed (mph)
a = deceleration rate (ft/s2)
G = grade (decimal)
g = acceleration due to gravity =32.2 ft/s2
Calculation of Stopping Sight Distance
The sum of the distance traversed during the brake reaction time and the
distance to brake the vehicle to a stop is the stopping sight distance i.e.
SSD = brake reaction distance + braking distance
SSD Equation
SSD = 1.47ut + _____u2_____
30({a/g} ± G)
SSD in feet
U speed in mph
t perception/reaction time (in seconds)
a assumed deceleration rate (ft/sec2)
g gravitational force (32.2 ft /sec2)
G gradient in ft/ft
SSD Model
SSD Model Assumptions
1. Brake Reaction Time: This is the time interval between when the obstacle in the road
can be physically seen and when the driver first applies the brakes. Based on several
studies of observed driver reactions, the assumed value is 2.5 seconds.
2. Braking Action: The braking action is based on the driver’s ability to decelerate the
vehicle while staying within the travel lane and maintaining steering control during the
braking maneuver. A deceleration rate of 11.2 ft/s2 (3.4 m/s2) is considered to be
comfortable for 90% of the drivers.
3. Speed: The local facility’s design speed is used to determine the initial driver speed.
SSD for Level Terrain
1. Brake reaction distance based on a time of 2.5 s.
2. Driver deceleration based on a rate of 11.2 ft/s2 (3.4 m/s2).
SSD Example
Use basic assumptions to determine SSD at 60 mph on
a) 0% grade, b) 3% grade
SSD = 1.47u(2.5 sec) + ________u2________
30({11.2/32.2} + 0.00)
SSD = 220.5 + _345.5 = 556 ft
(compare to table 3-1 in GB – See next slide)
On a +3% grade, SSD = 220 +318 = 538 ft
Stopping (emergency) – SSD (Table 3-1)
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (The
Green Book). Washington, DC. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, 2001 4th Ed.
SSD Example
Given: Available Sight distance = 430’ on a +3% grade
Find maximum speed if perception reaction time is
assumed to be 2.5 seconds
430 feet = 1.47u(2.5 sec) + ________u2________
30({11.2/32.2} + 0.03)
430 feet = 3.68u + ________u2________
30(0.378)
Solving for u, u = 52.0 mph (Set speed at 50 mph)
Discuss: Would this be an acceptable condition if the
road is generally posted for 60 mph?
Example 2
An alert driver (with a reaction time 0.5 second) is driving downhill on a 4%
grade at 35mph on a dry pavement when suddenly a person steps from
behind a parked car in the path of the driver, at a distance of 125ft.
a. Can the driver stop in time with emergency braking assuming a
deceleration rate of 14.8ft/s2
b. Can the driver stop in time on a rainy day with comfortable
braking assuming a deceleration rate of 11.2ft/s2
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
a.
b.
Stopping Sight Distance Example
Consider analysis when vehicle skids across
different surfaces (a/g is not equal to 0.35)
Or final velocity is not zero at the end of the
skid, as evidenced because the vehicle
sustains crushing damage until the vehicle is
stopped.
Stopping Sight Distance
With assumed acceleration, using friction
S = PRD + Db
= 1.47ut + vo2 - vf2
30(f ± G)
where:
terms are as before, except
vo = original velocity
vf = final velocity at impact
Stopping Sight Distance Example
Accident Reconstruction:
Average Skid Mark = 47 feet
Crush damage indicates 20 to 30 mph speed at impact
f = 0.65 , level roadway, and 40 mph posted speed.
Was vehicle speeding?
47 feet skid represents what? BD?
If final speed is 30 mph …
BD = 47 = (Vi2 – 302)/30(0.65 + 0)
Vi = 42.6 mph
If final speed is 20 mph (Vi = 36.3 mph)
What if car slides another 30 feet (f = 0.7)? What is
initial speed?
Example
You are shown an accident scene with a vehicle
and a light pole. The vehicle was estimated to hit
the light pole at 50 km/hr. The skid marks are
measured to be 210, 205, 190, and 195 meters.
A trial run that is conducted to help measure the
coefficient of friction reveals that a car traveling at
60 km/hr can stop in 100 meters under conditions
present at the time of the accident. How fast was
the vehicle traveling to begin with?
Typical values for friction
Values of friction vary widely with road surface
type, age, condition. Examples:
Surface type f (or a/g)
Concrete pavement -dry 0.60 to .75
Concrete pavement – wet 0.45 to .65
Asphalt pavement 0.55 to .70
Gravel 0.40 to .70
Ice 0.05 to .20
Snow 0.30 to .60
Source: Lynn Fricke, Northwestern Univ.
DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE
DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE
SSDs are often inadequate when
Drivers must make complex or instantaneous decisions
When information is difficult to perceive, or
When unexpected or unusual manoeuvres are required
There are many locations where it would be prudent to provide longer sight
distances. In these circumstances, Decision Sight Distance provides the
greater visibility distance that drivers need.
Use of DSD
Use at complex or unexpected situations
where
1. Driver error is likely to happen
2. Substantial vehicular control is required
Allow enough time to perform Evasive
Maneuvers
1. Allow additional sight distance over SSD to
increase margin of error
2. Stopping is not necessarily required or
desirable
DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE
Examples of critical locations:
Interchanges and intersections (where unusual or unexpected maneuvers are required),
Changes in cross-section (such as toll plazas, lane drops), and
Areas of concentrated demand; visual noise from competing sources of information (such as
roadway elements, traffic, traffic control devices, and advertising signs)
It is recommended that DSD should be provided at critical
locations or Critical decision points may be moved to where
adequate distances are available
Avoidance Maneuvers
05 General Avoidance Maneuvers accommodated in
AASHTO GREEN BOOK
1. Stopping (Perception Reaction / Stopping)
A: Rural roads: t= 3.0 sec
B: Urban Roads: t= 9.1 sec
2. Speed / Path / Direction Change (Perception Reaction
only)
C: Rural Roads: 10.2-11.2 sec
D: Suburban Roads: 12.1-12.9 sec
E: Urban Roads: 14.0-14.5 sec
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets (The Green Book).
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets (The Green Book).
Passing Sight Distance
Road designers designate potential passing zones during the initial design
of a roadway.
Passing Sight Distance
Passing sight distance considerations are limited to 2-lane, 2-way
highways
Most roads and many streets are two-lane, two-way highways on which
vehicles frequently overtake slower moving vehicles.
The overtaking sight distance is the minimum distance open
to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to overtake the
slow vehicle ahead safely against the traffic in the opposite
direction.
Passing Sight Distance
Assumptions:
1. Vehicle that is passed travels at uniform speed
2. Speed of passing vehicle is reduced behind passed
vehicle as it reaches passing section
3. Time elapses as driver reaches decision to pass
4. Passing vehicle accelerates during the passing
maneuver and velocity of the passing vehicle is 10 mph
greater than that of the passed vehicle
5. Enough distance is allowed between passing and
oncoming vehicle when the passing vehicle returns to its
lane
Source: A
Policy on
Geometric
Design of
Highways and
Streets (The
Green Book).
Washington,
DC. American
Association of
State Highway
and
Transportation
Officials, 2001
4th Ed.
Passing Sight Distance
Dpassing = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
d1 = distance traveled during P/R time to point where vehicle just
enters the left lane
d1 = 1.47t1(u – m + at1)
2
where
t1 = time for initial maneuver (sec)
u = average speed of passing vehicle (mph)
a = acceleration (mph/s)
m = difference between speeds of passing and passed vehicle
Passing Sight Distance
Dpassing = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
d2 = distance traveled by vehicle while in left lane
d2 = 1.47ut2
where:
u = speed of passing vehicle (mph)
t2 = time spent passing in left lane (sec)
Passing Sight Distance
Dpassing = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
d3 = clearance distance varies from 110 to 300 feet
d4 = distance traveled by opposing vehicle during passing
maneuver
d4 usually taken as 2/3 d2
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
Criteria Applied for Measuring Sight Distances
As the distance along a roadway such that an object of specified height is continuously
visible to the driver is the sight distance. Thus, this distance is dependent on:
Height of driver’s eye
Recommended value for passenger vehicle: 3.5 ft (for both PSD and SSD) Recommended value
for truck: 7.6ft
Criteria Applied for Measuring Sight Distances
Height of object
Recommended value for SSD: 2.0 ft
Recommended value for PSD: 3.5 ft
Sight obstructions (e.g. crest vertical curve, longitudinal barrier, back slope of a cut
section)
Measures for Improving Sight Distance
Signage – to alert drivers of an upcoming situation i.e. out of SD range
Speed – establish an advisory speed plaque
Clearance - Trimming bushes, trees and plants
PSD – should be periodically re-evaluated
Altering the roadway or intersection – long-term, higher-cost measure
Intersection SIGHT DISTANCE
Intersection SIGHT DISTANCE
SIGHT DISTANCE
TYPES OF TRIANGLE
APPROACH SIGHT TRIANGLES
APPROACH SIGHT TRIANGLES
DEPARTURE SIGHT TRIANGLES
DEPARTURE SIGHT TRIANGLES
Heights pertaining to sight distance
Obstructed & Unobstructed S.T
ISD STUDY METHODS
TYPES OF INTERSECTIONS
TYPES OF INTERSECTIONS
UNCONTROLLED INTERSECTIONS
UNCONTROLLED INTERSECTIONS
CASE A : SIGHT DISTANCE STUDY METHOD
Target Rod: 4.25’
Sighting Rod: 3.5’
CASE A : SIGHT DISTANCE STUDY METHOD
CASE A : SIGHT DISTANCE STUDY METHOD
Example
Example
CONTROLLED INTERSECTION
CONTROLLED INTERSECTION
CONTROLLED INTERSECTION
CASE B : INTERSECTION WITH STOP
CONTROL ON THE MINOR STREET
Example
Example