Dr. Md.

Rezaul Karim

Chapter - 4
Polynomial and Rational Functions

Section 4.2 Properties of Rational Functions:

Objectives: 1 Find the Domain of a Rational Function
2 Find the Vertical Asymptotes of a Rational Function
3 Find the Horizontal or Oblique Asymptote of a Rational Function

1. Find the Domain of a Rational Function: Ratios of integers are called rational numbers. Similarly,
ratios of polynomial functions are called rational functions. Examples of rational functions are

Definition: A rational function is a function of the form

( )
𝑅(𝑥) =
( )

where 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 are polynomial functions and 𝑞 is not the zero polynomial. The domain of a rational
function is the set of all real numbers except those for which the denominator 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 0.

1. Find the Domain of a Rational Function:

Example 1: (a) The domain of 𝑅(𝑥) = is the set of all real numbers 𝑥 except -5; that is the

domain is {𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ −5}.

(b) The domain of 𝑅(𝑥) = =( )(

is the set of all real numbers 𝑥 except −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2; that is the
)

domain is {𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ −2, 𝑥 ≠ 2}.

(c) The domain of 𝑅(𝑥) = is the set of all real numbers.

(d) The domain of 𝑅(𝑥) = is the set of all real numbers 𝑥 except 1; that is the domain is {𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ 1}.

( )
Note: If 𝑅(𝑥) = ( )
is a rational function, and if p and q have no common factors, then the rational
( )
function R is said to be in lowest terms. For a rational function 𝑅(𝑥) = in lowest terms, the real
( )

zeros, if any, of the numerator in the domain of R are the x-intercepts of the graph of R and so will play a

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major role in the graph of R. The real zeros of the denominator of R [that is, the numbers x, if any, for
which 𝑞(𝑥) = 0], although not in the domain of R, also play a major role in the graph of R.

Example 2: Analyze the graph of

𝐻(𝑥) =

Solution: The domain of 𝐻(𝑥) = is the set of all real numbers x except 0. The graph has no y-

intercept, because x can never equal 0. The graph has no x-intercept because the equation 𝐻(𝑥) = 0
has no solution. Therefore, the graph of H will not cross or touch either of the coordinate axes.
Because,

𝐻(−𝑥) = = = 𝐻(𝑥)
( )

H is an even function, so its graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.

Now we use limit notation, lim → 𝐻(𝑥) = ∞, which is read “the limit of 𝐻(𝑥) as x approaches zero
equals infinity,” to mean that 𝐻(𝑥) → ∞ 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 0.
Again as 𝑥 → ∞, the value of 𝐻(𝑥) approach 0 (the end behavior of the graph). The following figure
shows the graph.

Example 3: Using Transformations to draw the graph of the rational function:

𝑅(𝑥) = +1
( )

Solution: The domain of R is the set of all real numbers except 𝑥 = 2. To graph R, start with the graph
of 𝑦 = . The steps of the graph is as follows:

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Asymptotes: Let R denote a function.

If, as 𝑥 → −∞ 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ∞, the values of 𝑅(𝑥) approach some fixed number L, then the line 𝑦 = 𝐿 is a
horizontal asymptote of the graph of R. [Refer to Figures (a) and (b) ]
If, as x approaches some number c, the values |𝑅(𝑥)| → ∞ [that is, 𝑅(𝑥) → −∞ 𝑜𝑟 𝑅(𝑥) → ∞], then
the line 𝑥 = 𝑐 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of R. [Refer to Figures (c) and (d).]

A horizontal asymptote, when it occurs, describes the end behavior of the graph as 𝑥 → ∞ 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 → −∞.
The graph of a function may intersect a horizontal asymptote.
A vertical asymptote, when it occurs, describes the behavior of the graph when x is close to some
number c. The graph of a rational function will never intersect a vertical asymptote.
There is a third possibility. If, as 𝑥 → −∞ 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ∞, the value of a rational function 𝑅(𝑥)
approaches a linear expression 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, 𝑎 ≠ 0, then the line 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, 𝑎 ≠ 0, is an oblique (or slant)
asymptote of R. The following figure shows an oblique asymptote. An oblique asymptote, when it

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occurs, describes the end behavior of the graph. The graph of a function may intersect an oblique
asymptote.

2. Find the Vertical Asymptotes of a Rational Function:

( )
Theorem (Locating Vertical Asymptotes): A rational function 𝑅(𝑥) = ( )
, in lowest terms, will have

a vertical asymptote 𝑥 = 𝑟 if 𝑟 is a real zero of the denominator q. That is, if 𝑥 − 𝑟 is a factor of the
( )
denominator q of a rational function 𝑅(𝑥) = , in lowest terms, R will have the vertical asymptote
( )

𝑥 = 𝑟.

Example 4: Find the vertical asymptotes, if any, of the graph of each rational function:

(a) 𝐹(𝑥) = (b) 𝑅(𝑥) = (c) 𝐻(𝑥) = (d) 𝐺(𝑥) =

Solution: (a) Given, 𝐹(𝑥) =

Here F is in lowest terms, and the only zero of the denominator is 1. The line x = 1 is the vertical
asymptote of the graph of F.
(b) Given, 𝑅(𝑥) =

Here R is in lowest terms, and the zeros of the denominator 𝑥 − 4 are - 2 and 2. The lines x = - 2 and x =
2 are the vertical asymptotes of the graph of R.

(c) Given, 𝐻(𝑥) =

Here H is in lowest terms, and the denominator has no real zeros because the equation 𝑥 + 1 = 0 has
no real solutions. The graph of H has no vertical asymptotes.
( )( )
(d) Given, 𝐺(𝑥) = =( )(
= ; 𝑥≠3
)

The only zero of the denominator of 𝐺(𝑥) in lowest terms is - 7. The line x = - 7 is the only vertical
asymptote of the graph of G.

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Dr. Md. Rezaul Karim

Multiplicity and Vertical Asymptotes:

* If the multiplicity of the zero that gives rise to a vertical asymptote is odd, the graph
approaches ∞ on one side of the vertical asymptote and approaches −∞ on the other side.
* If the multiplicity of the zero that gives rise to the vertical asymptote is even, the graph
approaches either ∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞ on both sides of the vertical asymptote.
Example:

3. Find the Horizontal or Oblique Asymptote of a Rational Function:

To find horizontal or oblique asymptotes, we need to know how the value of the function behaves as
𝑥 → −∞ 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ∞. That is, we need to determine the end behavior of the function. This can be
done by examining the degrees of the numerator and denominator, and the respective power functions
that each resembles. For example, consider the rational function

𝑅(𝑥) =

The degree of the numerator, 1, is less than the degree of the denominator, 2. When |𝑥| is very large,
the numerator of R can be approximated by the power function 𝑦 = 3𝑥, and the denominator can be
approximated by the power function, 𝑦 = 5𝑥 . This means

𝑅(𝑥) = ≈ = → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → −∞ 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ∞

which shows that the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote. This result is true for all rational functions
that are proper (that is, the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator). If a
rational function is improper (that is, if the degree of the numerator is greater than or equal to the

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degree of the denominator), there could be a horizontal asymptote, an oblique asymptote, or neither.
The following summary details how to find horizontal or oblique asymptotes.

Finding a Horizontal or Oblique Asymptote of a Rational Function: Consider the rational function,
( ) … … …
𝑅(𝑥) = =
( ) … … …

in which the degree of the numerator is n and the degree of the denominator is m.
1. If 𝑛 < 𝑚 (the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator), the line
𝑦 = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.
2. If 𝑛 = 𝑚 (the degree of the numerator equals the degree of the denominator), the line
𝑦= is a horizontal asymptote. (That is, the horizontal asymptote equals the ratio of

the leading coefficients.)

3. If 𝑛 = 𝑚 + 1 (the degree of the numerator is one more than the degree of the denominator),
the line 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 is an oblique asymptote, which is the quotient found using long division.
4. If 𝑛 ≥ 𝑚 + 2 (the degree of the numerator is two or more greater than the degree of the
denominator), there are no horizontal or oblique asymptotes. The end behavior of the graph
will resemble the power function 𝑦 = 𝑥 .

Note: A rational function will never have both a horizontal asymptote and an oblique asymptote. A
rational function may have neither a horizontal nor an oblique asymptote.

Example 5: Find the horizontal asymptote, if one exists, of the graph of

𝑅(𝑥) =

Solution: Since the degree of the numerator, 3, is less than the degree of the denominator, 5, the
rational function R is proper. Therefore the line 𝑦 = 0 is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of R.

Example 6: Find the horizontal or oblique asymptote, if one exists, of the graph of

𝐻(𝑥) =

Solution: Since the degree of the numerator, 4, is exactly one greater than the degree of the
denominator, 3, the rational function H has an oblique asymptote. Find the asymptote by using long
division.

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As 𝑥 → −∞ 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ∞, we have 𝐻(𝑥) → 3𝑥 + 3. The graph of the rational function H has an oblique

asymptote 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 3. Put another way, as 𝑥 → ±∞, the graph of H will behave like the graph of
𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 3.

Example 8: Find the horizontal or oblique asymptote, if one exists, of the graph of

𝐺(𝑥) =

Solution: Since the degree of the numerator, 5, is greater than the degree of the denominator, 3, by
more than one, the rational function G has no horizontal or oblique asymptote. The end behavior of the
graph will resemble the power function 𝑦 = 2𝑥 = 2𝑥 .

That is, 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → −∞ 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ∞,

𝐺(𝑥) = ≈ = 2𝑥

Since this is not linear, the graph of G has no horizontal or oblique asymptote. The graph of G will
behave like 𝑦 = 2𝑥 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ±∞.

Home Work: Exercise 4.2: Problem No. 15-42 and 45-53

Exercise 4.2:

Question no. 15-26 are same:

( )
Question20: Find the domain of 𝐹(𝑥) =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Solution: Given, 𝐹(𝑥) = = = ( ) ( )
=( )( )

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Here (𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1) ≠ 0, 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑥 ≠ 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ≠ − .

( )
Therefore the domain of 𝐹(𝑥) = is the set of all real numbers 𝑥 except − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3; that is the

domain is {𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ − , 𝑥 ≠ 3}.

( )
Question25: Find the domain of 𝐹(𝑥) = ( )

( ) ( )( ) ( )
Solution: Given, 𝐹(𝑥) = ( )
=
( )
=
( )
;

Here (𝑥 + 2) ≠ 0, 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑥 ≠ −2 .
( )
Therefore the domain of 𝐹(𝑥) = is the set of all real numbers 𝑥 except −2; that is the
( )

domain is {𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ −2}.

Question no. 27-32 are same:

Question 28: Given,

Use the graph shown to find

(a) The domain and range of the function
(b) The intercepts, if any
(c) Horizontal asymptotes, if any
(d) Vertical asymptotes, if any
(e) Oblique asymptotes, if any
Solution: (a) The domain of the graph is {𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ −1}, 𝑖. 𝑒. (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, ∞).
And range of the graph is {𝑦: 𝑦 > 0}, 𝑖. 𝑒. (0, ∞).
(b) No 𝑥-intercept.
𝑦-intercept is (0, 2).
(c) As 𝑥 → −∞ 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ∞ the graph close to 𝑦 = 0.

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Therefore the horizontal asymptote is 𝑦 = 0.

(d) As 𝑥 → −1 the graph close to 𝑦 = ∞.
Therefore the vertical asymptote is 𝑥 = −1.
(e) No oblique asymptote.

Question 29: Given,

Use the graph shown to find

(a) The domain and range of the function
(b) The intercepts, if any
(c) Horizontal asymptotes, if any
(d) Vertical asymptotes, if any
(e) Oblique asymptotes, if any
Solution: (a) The domain of the graph is {𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ 0}, 𝑖. 𝑒. (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).
And range of the graph is {𝑦: 𝑦 ≤ −2 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 ≥ 2}, 𝑖. 𝑒. (−∞, −2] ∪ [2, ∞).
(b) No 𝑥 and 𝑦-intercept.
(c) No horizontal asymptote.
(d) Vertical asymptote is 𝑥 = 0.
(e) Oblique asymptote is the line which is passes through the point (0, 0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (−1, 1). Therefore the
oblique asymptote is 𝑦 = −𝑥.

Question no. 33-42 are same:

Question 37: Given 𝐺(𝑥) = ( )

(a) Graph the rational function using transformations

(b) Use the final graph to find the domain and range

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Dr. Md. Rezaul Karim

(c) Use the final graph to list any vertical, horizontal, or oblique asymptotes.
Solution: (a) Use the transformation the final graph is as follows:

(b) Use the graph the domain is {𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ −2} and the range is {𝑦: 𝑦 > 0}
(c) The vertical asymptote is 𝑥 = −2
The horizontal asymptote is 𝑦 = 0

Question no. 45-53 are same:

Question 50: Find the vertical, horizontal, and oblique asymptotes, if any, for the following rational
function:

𝑃(𝑥) =

Solution: Since the degree of the numerator, 3, is less than the degree of the denominator, 3, the
rational function R is proper. Therefore the line 𝑦 = 0 is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of P.
For vertical asymptote,

𝑃(𝑥) = =( )( )

Therefore 𝑥 = 1 is the vertical asymptote.

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