1

CHAPTER 7
PROJECTILES

7.1 No Air Resistance

We suppose that a particle is projected from a point O at the origin of a coordinate system,
the y-axis being vertical and the x-axis directed along the ground. The particle is projected in
the xy-plane, with initial speed V0 at an angle α to the horizon. At any subsequent time in its
motion its speed is V and the angle that its motion makes with the horizontal is ψ.

The initial horizontal component if the velocity is V0 cos α, and, in the absence of air
resistance, this horizontal component remains constant throughout the motion. I shall also
refer to this constant horizontal component of the velocity as u. I.e. u = V0 cos α = constant
throughout the motion.

The initial vertical component of the velocity is V0 sin α, but the vertical component of the
motion is decelerated at a constant rate g. At a later time during the motion, the vertical
component of the velocity is V sin ψ, which I shall also refer to as v.

In the following, I write in the left hand column the horizontal component of the equation of
motion and the first and second time integrals; in the right hand column I do the same for the
vertical component.

Horizontal. Vertical

&x& = 0 &y& = − g 7.1.1a,b

x& = u = V0 cos α y& = v = V0 sin α − gt 7.1.2a,b

x = V0 t cosα y = V0t sin α − 21 gt 2 7.1.3a,b

The two equations 7.1.3a,b are the parametric equations to the trajectory. In vector form,
these two equations could be written as a single vector equation:

r = V0 t + 21 g t 2 . 7.1.4

Note the + sign on the right hand side of equation 7.1.4. The vector g is directed downwards.

The xy-equation to the trajectory is found by eliminating t between equations 7.1.3a and
7.1.3b to yield:

gx 2 .
y = x tan α − 7.1.5
2V02 cos2 α
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Now, re-write this in the form

x2 − ( )x = − ( ) y.

Add to each side (half the coefficient of x)2 in order to "complete the square" on the left hand
side, and, after some algebra, it will be found that the equation to the trajectory can be written
as:

(x − A )2 = − 4 a ( y − B ), 7.1.6

V02 sin α cos α V02 sin 2α ,

where A = = 7.1.7
g 2g

V02 sin 2 α ,
B = 7.1.8
2g

V02 cos2 α .
and a = 7.1.9
2g

Having re-arranged equation 7.1.5 in the form 7.1.6, we see that the trajectory is a parabola
V 2 sin 2α .
whose vertex is at (A , B). The range on the horizontal plane is 2A, or 0 The
g
greatest range on the horizontal plane is obtained when sin 2α = 1, or α = 45o. The greatest
range on the horizontal plane is therefore V02 / g. The maximum height reached is B, or
V02 sin 2 α . V 2 cos2 α .
The distance between vertex and focus is a, or 0 The focus is above
2g 2g
ground if this is less than the maximum height, and below ground if it is greater than the
maximum height. That is, the focus is above ground if cos2 α < sin 2 α . That is to say, the
focus is above ground if α > 45o and below ground if α < 45o.

The radius of curvature ρ anywhere along the trajectory can be found using the usual formula
(1 + y ' )
3
2 2

ρ= . At the top of the trajectory, y' = 0, so that ρ = 1/y'. Alternatively (in case one
y"
has forgotten or is unfamiliar with the "usual formula"), we note that the speed at the top of
the path is just equal to the (constant) horizontal component of the velocity Vo cos α. We can
( )
then equate the centripetal acceleration V02 cos 2 α / ρ to g and hence obtain:

V02 cos2 α
ρ= . 7.1.10
g
 3
By subtracting this from our expression for the maximum height of the projectile, we find
( )
V 2 1 − 3 cos 2 α .
that the height of the centre of curvature above the ground is 0 The centre of
2g
curvature is above ground if α > 54o 44'.

The range r on a plane inclined at an angle θ to the horizontal can be found by substituting
x = r cosθ and y = r sin θ in the equation 7.1.5 to the trajectory. This results, after some
algebra, in

V02
r = [sin (2α − θ) − sin θ]. 7.1.11
g cos 2 θ

This is greatest when 2α − θ = 90o; i.e. when the angle of projection bisects the angle
between the inclined plane and the vertical. The maximum range is

V02 .
r = 7.1.12
g (1 + sin θ )

This is the equation, in polar coordinates, of a parabola, and this parabola, when rotated
about its vertical axis, describes a paraboloid, known as the paraboloid of safety. It is the
envelope of all possible trajectories with an initial speed V0. If a gun is firing shells with
initial speed V0 , or a lawn sprinkler is ejecting water at initial speed V0, you are safe as long
as you are outside the paraboloid of safety. Figure VII.1 shows trajectories for α = 20, 40,
60, 80, 100, 120, 140 and 160 degrees, and, as a dashed line, the paraboloid of safety. Notice
how the range changes with α and that it is greatest for α = 45o.
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Problem.

A gun projects a shell, in the absence of air resistance, at an initial angle α to the horizontal.
The speed of projection varies with angle of projection and is given by

Initial speed = V0 cos 21 α.

Show that, in order to achieve the greatest range on the horizontal plane, the shell should be
projected at an angle to the horizontal whose cosine c is given by the solution of the equation

3c 3 + 2c 2 − 2c − 1 = 0.

Find the optimum angle to a precision of one arcminute.

7.2 Air resistance proportional to the speed.

As in the previous section, I shall write the x-component of the equation of motion, and of the
first and second time integrals, in the left hand column, and the y-component in the right-hand
column. The x-component of the air resistance per unit mass is γx& and the y-component is γ y&.
Here γ is the damping constant, defined in Chapter 6, section 3. The x- and y-components of
the initial velocity are, respectively, V0 cos α and V0 sin α. It should be readily seen that the
equations of motion and their time integrals are as follows:

Horizontal Vertical

&x& = − γ x& &y& = − g − γ y& 7.2.1a,b

x& = u = V0 cos α.e − γ t (

y& = v = V0 sin α.e − γ t −vˆ 1 − e − γt ) 7.2.2a,b
where vˆ = g / γ

1
(
x = x ∞ 1−e − γ t ) y=
γ
( )
(V0 sin α+vˆ ) 1 − e −γt − vˆt 7.2.3a,b

V0 cosα
where x∞ =
γ

(In case it is not "readily seen", for the horizontal motion refer to Chapter 6, section 3,
especially equations 6.3.2, 6.3.3 and 6.3.5, and for the vertical motion refer to Chapter 6,
section 3b, especially equations 6.3.24, 6.3.25 and 6.3.27.) It will be seen that, as t → ∞,
u → 0, v → -vˆ , x → x∞ . The xy-equation to the trajectory is the t-eliminant of equations
6.2.3a and 6.2.3b. After a small amount of algebra this is found to be:
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x (V0 sin α + vˆ ) vˆ  x 
y = + ln1 − . 7.2.4
V0 cos α γ  x∞ 

This is illustrated in figure VII.2 for the numerical data given on the next page. Deleted: .
Deleted: ¶

The range on a horizontal plane is found by setting y = 0, to obtain either Deleted: x

Deleted: =
x = − A ln (1 − x / x∞ ) 7.2.5

or ( )
x = x∞ 1 − e − x / A , 7.2.6

vˆV0 cos α V cos α Deleted:

where A= , x∞ = 0 and vˆ = g / γ .
γ (V0 sin α + vˆ ) γ Formatted: Font: Bookman Old
Style, Lowered by 14 pt
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Example. Suppose V0 = 20 m s-1

α = 50o

g = 9.8 m s-2

γ = 1.96 s-1 (∴vˆ = 5 m s ) −1

Then A = 1.613 870 65 m

and x∞ = 6. 559 057 24 m.

Try to find the range on the horizontal plane, using either equation 7.2.5 or 7.2.6, to nine
significant figures. Which equation works best? Newton-Raphson may fail with a stupid first
guess - but it should not be difficult to make a fairly intelligent first guess. I should not tell you,
but figure VII.2 was calculated using the data of this example.

I make the answer 6.437 584 2 m.

Here’s a more difficult problem: It is well known that, in the absence of air resistance, the
maximum range on the horizontal plane is effected by choosing the initial launch elevation to be
α = 45o. What if there is air resistance, with damping constant γ? What, then, should be the Formatted: Lowered by 5 pt

angle of launch to achieve the greatest range on the horizontal plane? Given equation 7.2.6,
( )
x = x∞ 1 − e − x / A , for what value of α is x greatest? Formatted: Lowered by 5 pt

Equation 7.2.6, written in full, is

V0 cos α   − γ (V0 sin α + vˆ ) x  Formatted: Lowered by 17 pt

x = 1 − exp  . 7.2.7 Formatted: Indent: Left: 1"
γ   vˆV0 cosα 

This can be written Formatted: Tabs: 0.13", Left

  (b sin α + 1)x   Formatted: Lowered by 15 pt

x = a cos α 1 − exp −  , 7.2.8
  a cos α  

V0 V γV0 Formatted: Lowered by 14 pt

where a = and b = 0 = . We have to find for what value of α is x greatest. It Formatted: Lowered by 14 pt
γ vˆ g
seems a simple enough problem, but at the moment I can’t find a good way of solving it. If
anyone has a clue, let me know (jtatum@[Link]). In the meantime, the best I can offer is, for
our particular numerical example, to calculate the range, x, for several values of α and see where
it goes through a maximum. For our particular numerical example, a = 10.204 081 63 m and
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b = 4. Here is a graph of range versus launch angle, for an initial speed of 20 m s−1. A launch
angle of about 23º 59′ gives a range of about 8.4635 m. For a given γ and g, the optimum launch
angle depends on the launch speed V0. Is this intuitively obvious?
Formatted: Centered

8.464

8.463
horizontal range x

8.462

8.461

8.46

8.459

8.458
23 23.2 23.4 23.6 23.8 24 24.2 24.4 24.6 24.8 25
Launch angle α degrees

Formatted: Space Before: 12 pt,

Tabs: 0.13", Left

7.3 Air resistance proportional to the square of the speed. Deleted: ¶

¶

Notation: V is the velocity, V is the speed. The horizontal and vertical components of the
velocity are, respectively, u = x& = V cos ψ and v = y& = V sin ψ. Here ψ is the angle that the
instantaneous velocity V makes with the horizontal. The resistive force per unit mass is kV2.
The horizontal and vertical components of the resistive force per unit mass are kV2 cos ψ and kV2
sin ψ respectively. The launch speed is V0 and the launch angle (i.e. the initial value of ψ) is α.
Distance travelled from the launch point, measured along the trajectory, is s, and speed V = s&.
The equations of motion are:

Horizontal: &x& = − kV 2 cos ψ 7.3.1

Vertical: &y& = − g − kV 2 sin ψ. 7.3.2

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These cannot be integrated as conveniently as in the previous cases, but we can get a simple
relation between the horizontal component u of the speed and the intrinsic coordinate s. Thus,
when we make use of &x& = u& , V =s& and V cos ψ = u , equation 7.3.1 takes the form

u& = − kus&. 7.3.3

Integration, with initial condition u = V0 cosθ , yields

u = V0 cos α. e − k s . 7.3.4

We can also obtain an exact explicit intrinsic equation to the trajectory by consideration of the
normal equation of motion.

The intrinsic equation to any curve is a relation between the intrinsic coordinates (s , ψ). The
rate at which the slope angle ψ changes as you move along the curve, i.e. dψ/ds, is called the
curvature at a point along the curve. If the slope is increasing with s, the curvature is positive.
The reciprocal of the curvature at a point, ds/dψ, is the radius of curvature at the point, denoted
here by ρ.

The normal equation of motion is the equation F = ma applied in a direction normal to the curve.
The acceleration appropriate here is the centripetal acceleration V 2/ρ or V 2dψ/ds.

In a direction normal to the motion, the air resistance has no component, and gravity has a
component −g cos θ. (It is minus because the curvature is clearly negative.) The normal
equation of motion is therefore

dψ
V2 = − g cos θ. 7.3.5
ds

u V cos α.e − k s
But V = = 0 7.3.6
cos ψ cos ψ

dψ
Therefore V02 cos2 α. e −2 k s = − g cos3 ψ . 7.3.7
ds

Separate the variables, and integrate, with appropriate initial conditions:

g
∫ sec ∫
ψ s
3
ψ dψ = − 2 2
e 2 k s ds. 7.3.8
α V cos α
0
0

From here it is good integration practice to show that the intrinsic equation is
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 sec ψ + tan ψ  g
sec ψ tan ψ − sec α tan α + ln  = ( )
1 − e 2k s . 7.3.9
 sec α + tan α  kV02 cos 2 α

This equation is of the form

sec ψ tan ψ + ln(sec ψ + tan ψ ) = A − Be 2 k s . 7.3.10

While it would be straightforward now to compute s as a function of ψ and hence to plot a graph
of s versus ψ, we really want to show y as a function of x, and x and y as a function of time. I am
indebted to Dario Bruni of Italy for the following analysis.

Let (x1 , y1) be a point on the trajectory. When the projectile moves a short distance ∆s, the new
coordinates will be (x2 , y2), where

x2 = x1 + ∆s cos ψ1 7.3.11

and y2 = y1 + ∆s sin ψ1 , 7.3.12

provided that ∆s is taken to be sufficiently small that the path between the two points is
approximately a straight line. The calculation starts with x1 = y1 = 0 and ψ = α. At each stage of
the calculation, the new value of ψ can be calculated from equation 7.3.10. This can be done
easily, for example, by Newton-Raphson iteration, since the derivative of the left hand side of the
equation with respect to ψ is just 2sec3ψ. Thus, with a sufficiently small interval ∆s, the shape
of the trajectory can be built up point by point.

While this gives us the shape of the trajectory, it tells us nothing about the time. To do this, we
can write the equations of motion, equations 7.3.1 and 7.3.2 in the forms

&x& = − kx& x& 2 + y& 2 7.3.13

and &y& = − g − ky& x& 2 + y& 2 . 7.3.14

Let (x1 , y1) be a point on the trajectory. After a short time ∆t, the new coordinates will be (x2 ,
y2), where

x2 = x1 + x&1∆t + 12 &x&1 (∆t ) 2 7.3.15

and y2 = y1 + y&1∆t + 1
2
&y&1 (∆t ) 2 , 7.3.16

provided that ∆t is taken to be sufficiently small that the acceleration between the two instants of
time is approximately constant. Also, the new velocity components are given by
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x&2 = x&1 + &x&1∆t 7.3.17

and y& 2 = y&1 + &y&1∆t . 7.3.18

The calculation starts with

x& = V0 cos α, y& = V0 sin α, &x& = − kV02 cos α, &y& = − g − kV02 sin α,

and after each increment ∆t the new coordinates and velocity and acceleration components are
calculated. The results of Sr Bruni’s calculations are shown in figure VII.3 for
k = 0.0177 m −1 , V0 = 90.5 m s −1 , α = 60o , g = 9.8 m s −2

FIGURE VII.3

70.000

60.000

50.000

40.000
y [m]

30.000

20.000

10.000

0.000
0.000 20.000 40.000 60.000 80.000 100.000
x [m]

Plotted with step by step method from intrinsic equation with ∆s = 0.025 m.
Horizontal range 79.0 m; maximum height 62.4 m. Total flight duration 7.1 seconds.
The time taken to reach the maximum height is 2.8 seconds, so the descent time is longer than
the ascent time.
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An alternative approach has been given by Ambrose Okune, of Uganda. In Okune’s analysis, he
obtains explicit expressions for t, x and y in terms of the angle ψ. (In equation 7.3.10 we already
have a relation between s and ψ.)

We start with equation 7.3.1, the horizontal equation of motion

&x& = − kV 2 cos ψ = − kV V cos ψ. 7.3.19

Now &x& = u& , V = u 2 + v 2 , and V cos ψ = u , so that

u& = − ku u 2 + v 2 . 7.3.20

Similarly, equation 7.3.2, the vertical equation of motion, is

&y& = − g − kV 2 sin ψ = − g − kV V sin ψ, 7.3.21

and, with &y& = v& , V = u 2 + v 2 and V sin ψ = v , this becomes

v& = − g − kv u 2 + v 2 . 7.3.22

v& dv v g
Now = = + . 7.3.23
u& du u ku u 2 + v 2

Also v = u tan ψ , so that

dv dψ
= tan ψ + u sec 2 ψ . 7.3.24
du du

On comparison of equations 7.3.23 and 7.3.24, we see that

g
= u sec 2 ψ dψ . 7.3.25
ku u + v
2 2

Upon substitution of v = u tan ψ, this becomes

g dψ .
3
= sec3 ψ 7.3.26
ku du

g −3
k∫ ∫ sec ψ dψ.
3
and hence u du = 7.3.27
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Upon integration, we obtain

g g
+ ln(sec ψ + tan ψ ) + sec ψ tan ψ = A = + ln(sec α + tan α ) + sec α tan α .
ku 2 ku02
7.3.28

From this, we obtain

g 1
u = , 7.3.29
k A − ln(sec ψ + tan ψ ) − sec ψ tan ψ

and hence
g tan ψ
v = . 7.3.30
k A − ln(sec ψ + tan ψ ) − sec ψ tan ψ

Thus we now have the velocity components explicitly in terms of the angle ψ.

For simplicity, let us write

λ = A − ln(sec ψ + tan ψ ) − sec ψ tan ψ. 7.3.31

Then the equations for the velocity components are

g 1
u = 7.3.32
k λ

g tan ψ .
and v = 7.3.33
k λ

In the limit, as u → 0 , ψ → − 90o , y → − ∞ , the motion approaches a vertical asymptote. As

tan ψ
ψ → − 90 o , λ → − sec ψ tan ψ , and hence Lim o = − 1. Thus the limiting value of the
ψ → − 90 λ
g
vertical component of the velocity is − . This agrees precisely with what one would expect
k
for a body falling vertically at terminal speed, with resistance proportional to the square of the
speed (see equation 6.4.5).

We now aim to find an expression relating ψ to t, which we do by noting that

 13
du du
dψ dt dt .
= = 7.3.34
dt du du dλ
dψ dλ dψ

The derivative du / dt can be found from the horizontal equation of motion &x& = − kV 2 cos ψ ,
which can be written (because u = V cos ψ and &x& = u& ) as u& = − ku 2 sec ψ. Then, making use of
equation 7.3.32, we obtain
du g
= − sec ψ. 7.3.35
dt λ

The derivative du / dλ can be found from equation 7.3.32 and is

du 1 g 1
= − . 7.3.36
dλ 2 k λ3 / 2

The derivative dλ / dψ can be found from equation 7.3.31 and is

dλ
= − 2 sec3 ψ. 7.3.37
dψ

Thus the relation we seek is

dψ
= − gk λ cos 2 ψ. 7.3.38
dt

If the initial motion of the projectile at time zero makes an angle α with the horizontal, then
integration of equation 7.3.38 gives the following expression for the subsequent time t when the
motion makes an angle ψ with the horizontal.

1 α dψ
t =
gk ∫
ψ
λ cos 2 ψ
. 7.3.39

dx dx dψ dψ
Also u = = . With u and given respectively by equations 7.3.32 and 7.3.38,
dt dψ dt dt
we obtain
dx 1 ,
= − 7.3.40
dψ kλ cos 2 ψ

from which we can calculate x as a function of ψ:

 14
1 α dψ .
k ∫ψ λ cos 2 ψ
x = 7.3.41

dy dy dψ dψ
Further, v = = . With v and given respectively by equations 7.3.33 and
dt dψ dt dt
7.3.38, we obtain

dy tan ψ ,
= − 7.3.42
dψ kλ cos 2 ψ

from which we can calculate y as a function of ψ:

1 α tan ψ dψ .
k ∫ψ λ cos 2 ψ
y = 7.3.43

Equations 7.3.39, 7.3.41 and 7.3.43 enable us to calculate t, x and y as a function of ψ, and
hence to calculate any one of them in terms of any of the others. In each case a numerical
integration is required, such as by Simpson’s rule or by Gaussian quadrature, or other
integration algorithm, and, as is always the case, sufficient points must be sampled to obtain
adequate precision. Numerical integration of these equations, using the data of Dario
Bruno’s example above, produced the same x: y trajectory as calculated for figure VII.3 by
Bruno, and the x : t and y : t relations shown in figure VII.4.

I am greatly indebted to Dario Bruni and to Ambrose Okune for their interesting and
instructive contributions to this section – an inspirational example of international scientific
cooperation between, Italy, Uganda and Canada!
 15

FIGURE VII.4
80

70 x

60

50
Distance, metres

y
40

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time, seconds