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PHYSICAL WORLD

Important Points:
1. Science is exploring, experimenting and predicting from what we see around us.
2. The word Physics comes from a Greek word physis meaning nature.
3. Gravitational Force:
a) The gravitational force is the mutual force of attraction between any two objects by
virtue of their masses. It is a universal force.
b) It plays an important role in the formation and evolution of stars, galaxies and
galactic clusters.
4. Electromagnetic Force:

a) For a fixed distance, electromagnetic force between protons is 1036 times the
gravitational force between them.
b) Electromagnetic force is the base for the structure of atoms and molecules.
c) Gravity is always attractive, while electromagnetic force may be attractive or
repulsive.
5. Strong Nuclear Force:
a) The strong nuclear force binds protons and neutrons in a nucleus.
b) This is strongest of all fundamental forces and about 100 times stronger than
electromagnetic force.
c) It is charge independent and acts equally between Proton - Proton, Neutron -
Neutron, and
Proton -Neutron.

d) Its range is very small (10–15m).

e) It is responsible for the stability of nuclei.
6. Weak Nuclear Force:
a) This force appears only in certain nuclear processes such as the β − decay.

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b) These are weaker than the strong nuclear and electromagnetic forces, but stronger
than gravitational forces.

c) Their range is very small (10–16 m).

7. The Raman Effect deals with scattering of light by molecules of a medium when they
are excited to vibration energy levels.
8. According to Bose-Einstein statistics a gas of molecule below a certain temperature
undergoes a phase transition to a state where a large fraction of atoms populate the same
lowest energy state.

Very Short Answer Questions

1. What is physics?

A. Physics is the study of basic laws of nature and their manifestation in different natural
phenomenon.

2. What is the discovery of C.V. Raman?

A: C.V. Raman discovered Raman Effect. It deals with scattering of light by molecules
of a medium when they are excited to vibrational energy levels.

3. What are the fundamental forces in Nature?

A: 1) Gravitational Force 2) Electromagnetic Force

3) Strong Nuclear Force and 4) Weak Nuclear Force

4. Which of the following has Symmetry?

(a) Acceleration due to Gravity (b) Law of Gravitation

A: Law of Gravitation.

5. What is the contribution of S. Chandrasekhar to Physics?

A: Chandrasekhar limit. He worked on structure and evolution of stars.

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

Important Points:
1. Measurement of Length:

a) A meter scale is used for lengths from10-3m to 102m.

b) A Vernier calipers is used for lengths to an accuracy of 10-4m.

c) A screw gauge and a spherometer are used to measure lengths as less as to 10 - 5 m.

d) Large distances such as the distance of a planet or a star from the earth can be
measured by parallax method.

1 Parsec = 3.08 x 1016 m

e) To measure a very small size like that of a molecule (10-8 m to 10-10m) electron
microscope can be used .Its resolution is about 0.6A0.

1 Fermi = 1 f = 10-15m

2. Measurement of Mass:

The mass of atoms and molecules are expressed in the unified atomic mass unit (u).

1 Unified Atomic Mass Unit = 1.66 x 10-27kg

3. Measurement of Time:

Cesium clock (or) atomic clock is based on the periodic vibrations of cesium atom.

These clocks are very accurate. A cesium atomic clock at National Physical
Laboratory (NPL), New Delhi, is being used to maintain the Indian standard of time.

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4. Fundamental Quantities:

A physical quantity which is independent of any other physical quantity is called

fundamental quantity.

5. Derived Quantities:

Quantities that are derived from the fundamental quantities are called derived
quantities.

6. Dimensions:

Dimensions are the powers to which the fundamental units are to be raised to get one
unit of the physical quantity.

7. Dimensional Formula:

Dimensional formula is an expression showing the relation between fundamental and

derived quantities.

8. Dimensional Constant:

Constants having dimensional formulae are called dimensional constants.

Ex:- Planck’s constant, universal gravitational constant.

9. Dimensionless Quantities:

Quantities having no dimensions are called dimensionless quantities.

Ex: Angle, strain.

10. Numerical value of a physical quantity is inversely proportional to its unit.

1
N∝ ⇒ N1 U1 = N2 U2
U

11. Principle of Homogeneity:

Quantities having same dimensions can only be added or subtracted or equated.

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12. Uses of Dimensional Formulae:

Dimensional formulae can be used-

a) To check the correctness of the formula or an equation.

b) To convert one system of units into another system.

c) To derive the relations among different physical quantities.

13. Limitations of Dimensional Methods:

1) These cannot be used for trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions.

2) These cannot be used to find proportionality constants.

3) If an equation is the sum or difference of two or more quantities, then these methods
are not applicable.

4) If any side of the equation contains more than three variables, then these methods are
not applicable.

14. Accuracy:

It is the closeness of the measured values to the true value.

15. Precision:

It is the closeness of the measured values with each other.

16. Errors:

The uncertainty in a measurement is called ‘Errors’. Or

It is difference between the measured and the true values of a physical quantity.

17. Types of Errors:

Errors in measurement can be broadly classified as

a) Systematic Errors b) Random Errors

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18. Systematic Errors:

a) Instrumental Errors: It arises from the errors due to imperfect design or

calibration of the measuring instrument, zero error in the instrument.

b) Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure.

19. Random Errors:

These errors are due to random and unpredictable fluctuations in experimental

conduction, personal errors by the observer.

20. Least Count Errors:

It is the error associated with the resolution of the instrument.

21. Significant Figures:

Significant figures in a measurement are defined as the number of digits that are
known reliably plus the uncertain digit.

22. Rules for determining the number of significant figures:

1. All non - zero digits are significant.

E.g. Number of SF in 9864, 9.864, 98.64 is 4.

2. All zeros occurring between two non-zero digits are significant.

E.g. Number of SF in 1.0605, 106.05; 1.0605 is 5.

3. All the zeros to the right of the decimal point but to the left of the first non zero digit
are not significant.

E.g. Number of SF in 0.0203 is 3

4. All zeros to the right of the last non zero digit in a number after the decimal point are
significant.

E.g. Number of SF in 0.020 is 2.

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5. All zeros to the right of the last non zero digit in a number having no decimal point
are not significant

E.g. Number of SF in 2030 is 3.

23. Rounding Off:

The process of omitting the non significant digits and retaining only the desired number
of significant digits, incorporating the required modifications to the last significant digit
is called 'Rounding Off The Number'.

24. Rules for rounding off Numbers:

1. The preceding digit is raised by 1 if the immediate insignificant digit to be dropped

is more than 5.

E.g.: 4928 is rounded off to three significant figures as 4930.

2. The preceding digit is to be left unchanged if the immediate insignificant digit to

be dropped is less than 5.

E.g. 4728 is rounded off to two significant figures as 4700.

3. If the immediate insignificant digit to be dropped is 5 then

a) If the preceding digit is even, it is to be unchanged and 5 is dropped

E.g. 4.728 is to be rounded off to two decimal places as 4.72.

b) If the preceding digit is odd, it is to be raised by 1.

E.g. 4.7158 is rounded off to two decimal places as 4.72.

25. Estimation of Errors:

a) Absolute error = True value - Measured value

∆ ai = a mean − ai Absolute error is always positive.

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b) Mean absolute Error ( a mean ):

∆ a1 + ∆ a 2 + ∆ a3 + ........ + ∆ a n
Mean absolute error ∆ a mean =
n

Mean absolute error is always positive.

c) Relative Error:

∆ a mean
Relative error = Relative error has no units.
a mean

 ∆ a mean 
d) Percentage Error ( δ a ) : δ a =  × 100  %
 a mean 

26. Combination of Errors:

a) Error of a sum or a difference:

(i) If x = a + b

Maximum possible value of ∆ x = ∆ a + ∆ b

∆ x ∆a+∆b
Relative error =
x a+b

∆x  ∆ a + ∆ b  
Percentage error, % =   100  %
x  a + b  

(ii) Let x = a − b

Maximum possible value of ∆ x = ∆ a + ∆ b

∆ x ∆a+∆b
Relative error =
x a −b

∆x  ∆ a + ∆ b  
Percentage error, % =   100  %
x  a − b  

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b) Errors of Multiplication or Division:

(i) Let x = a b

∆ x ∆a ∆b
Maximum relative error, = +
x a b

∆x  ∆a ∆b
Percentage error, %= +  100%
x  a b 

a
(ii) Let x =
b

∆ x ∆a ∆b
Maximum relative error = +
x a b

∆x  ∆a ∆b
Percentage error %= +  100%
x  a b 

a pb q
27. Let x =
cr

∆x ∆a ∆b ∆c
Maximum relative error =p +q +r
x a b c

∆x  ∆a ∆b ∆c
Percentage error %= p +q +r  100%
x  a b c 

=========================== =================================

Physical Quantity Units D.F.

Velocity (V) m s −1 LT -1

Acceleration (A) ms -2 LT -2

Linear momentum (P) Kg .ms −1 MLT −1

Force (F) N MLT −2

Impulse (J) N.s MLT −1

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Work (w) Joule ML2T −2

Angle (θ ) rad Dimensionless

Angular velocity rad s −1 T −1

Angular acceleration rad s −2 T −2

Angular Momentum (L) Kg .m 2 s −1 ML2T −1

Moment of inertia (I) Kg .m 2 ML2

Torque (τ ) N.m ML2T −2

Power (P) Watt ML2T −3

Pressure (P) Pascal ML−1T −2

Gravitational Constant (G) N .m 2 kg −2 M −1 L3T −2

Stress Nm −2 ML−1T −2

Strain No Unit Dimensionless

Elastic Constants Pascal ML−1T −2

Spring Constant (K) N/m MT −2

Surface Tension (T) N/m MT −2

N .s
Coefficient of Viscosity (η ) ML−1T −1
m2

Expansion Coefficients K −1 K −1

Universal Gas Constant (R) J/mol/K ML2T −2 mol −1 K −1

Boltzmann Constant ( K) J/K ML2T −2 K −1

Specific Heat (C) J/Kg/K L2T −2 K −1

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Latent Heat (L) J/K L2T −2

Thermal Conductivity (K) W/m/K MLT −3 K −1

W
Stefan’s Constant (a) MT −3 K −4
m ×K4
2

Very Short Answer Questions

1. Distinguish between accuracy and precision?

A:

Accuracy Precision

1) It is the closeness of the measured value 1) It is the closeness of the measured

to the true value. values of repeated measurements.

2) It depends on the minimization of 2) It depends on the least count of the

errors in the measurement. measuring instrument.

2. What are the different types of errors that can occur in a measurement?

A: The errors can be broadly classified as

a) Systematic Errors b) Random Errors c) Gross Errors.

3. How systematic errors be minimised or eliminated?

A: Systematic errors can be minimised by improving experimental techniques, selecting

better instruments and removing personal bias as far as possible.

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4. Illustrate how the result of a measurement is to be reported indicating the error

involved?
A: As every measurement contains errors, the result of a measurement is to be reported in
such a manner to indicate the precision of measurement.
Suppose the length of an object is measured using a meter scale with a least count 0.1
cm .If the measured length is 62.5 cm, it is to be recorded as ( 62.5 ± 0.1) cm stating the
limits of errors.

5. What are significant figures and what do they represent when reporting the
result of a measurement?
A: The digits of a number (representing a measurement) that are definitely known plus
one more digit (added at the end) that is estimated are called significant digits or
significant figures.
In reporting the result of a measurement using significant figures clearly shows the
precision of the instrument.

6. Distinguish between fundamental units and derived units?

A: Fundamental Units:

The units of fundamental quantities like length, mass, time etc. are called fundamental
units.

Derived Units:

The units of derived quantities like velocity, force etc. is called as derived units.

7. Why do we have different units for the same physical quantity?

A: The order of magnitude of a measurable physical quantity differs significantly.

Ex. Inter-atomic distances are of the order of angstroms and interstellar distances are
of the order of light years.

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8. What is dimensional analysis?

A: Physical quantities having the same dimensions can only be added or subtracted.
Dimensional analysis helps us in deducing certain relations among different physical
quantities and checking the derivation, accuracy and dimensional consistency or
homogeneity of various mathematical expressions.

9. How many orders of magnitude greater is the radius of the atom as compared to
that of the nucleus?

A: The radius of a nucleus is of order of 10−15 m and that of the atom is nearly 10−10 m . The
radius of the atom is greater by 105 times as compared to that of the nucleus.

10. Express unified atomic mass unit in kg?

A: 1u = 1.66 × 10−27 kg

Short Answer Questions

1) The vernier scale of an instrument has 50 divisions which coincide with 49 main
scale divisions. If each main scale division is 0.5 mm, then using this instrument
what would be the minimum inaccuracy in the measurement of distance?

1Main scale division

A. Least count =
Number of vernier scale divisions

0.5mm
Least count = = 0.01 mm.
50

Hence the minimum inaccuracy in the measurement is 0.01 mm.

2. In a system of units the unit of force is 100N, unit of length is 10m and the unit of
time is 100s. What is the unit of mass in this system?

A: F = 100N, L=10m and T=100s

Force F = MLT −2 Or M = FL−1T 2

∴ M = (100 N )(10 m ) (100 s )

−1
= 105 Kg
2

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3. The distance of a galaxy from Earth is of the order of1025 m . Calculate the order
of magnitude of the time taken by light to reach us from the galaxy?

A. d = 1025 m and C = 3 × 10 8 ms −1

The time taken by light to reach us from that galaxy is

distance 1025
Time = = = 3.3 × 1016 s
speed 3 × 108

The time taken is in the order of1016 s .

4. The Earth-Moon distance is about 60 Earth radius. What will be the approximate
diameter of the Earth as seen from the Moon?
A. Let the radius of Earth be R, then the distance of Earth from the Moon is given by 60
R
Let θ be the angular diameter of Earth as seen from the Moon.

Diameter AB of earth, b = 2R
Distance of the earth as seen from the moon, θ = 2R 1
= rad
60 R 30

1 180° 6° 6
∴θ = × = = = 1.9°
30 π π 3.142

5. Three measurements of the time for 20 oscillations of a pendulum are given

as t1 = 39.6 s , t2 = 39.9 s and t3 = 39.5 s . What is the precision in the measurements?
What is the accuracy of the measurements?
t1 + t2 + t3 39.6 + 39.9 + 39.5
A. tmean = = = 39.66 ≈ 39.7s
3 3

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Thus the instrument is precise up to 0.1s.

As 39.6 sec is closer to the mean value, it is more accurate.

6. A calorie is a unit of heat or energy and it equals about 4.2 J where 1J = 1kg m 2 s −2 .
Suppose we employ a system of units in which the unit of mass equals α kg, the
unit of length equals β m, the unit of time is γ s. Show that a calorie has a

magnitude 4.2 α −1β −1γ 2 in terms of the new units?

A: 1Calorie = 4.2J = 4.2 Kgm2S-2

If 1 Calorie = n2 new units

2 −2
 kg   m   s 
n2 = 4.2      = 4.2α −1β−2 γ 2 new units
 α kg   β m   γ s 

∴ 1 Calorie = 4.2α −1β−2 γ 2

7. A new unit of length is chosen so that the speed of light in vacuum is 1 unit. If
light takes 8 min and 20 s to cover this distance, what is the distance between the
Sun and Earth in terms of the new unit?

A: The time taken by light to travel from the sun to the earth is = 500 s
The distance between the sun and earth in the new system,
(S) = Ct = 1 × 500 = 500 New units.

8. A student measures the thickness of a human hair using a microscope of

magnification 100. He makes 20 observations and finds that the average thickness
(as viewed in the microscope) is 3.5 mm. What is the estimate of the thickness of
hair?

A. Magnification of microscope = 100

Average thickness of human hair observed through microscope over
20 observation = 3.5 mm = 3.5 ×10−3 m

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According to the definition of magnification,

Magnification observed thickness
=
Re al thickness

3.5 × 10−3
100 =
Re al thickness

3.5 ×10−3
∴ Re al thickness = = 35 µ m
100

9. A physical quantity X is related to four measureable quantities a, b, c and d as

follows: X = a 2 b3 c5/ 2 d −2 . The percentage error in the measurement of a,b,c and d
are 1%,2%,3% and 4%. What is the percentage error in X?

A: X = a 2 b3 c5/ 2 d −2

The maximum percentage error in X is

∆X  ∆a   ∆b  5  ∆c   ∆d 
× 100 = 2  × 100  + 3  × 100  +  ×100  + 2  ×100 
X  a   b  2 c   d 

∆X 5
∴ × 100 = 2 (1% ) + 3 ( 2% ) + ( 3% ) + 2 ( 4% ) = 23.5%
X 2

10. The velocity of a body is given by v = At 2 + Bt + C . If v and t are expressed in SI,

what are the units of A, B and C?

A. Velocity v = At 2 + Bt + C

Dimensional formula of velocity v = LT −1

From the principle of homogeneity,

LT −1 = AT 2 = BT = C

∴ The unit of A = LT −3 is metre / sec3

The unit of B = LT −2 is metre / sec2

The unit of C = LT −1 is metre / sec

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Problems

1) In the expression P = E L2m−5G −2 the quantities E, l, m and G denote energy angular

momentum, mass and gravitational constant respectively. Show that P is a
dimensionless quantity?

A: P = E L2m−5G −2

D.F of E → ML2T −2

D.F. of l → ML2T −1

D.F. of m→M

D.F. of G → M −1L3T −2

P = ( ML2T −2 )( ML2T −1 ) M −5 ( M −1L3T −2 )

2 −2
Now D.F. of

= M(
1+2−5+2)
L(
2+4−6)
T(
−2−2+4)
= M 0 L0T 0

Hence ‘P’ is a dimensionless quantity

2) If the velocity of light c, Plank’s constant h and the gravitational constant G are
taken as fundamental quantities, then express mass, length and time in terms of
dimensions of these quantities?

A. Dimensions of, c = LT −1 ; G = M −1 L3T −2 and h = ML2T −1

hc hc
(a) M 2 = ⇒M =
G G

Gh Gh
(b) L 2 = 3
⇒ L=
c c3

G h Gh
(c) T 2 = ⇒ T =
c5 c5

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3) An artificial satellite is revolving around a planet of mass M and radius R, in a

circular orbit of radius r. From Kepler’s Third law about the period of a satellite
around a common central body, square of the period of revolution T is proportional to
the cube of the radius of the orbit r. Show using dimensional analysis, that
k r3
T= , where k is a dimensionless constant and g is acceleration due to gravity?
R g

A: T 2α r 3 ⇒ Tα r 3/2

T is function of g and R ⇒ T α g x R y
x y
∴  L0 M 0T 1  =  L3/2 M 0T 0   L1M 0T −2   L1M 0T 0  ⇒ T ∝ r 3/2 g x .R y
      

1
Comparing the powers, x = − and y = −1
2

k r3
∴ T = kr 3/2 g −1/2 R −1 =
R g

4) State the number of significant figures in the following:

(a) 6729 (b) 0.024 (c) 0.08240 (d) 6.032 (e) 4.57 ×108

A: (a) 4 (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) 4 (e) 3

5) A stick has a length of 12.132 cm and another has a length of 12.4 cm. If the two
sticks are placed end to end what is the total length? If the two sticks are placed
side by side, what is the difference in their lengths?

A. (a) Total length L = (12.132 + 12.4 ) cm

Or L = (12.13 + 12.4 ) cm

∴ L = 12.53cm
(b) Difference in the length L = 12.4 − 12.132

Or L = 12.4 − 12.13

∴ L = 0.3 cm

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6) Each side of a cube is measured to be 7.203 m. What is (i) The total surface area
and
(ii) The volume of the cube, to appropriate significant figures?

A: Side of the cube = 7.203 m

The number of significant figures in the measured length is 4. The calculated area and
the volume should be rounded off to 4 significant figures.
Surface area of the cube = 6 ( 7.203) m2 = 311.299254 m 2 = 311.3m
2 2

Volume of the cube = ( 7.203) m3 = 373.714754m = 373.7 m

3 3 3

7) The measured mass and volume of a body are 2.42 g and 4.7 cm3 respectively with
possible errors 0.01 g and 0.1 cm3 . Find the maximum error in density.

mass
A: Density =
volume

Maximum percentage error in density ∆m ∆υ  0.01 0.1 

= ×100 + ×100 =  × 100 + × 100  = 2%
m υ  2.42 4.7 

8) The error in measurement of radius of a sphere is 1%. What is the error in the
measurement of volume?

A. We know that, V ∝ r 3

∆V ∆r
∴ ×100 = 3 ×100 = 3 (1) = 3%
V r

9) The percentage error in the mass and speed are 2% and 3% respectively. What is
the maximum error in kinetic energy calculated using these quantities?

1
A. K= mυ2
2

∆K  ∆m   ∆υ 
× 100 =  × 100  + 2  × 100 
K  m   υ 

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∆K
∴ × 100 = 2 + 2 ( 3) = 8%
K

10) One mole of an ideal gas at standard temperature and pressure occupies 22.4 L
(molar volume). If the size of the hydrogen molecule is about what is the ratio of
molar volume to the atomic volume of a mole of hydrogen?

A: 1 mole of hydrogen contains 6.023 × 1023 atoms.

Molar volume = 22.4 lit = 22.4 × 10 −3 m 3 (∵1 lit = 10 −3 m 3 )

4
Atomic volume = πr 3 × 6.023 ×1023
3

0
But, r = 0.5 A = 0.5 × 10 −10 m

22.4 ×10−3 = 7 × 104

Required ratio =
× π× ( 0.5 ×10−10 ) × 6.023 ×1023
4 3

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

Important Points:
1. An object is said to be at rest, if the position of the object does not change with time with
respect to its surroundings.

2. An object is said to be in motion, if its position changes with time with respect to its
surroundings.

3. Rest and Motion are Relative:

A person travelling in a bus is at rest with respect to the co-passenger and he is in motion with
respect to the person on the road.

4. Distance and Displacement:

a) Distance is actual path and displacement is the shortest distance between its initial and final
positions.

b) Distance is a scalar and displacement is a vector quantity.

5. Speed:

a) The rate of distance travelled by a body is called speed. Its SI unit is [Link] is a scalar
quantity.

distance travelled
Speed = .
time taken

∆s ds
b) Instantaneous speed = Lt = .
∆t → 0 ∆t dt

Total distance
c). Average speed =
Total time

6. Velocity:

a) The rate of change of displacement of a body is called velocity. Its SI unit is [Link] is a vector
quantity.

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b) A body is said to move with uniform velocity, if it has equal displacements in equal intervals
of time, however small these intervals may be.

c) The velocity of a particle at any instant of time or at any point of its path is called
instantaneous velocity.

∆ s ds
V = Lt =
∆t → 0 ∆t dt

Total displacement
d) Average velocity =
Total time

7. Acceleration:

a) The rate of change of velocity of a body is called acceleration.

v −u
a=
t

b) The acceleration lies along the direction of change in velocity.

8. Retardation:

Any body travelling with decreasing velocity possesses retardation or deceleration.

9. Acceleration under earth’s gravity is called acceleration due to gravity (g) and it is equal to
980 cms-2 or 9.8 ms-2.

10. Equations of Motion (Uniform Acceleration):

1 2  1
1) v = u + at 2) S = ut + at 3) v2 - u2 = 2as 4) Sn = u + a  n − 
2  2

Where Sn is the distance travelled by a body in the nth second of its journey.

11. Equations of motion of a freely falling body ( u = 0 ; s = h and a = g):

1 2  1
1) v = gt 2) h = gt 3) v2 = 2gh 4) Sn = g  n − 
2  2

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12. Equations of motion for a body projected vertically up ( a = − g , s = h ) :

1 2  1
1) v = u − gt 2) h = ut − gt 3) v 2 = u 2 − 2 gh 4) hn = u − g  n − 
2  2 

13. For a body thrown up vertically from the top of a tower of height ‘h’,

1 2  1
1) v = - u + gt 2) h = - ut + gt 3) v 2 = u 2 − 2 gh 4) hn = −u + g  n − 
2  2 

14. For a body thrown vertically up with an initial velocity ‘u’

a. Maximum Height:

Maximum vertical distance travelled is known as maximum height.

u2
H=
2g

b. Time of Ascent:

The time taken by a body to reach the maximum height is known as time of ascent.

u
ta =
g

c. Time of Descent:

The time in which body comes down from maximum height is known as time of descent.

u
td =
g

d. Time of Flight:

The total time for which a body remains in air before reaching the ground is known as time of
flight.

u u 2u
T = ta + td = + =
g g g

15. Time of ascent is equal to time of descent, if air resistance force is neglected.

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16. If a body is allowed to fall freely from the top of a tower of height ‘h’ and another is projected
simultaneously from the foot of tower in the upwards with velocity u , then they meet after
time
h
t=
u

17. Relative Velocity:

Velocity of one body with respect to that of another body is called relative velocity. The
velocity of `A` with respect to that of `B` is given by
VAB = VA ± VB

If ‘A’ and ‘B’ are moving at an angle θ with one another

V AB = VA2 + VB2 − 2VAVB cos θ

18. Position- Time Graph:

a) Position-time graph is plotted by taking time along X-axis and position of the
particle on Y-axis.

b) Slope of the graph gives the velocity of the particle.

19. Acceleration - Time Graph:

a) The graph is plotted by taking time along X -axis and velocity of the particle on

Y- axis

b) Slope of the graph gives the acceleration.

c) Area under the graph gives the distance travelled.

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Very Short Answer Questions

1. The states of motion and rest are relative. Explain?

A. Rest:
A body is said to be at rest if it occupies the same position for any length of time, with
respect to its surroundings.

Motion:
A body is said to be in motion if it occupies different positions at different time intervals
with respect to its surroundings.
Ex: A person travelling in a bus is at rest with respect to the co-passenger and he is in motion
with respect to the person on the road. Hence rest and motion are relative.

2. How is average velocity different from instantaneous velocity?

A. Average Velocity:
It is the ratio of its total displacement of the body and the total time taken for that
displacement.

Total displacement
Vaverage =
Total time

Instantaneous velocity:

It is the velocity of the body at any instant of time.

∆x ds
VInst = Lt =
∆t →0 ∆t dt

3. Give an example where the velocity of an object is zero but its acceleration is not zero?

A. At the highest point of a vertically projected body, velocity is zero but it is still under
acceleration due to gravity.

4. A vehicle travels half the distance L with speed v1 and the other half with speed v2.

What is the average speed?

A: Average speed = Total distance

Total time

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L L L
Vave = = =
t1 + t2 L / 2 L / 2  L  1 1 
+
V1 V2   + 
 2   V1 V2 

2VV
∴Vave = 1 2
V1 + V2

5. A lift coming down is just about to reach the ground floor. Taking the ground floor as
origin and positive direction upwards for all quantities, which one of the following is
correct?

a) x < 0, v < 0, a > 0

b) x > 0, v < 0, a < 0

c) x > 0, v < 0, a > 0

d) x > 0, V > 0, a > 0

A: x < 0, v < 0, a > 0

6. A uniformly moving cricket ball is hit with a bat for a very short time and is turned
back. Show the variation of its acceleration with time taking the acceleration in the
backward direction as positive?

A:

7. Give an example of one-dimensional motion where a particle moving along the positive
x-direction comes to rest periodically and moves forward.
The question may be corrected like this:
Give an example of one-dimensional motion where a particle moving along the positive
x-direction comes to rest periodically.

A: A particle in simple harmonic motion comes to rest periodically at the extreme positions.

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8. An object falling through a fluid is observed to have an acceleration given by a= g-bv

where g is the gravitational acceleration and b is a constant. After a long time it is
observed to fall with a constant velocity. What would be the value of this constant
velocity?
A. If velocity is constant, acceleration is zero. a = g - bv = 0
g
∴v =
b

9. If the trajectory of a body is parabolic in one frame, can it be parabolic in another

frame that moves with a constant velocity with respect to the first frame? If not, what
can it be?

A. No. The trajectory can be a vertical straight line.

10. A spring with one end attached to a mass and the other to a rigid support is stretched
and released. When is the magnitude of acceleration a maximum?

A. Acceleration is maximum at the extreme points of its motion.

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Short Answer Questions

1. Can the equations of kinematics be used when the acceleration varies with time? If not,
what form would these equations take?

A. For uniform accelerated motion,

1
V = V 0 + at ; x = V 0t + at 2 ; V 2 = V 0 2 + 2ax
2

If acceleration varies with time,

(i) To calculate velocity after time t:

dv
Instantaneous acceleration a =
dt

∴ dv = a dt

v t
∫ dv = ∫ a dt , where v 0 is velocity at time t = 0
v0 0

Here ‘a’ is a function of time.

(ii) To calculate the velocity at position ' x ' ;

dv dv dx dv
Instantaneous acceleration a = = . = .v
dt dx dt dx

∴ vdv = a dx

v x
∫ v dv = ∫ a dx , where is velocity at the position x0
v0 x0

Here ‘a’ is function of position ‘x’

dx dx dv dx
Also, v = = . = .a
dt dv dt dv

∴ [Link] = [Link]

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v x
Then, ∫ v dv = ∫ a dx
v0 x0

2. A particle moves in a straight line with uniform acceleration. Its velocity at time t = 0 is
v1 and at time t = t is v2 . The average velocity of the particle in this time interval is

( v1 + v2 ) / 2 . Is this correct? Substantiate your answer?

A: The given statement is correct.

Let a particle be moving with uniform acceleration ‘a’ along a straight. Its velocity is v1 at

time t = 0 at origin and it reached a position in a time t and its velocity became v2 .Then,
average velocity over time interval‘t’ is given by
∆x x − 0 x
v ave = = =
∆t t − 0 t

V 22 − V 12 V − V1
But x= and a= 2
2a t

(V 22 − V12 ) t
∴ x=
2 (V 2 − V1 )

(V + V )(V − V )
∴x= 2 1 2 1
t 2 (V 2 − V1 )

Or V ave = V1 + V2
2

3. Can the velocity of an object be in a direction other than the direction of acceleration of
the object? If so, give an example?

A. Yes. Velocity may be in a direction other than direction of its acceleration.

Ex: If a body is projected vertically upwards, the velocity of body is directed vertically
upwards but the acceleration due to gravity is always directed vertically downwards

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4. A parachutist flying in an aeroplane jumps when it is at a height of 3 km above ground.

He opens his parachute when he is about 1 km above ground. Describe his motion?
A: Assume that aeroplane is flying horizontally. Now he is like a freely falling body in
vertically downward direction and has uniform velocity equal to plane velocity in horizontal
direction till he opens parachute at a height 1 km above the ground.
After parachute is opened, air resistance (Viscous drag) and buoyancy also acts on him
along with gravitational force. In the presence of these forces the net acceleration will
become zero after falling through certain height, there he attains constant velocity called
Terminal Velocity. Further he falls on to the ground with the same terminal.

5. A bird holds a fruit in its beak and flies parallel to the ground. It lets go of the
fruit at some height. Describe the trajectory of the fruit as it falls to the ground as seen
by (a) The Bird (b) a person on the ground?

A: When the bird dropped a fruit while flying horizontally, it falls on to the ground after some
time. The path traversed by fruit depends on the choice of reference frame.
(a) The trajectory of fruit with respect to bird is a straight line vertically downward as it
appears to be falling freely for the bird.
(b)The trajectory of fruit with respect to a person on the ground is parabola.

6. A man runs across the roof of a tall building and jumps horizontally on to the
(lower) roof of an adjacent building. If his speed is 9 m s −1 and the horizontal
distance between the buildings is 10 m and the height difference between the roofs is
9m, will he be able to land on the next building? (Take g = 10 m s −2 )

A: In this interval horizontal displacement covered is x=u

(
2 h 2 − h1 )
g

2×9
∴ x=9 = 12.07 m
10

Since the horizontal separation is 10 m between the two buildings, which is less than
12.07 m .Thus he can safely land on to the building with his effort.

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7. A ball is dropped from the roof of a tall building and simultaneously another ball is
thrown horizontally with some velocity from the same roof. Which ball lands first?
Explain your answer?

A. Both the balls reach the ground simultaneously.

Let ‘h’ be the height of the building. For the dropped ball, time taken to reach the ground -
2h
t1 = − − − (1)
g

For the horizontally thrown ball the initial vertical component of velocity is zero. Let the
time taken to reach the ground is t 2 .

1
From, s = ut + at 2
2

1 2
h= gt
2 2

2h
∴ t2 = − − − − − ( 2)
g

From (1) and (2) t1 = t 2

Hence both reach the ground at the same time.

8. A ball is dropped from a building and simultaneously another ball is projected

upward with some velocity. Describe the change in relative velocities of the balls as a
function of time?

A: Let ball (1) be dropped from the top edge of building and ball (2) be projected vertically
upwards with velocity ‘u’ from the same point.

At t = 0, velocity of ball (1) with respect to ball (2) is u 12 = 0 − ( −u ) = u

Acceleration of ball (1) with respect to ball (2) is a 12 = a1 − a 2 = g − g = 0

The relative velocity of ball (1) with respect to ball (2) after time interval ‘t’ is
V 12 = u12 + a12 = u + ( 0 ) t = u = constant

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Thus the relative velocity of the balls is always constant during their motion. Hence the
change in their relative velocity is zero in course of time, which is equal to the velocity of
projection of second ball.

9. A typical raindrop is about 4mm in diameter. If a raindrop falls from a cloud which is
at 1 km above the ground, estimate its momentum when it hits the ground?

A: The momentum of rain drop just before reaching the ground is

P = mass × velocity = mv

4
But, mass m = volume × density = π r 3ρ and V = 2 gh
3

4
∴ P = π r 3ρ 2 gh
3

4mm
r= = 2mm = 2 ×10 −3 m
2

3
4 22
3 7
( ) 4 22
P = × × 2 ×10 −3 ×10 3 × 2 × 9.8 ×10 3 = × × 8 ×10 −6 ×14 ×10
3 7

= 0.00469 kg ms −1

10. Show that the maximum height reached by a projectile launched at an angle of 45 is
one quarter of its range?

u 2 sin 2 θ
A. Maximum height H =
2g

u 2 sin 2θ
Horizontal range R =
g

H u 2 sin 2 θ g tan θ
Now, = × 2 =
R 2g u sin 2θ 4

R
If , θ = 45 0 , H =
4

Hence maximum height reached is one quarter of its range.

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Problems

1. A man walks on a straight road from his home to a market 2.5 km away with a speed
of 5 km h −1 . Finding the market closed, he instantly turns and walks back home with a
speed of 7.5 km h −1 . What is the (a) Magnitude of Average Velocity and (b) Average
Speed of the man over the time interval 0 to 50 min?

A:

S 2.5
Time taken to go from home to market is t1 = =
V1 5

1
t1 = hr = 30min
2

s 2.5 1
Time taken by him to get back from market to home is t2 = = = hr =20 min
V2 7.5 3

total displacement 0
(a ) magnitude of average velocity = = =0
total time 50

total distnace 2.5 + 2.5

(b) average speed = = = 6 kmph
total time 1 1
 + 
 2 3

2 A car travels the first third of a distance with a speed of 10 kmph, the second third at
20 kmph and the last third at 60 kmph. What is its mean speed over the entire
distance?

A:
S1 + S 2 + S3
Mean speed Vav =
t1 + t2 + t3

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S S S
+ +
Vav = 3 3 3
S S S
+ +
3V1 3V2 3V3

3V1V2V3 3 (10 )( 20 )( 60 )
∴Vav = =
V1V2 + V2V3 + V3V1 (10 × 20 ) + ( 20 × 60 ) + ( 60 × 10 )

Or Vav = 18kmph

3. A bullet moving with a speed of 150 ms −1 strikes a tree and penetrates 3.5 cm before
stopping. What is the magnitude of its retardation in the tree and the time taken for it
to stop after striking the tree?

A: u = 150m / s ; v = 0 ; s = 3.5 × 10−2 m

Acceleration = -a

i) From, v 2 − u 2 = 2 ( −a ) s

02 − (150 ) = 2 × ( −a ) × 3.5 ×10−2

2

150 × 150
a= −2
= 3.214 × 105 m / s
2 × 3.5 ×10

ii) Let the time taken for it to stop is ‘t’

From, v = u + ( −a ) t

0 = 150 − 3.214 × 105 t

150
⇒t = = 4.667 × 10−4 s
3.214 × 10 5

4. A motorist drives north for 30 min at 85 km/h and then stops for 15min. He continues
travelling north and covers 130 km in 2 hours. What is his total displacement and
average velocity?

A: Distance travelled in first case along north is S1 = v1t1 = 85 × 30 km = 42.5km

60

Distance travelled in second case along north is S2 = 130km

The magnitude of total displacement is S = S1 + S2 = ( 42.5 + 130 ) km = 172.5 km

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Total time he spend t = 30 + 15 + 2 = 2hr 45min

60 60

Magnitude of average velocity = Net displacement =

172.5
=
172.5
kmph
Total time 1 1   11 
 + + 2  
2 4  4

= 62.72 kmph

5. A ball A is dropped from the top of a building and at the same time an identical ball B
is thrown vertically upward from the ground. When the balls collide the speed of A is
twice that of B. At what fraction of the height of the building did the collision occur?

A. Let‘t’ be the time after which they collide

Let hA is distance travelled by A and hB is the distance travelled by B before they collide.

Let u be the initial speed of B. Let vA and vB be the speed of A and B at time of collision.

From υ = u + at ,
υ A = 0 + gt ⇒υ A = gt − − − − (1)

and υ B = u − gt − − − ( 2 )

But υ A = 2υB

gt = 2 ( u − gt )
2u
or t= ........ ( 3)
3g

1
From, s = ut + at 2
2
1 1
hA = 0 ( t ) + gt 2 = gt 2 ___ ( 4 )
2 2
1
hB = u ( t ) − gt 2 − − − ( 5)
2

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1
ut −
1 2
gt ut − gt 2
hB 2 = 2
=
hA + hB 1 2  1 2 ut
gt +  ut − gt 
2  2 

But, t = 2u
3g

1 g  2u   1  2
Required fractions = 1−   = 1 −  =
2 u  3g   3  3

6 Drops of water fall at regular intervals from the roof of a building of height 16m. The
first drop strikes the ground at the same moment as the fifth drop leaves the roof. Find
the distances between successive drops?

A. Let ‘t’ be the time interval between fall of two successive drops. Then from fig. and from the
given information in the problems
Time of fall of 1st drop = 4t
Time of fall of 2nd drop = 3t
Time of fall of 3rd drop = 2t
Time of fall of 4th drop = t
Total height from which drops fall is given by ‘h’
Clearly distance through which 1st drop fall is also ‘h’
So h = 0 + 1 g ( 4t )2
2
1 1 h
g ( 4t ) ⇒ gt 2 = − − − (1)
2
h=
2 2 16

Distance through which 1st drop fall is h1 = h

Distance through which 2nd drop fall is h2 = 1 g ( 3t )2

2

1 
h2 = 9  gt 2 
 2 

1
g ( 2t )
2
Distance through which 3rd drop fall is h3 =
2
4h
h3 =
16

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1
Distance through which 4th drop fall is h4 = g (t )
2

Gap b/w 1st and 2nd drop = h1 − h2 = h − 9h = 7h =

7
×16 = 7m
16 16 16

Gap b/w 2nd and 3rd drop = h2 − h3 = 9h − 4h

16 16
5 5
= h = (16 ) = 5m
16 16

Gap b/w 3rd and 4th drop = h3 − h4 = 4h − h = 3h = 3 ×16 = 3m

16 16 16 16

Gap b/w 4th drop and 5th drop = h4 = h = 1m

16

7. A hunter aims a gun at a monkey hanging from a tree some distance away. The monkey
drops from the branch at the moment he fires the gun hoping to avoid the bullet.
Explain why the monkey made a wrong move?

A.

If there were no gravity the bullet would reach height H in the time t taken by it to travel the
horizontal distance X, i.e.
X
H = u sin θ × t with t =
u cosθ

However, because of gravity the bullet has an acceleration g vertically downwards, so in

time t the bullet will reach a height
1 1
y = u sin θ × t − gt 2 = H − gt 2
2 2

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1 2
This is lower than H by gt which is exactly the amount the monkey falls freely in this
2
time. So the bullet will hit the monkey regardless of the initial velocity of the bullet so long
as it is great enough to travel the horizontal distance to the tree before hitting the ground.
However, for large u lesser will be the time of motion; so the monkey is hit near its initial
position and for smaller u it is hit just before it reaches the floor. Bullet will hit the monkey
only if
1
y > 0, i.e., H − gt 2 > 0
2

Or 1 2 1 x2
H> gt or H > g × 2
2 2 u cos 2 θ

or u > x g
cos θ 2H

But, cos θ = x
H 2 + x2

Or u>
g
2H
( )
x 2 + H 2 = u0

If u < u0 , the bullet will hit the ground before reaching the monkey.

8. A food packet is dropped from an aero plane, moving with a speed of 360 kmph in a
horizontal direction, from a height of 500m. Find (i) Its time of descent
(ii) The horizontal distance between the point at which the food packet reaches the
ground and the point above which it was dropped?
5
A: u x = 360kmph = 360 × = 100m / s ; h = 500m ; g = 10m / s 2
18

2h 2 × 500
(i) t= = = 10 s
g 10

(ii) Horizontal distance s x = u xt = 100 ×10 = 1000m

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9. A ball is tossed from the window of a building with an initial velocity of 8 m s −1 at an

angle of 200 below the horizontal. It strikes the ground 3s later. From what height was
the ball thrown? How far from the base of the building does the ball strike the ground?

A: u = 8m / s , t = 3s , g = 9.8 m / s 2 ; u x = u cos 200 and u y = u sin 200

1
i) From, s y = u y t + a y t 2
2

h = ( u sin 200 ) t +
1 2
gt
2
1
h = 8 × sin 200 × 3 + × 9.8 × 32 = 52.3 m
2

ii) S x = u x × t

u ( cos 200 ) × 5 = 8 × 0.9396 × 3 = 22.55m

10. Two balls are projected from the same point in directions 300 and 600 with
respect to the horizontal. What is the ratio of their initial velocities if they

(a) Attain the same height? (b) Have the same range?

u 2 sin 2 θ u 2 sin 2θ
A. H= and R =
2g g

a) H1 = H 2

u12 sin 2 300 u22 sin 2 600

=
2g 2g

2
1
2
 3
u   = u22   ⇒ u1 : u2 = 3 :1
2
1
2  2 

b) R1 = R2

u12 sin 2 ( 30 ) u22 sin 2 ( 60 )

=
g g

 3 2 3
u12   = u2   ⇒ u1 : u2 = 1:1
 2   2 
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MOTION IN A PLANE

Important Points:
1. Scalar:

A physical quantity having only magnitude but no direction is called a Scalar.

Ex: Time, mass, distance, speed etc.

2. Vector:

A physical quantity having both magnitude and direction and which obeys the laws of vector
addition is called a Vector Quantity.

Ex. Displacement, velocity etc.

3. Equal Vectors:

Vectors having same magnitude and which have same direction are called equal vectors.

4. Negative Vectors:

A vector which has the same magnitude as that of another and which is opposite in direction is
called a Negative Vector.

5. Null Vector or Zero Vectors:

A vector whose magnitude is zero and which has no specific direction is called a Null Vector.

Ex. The cross product of two parallel vectors is a null vector.

6. Unit Vector:

It is a vector whose magnitude is unity. If A is a vector, the unit vector in the direction of A is
A
written as Aˆ =
A

iˆ, ˆj and kˆ are units vectors along x, y and z axis

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7. Position Vector:

The position of a particle is described by a position vector which is drawn from the origin of a
reference frame. The position vector of a particle ‘P’ in space is given by A = xi + yj + zk

Its magnitude is given by A = x 2 + y 2 + z 2

A xi + yj + zk
Unit vector of A is given by, Aˆ = =
A x2 + y 2 + z 2

8. Resolution of Vectors:

Definition:

The process of dividing a vector into its components is called resolution of vector.

a) Rectangular components of a vector

Horizontal component A = A cos θ

x

Vertical component A = A sin θ

y

Resultant A = Ax 2 + Ay 2

→
9. If α , β , γ are the angles made by A with X, Y and Z axes respectively, then

Ax Ay Az
cos α = →
; cos β = →
; cos γ = →
These are called direction cosines.
| A| | A| | A|

Also, cos 2 α + cos 2 β + cos 2 γ = 1

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10. Parallelogram Law of Vectors:

Statement:

If two vectors are represented both in magnitude and direction by the adjacent sides of a
parallelogram drawn from a point, the diagonal passing through that point represents their
resultant both in magnitude and direction.

Magnitude of Resultant:

R = A2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos θ

Where θ is the angle between the vectors.

Direction of resultant vectors R :

B sin θ →
Tan α = Where α is angle made by the R with A
A + B cos θ

11. Triangle Law of Vectors:

Statement:

If two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides of a triangle taken
in order, then the third side of the triangle taken in reverse order represents their resultant in
magnitude and direction.

12. Relative Velocity of Rain Drops:

Formula: Vrel = Vr − Vm

Where

Vm = Velocity of man

Vr = Velocity of rain

-VP VP
θ
VR
V
α

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Vrel = Vr2 + Vm2 − 2VrVm cos θ

θ = anglebetween Vr and Vm

When rain drops fall vertically and person moves along horizontal,

Vm
Vrel = Vr2 + Vm2 And tan θ =
Vr

Where α = angle between Vrel & Vr

13. Motion of Boat in a River:

Resultant velocity of boat VR = VB + VW

Vw
a) Shortest Path: Sin θ =
Vb

Where V = velocity of water and V = velocity of boat

w b

Resultant velocity (VR ) = Vb2 − Vw2

D
Time taken to cross the river t =
Vb2 − Vw2

Where D → width of the river

D
b) Shortest Time: Time taken to cross the river t =
Vb

 Vw 
BC = Drift = D  
 Vb 

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14. Oblique Projection:

a. A body which has uniform velocity in the horizontal direction and uniform acceleration in
the vertical direction is called a projectile.

b. The path of a projectile is called Trajectory and it is a parabola.

c. For a projectile, the horizontal component of velocity (ux = u cos θ ) is same

throughout its motion.

d. The vertical component (uy = u sin θ ) is subjected to acceleration due to gravity.

e. After a time ‘t’,

Horizontal displacement x = (u cos θ )t

1
Vertical displacement y = (u sin θ )t − gt 2
2

f. The velocity of projectile is minimum (u cos θ ) at the highest point of its path. Here
vertical component of velocity is zero.

g. At any instant of time ‘t’ the horizontal component of velocity is vx = u cos θ .

The vertical component of velocity is v y = u sin θ − gt

The resultant velocity is v = v 2x + v 2y .

vy
The direction of velocity with the horizontal Tan α = .
vx

 g  2
h. Equation for the trajectory of the body y = x tan θ −  2 2 
x
 2u cos θ 

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u sin θ
i. Time of ascent ( ta ) =
g

u sin θ
j. Time of descent ( td ) = g

2u sin θ
k. Time of flight T = ta + td =
g

u 2 sin 2 θ
l. Maximum height reached Hmax =
2g

2u xu y u 2 sin ( 2θ )
m. Horizontal range R = =
g g

n. Range is maximum if the angle of projection θ = 450

o. Range is same for two angles of projection 'θ ' and (90 − θ ) .

p. If the range and maximum height of a projectile are equal, the angle of projection θ = tan −1 (4) .

R 4
q. The relation between range and maximum height is =
H tan θ

15. Horizontal Projection:

a. The path of a body projected horizontally from the top of a tower of height ‘h’ is a
parabola.

 g 
b. The equation of the trajectory is given by y =  2  x 2
 2u 

2h
c. The horizontal range R = u x t = u
g

d. At any instant ‘t’ the resultant velocity v = vx2 + v 2y

vy
e. The angle made by resultant velocity with horizontal tan α = .
vx

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f. A body is dropped from the window of the moving train. The path of the body is

i) Vertical straight line for an observer in the train.

ii) Parabolic for an observer outside the train.

g. From the top of a tower a stone is dropped and simultaneously another stone is projected
horizontally with a uniform velocity. Both of them reach the ground simultaneously.

16. Uniform Circular Motion:

a) When a particle follows a circular path at constant speed, its motion is called uniform
circular motion.

b) The line joining the centre of the circle and the position of the particle at any instant of time
is called the radius vector.

c) The angle made by the radius vector in a given interval of time is called the angular
displacement.

d) Angular displacement is measured in radians or degrees 1 Radian = 57.50 .

e) The rate of change of angular displacement is called angular velocity ( ω ).

θ
ω= rads −1
t

f) Linear velocity (V ) = ω × r .

g) Rate of change of angular velocity is called angular acceleration ( α ). Unit is rad s - 2.

ω2 − ω1
α=
t

h) Linear acceleration a = α × r .

i) Angular displacement ( θ ) and angular acceleration (a) are pseudo vectors.

j) Equations of motion are

i) ω = ω0 + α t.

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1
ii) θ = ω0t + α t 2
2

iii) ω 2 − ω02 = 2αθ

k) The acceleration experienced by the body directed towards the centre is called normal or
radial or centripetal acceleration

v2
a= and 4π 2 n 2 r where n is the number of revolutions per second.
r

mv 2
l) Centripetal force = = mrω 2
r

m) A pseudo force which is away from the centre is called the centrifugal force.

mv 2
Centrifugal force = − = mrω 2
r

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Very Short Answer Questions

1. The vertical component of a vector is equal to its horizontal component. What is

the angle made by the vector with X-axis?

A. If θ is the angle made by a vector A with x-axis.

X-component of A = Ax = A cos θ and Y-component of A = Ay = A sin θ

But, Ax = Ay ⇒ A cos θ = A sin θ ⇒ tan θ = 1 ⇒ θ = 450

2. A vector v makes an angle θ with the horizontal. The vector is rotated through an angle
α .Does this rotation change the vector v ?
A. Due to the rotation, the vector changes in its direction but the magnitude does not change.

3. Two forces of magnitudes 3 units and 5 units act at 600 with each other. What is the
magnitude of their resultant?

A: Magnitude of the resultant R = A 2 + B2 + 2AB cos θ

∴ R = (3) 2 + (5)2 + 2 × 3 × 5 cos 60 = 7 Units

4. A = i + j . What is the angle between the vector and x-axis?

A. If ‘ θ ’ is the angle made by the vector A with x-axis

Ax 1
cos θ = = ⇒ θ = 450
A 2

5. When two right angled vectors of magnitude 7 units and 24 units combine, what is the
magnitude of their resultant?

A: Here θ = 900

Magnitude of their resultant R = (7) 2 + (24) 2 + 2 × 7 × 24 cos 90 = 25 Units

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6. If P = 2iˆ + 4ˆj + 14kˆ and Q = 4iˆ + 4ˆj + 10kˆ find the magnitude of P + Q .

A. P + Q = (2iˆ + 4ˆj + 14k)

ˆ + (4iˆ + 4ˆj + 10k)
ˆ = 6iˆ + 8jˆ + 24kˆ

P + Q = 36 + 64 + 576 = 676 = 26 Units

7. Can a vector of magnitude zero have nonzero components?

A. No. If the components of a vector are non-zero components, then its magnitude will never be
equal to zero.

8. What is the acceleration of projectile at the top if its trajectory?

A: a = g and it is directed vertically downwards.

9. Can two vectors of unequal magnitude add up to give the zero vector? Can three
unequal vectors add up to give the zero vector?

A: i) No. Two vectors of unequal magnitude cannot add up to give zero vector.

ii) Yes. Three vectors of unequal magnitude can add up to give zero vector.

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Short Answer Questions

1. State parallelogram law of vectors. Derive an expression for the magnitude and
direction of the resultant vector?

A. Statement:

If two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram drawn from a point, then their resultant is represented both in magnitude and
direction by the diagonal passing through the same point.

Explanation:

Let OP and OQ represent the two vectors A and B making an angle θ . The diagonal OS
represents the resultant R .

Magnitude (R):

Extend the line OP and draw a perpendicular SN. From the

In the right angled triangle ONS,

OS2 = ON2 + NS2 = (OP + PN)2 + NS2

Or R2 = OP2 + PN2 +[Link] + NS2 ------ (1)

From the triangle PNS,

PN = PS cos θ = B Cos θ and NS = PS sin θ = B sin θ ----------- ( 2)

PN2 + NS2 = B2 Cos2 θ + B2 sin2 θ = B2 ------------ (3)

Using Eq. (2) and (3) in Equation (1)

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R2 = A2 + B2+2AB cos θ

∴ R = A 2 + B2 + 2AB cos θ

Direction:

Let the resultant R makes an angle α with A .

NS NS
In the right angled triangle OSN, tan α = =
ON OP + PN

Bsin θ
Or tan α =
A + B cos θ

 Bsin θ 
∴ α = tan −1  
 A + B cos θ 

2. What is relative motion? Explain it?

A. Relative Motion:
The apparent motion (displacement (or) velocity (or) acceleration) which one body seems to
possess, when viewed from another body, is said to be the relative motion of one body with
respect to another body (or) It is the motion of one body with respect to another body.
a. The relative velocity of body 'A' with respect to 'B' is given by VR = VA − VB

b. The relative velocity of body 'B' with respect to 'A' is given by VR = VB − V A

c. V A − VB and VB − V A are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction

d. VR = VA − VB = VA2 + VB2 − 2 .VA VB . cos θ

e. For two bodies moving in the same direction, relative velocity is equal to the difference of
velocities. (θ = 0°.cos 0 = 1)

VR = VA – VB

f. For two bodies moving in opposite direction, relative velocity is equal to the sum of their
velocities. (θ =180°;cos180 = –1)

∴ VR =VA + VB

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g. If they move at right angle to each other, then the relative velocity = v 12 + v 22 .

3. Show that a boat must move at an angle of 900 with respect to river water in order to
cross the river in a minimum time?

A. Let AB = d be width of the river.

Suppose that a boat moves with a velocity VB such that it makes an angle θ with the line
AB as shown in figure.

d = (VB Sinθ ) t

B
V B sin θ
d VB
θ V B co s θ
A

d
Time taken by the boat to cross the river is t =
VB Sinθ

If θ = 90o , t is minimum (i.e.) Hence a boat must move at an angle of 900 with respect to
river water in order to cross the river in a minimum time.

4. Define unit vector, null vector and position vector?

A. Unit Vector:

A vector whose magnitude is equal one is called a unit vector. A unit vector has no units and
dimensions.

A
The unit vector A is given by Â=
A

Null Vector:

A vector whose magnitude is zero and which has no specific direction is called a null vector.
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Position Vector:

The position of a particle is described by a position vector which is drawn from the origin of
a reference frame. This helps to locate the particle in space.

Let the co-ordinates of the particle at P are x, y and z. The position vector of ‘P’ with respect
ˆ ˆ ˆ
to origin O given by OP = r = xi+yj+zk

Its magnitude, OP = r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2

5. If a+b = a − b , prove that the angle between a and b is 900?

A: Let ‘ θ ’ be the angle between a and b

a+b = a−b

a 2 + b 2 + 2ab cos θ = a 2 + b 2 − 2ab cos θ

a 2 + b 2 + 2ab cos θ = a 2 + b 2 − 2ab cos θ

Or 4ab cos θ = 0

∴ θ =900.

6. Show that the trajectory of an object thrown at certain angle with the horizontal is a
parabola?

A. Let a body be projected with an initial velocity ‘v0’ at an angle ‘ θ 0’ with the horizontal, from
the point O. The path of the body is called trajectory.

Initial horizontal component of velocity vx = v0 cos θ 0

Initial vertical component of velocity vy = v0 sin θ 0

The horizontal component is constant throughout the motion of the body. The vertical
component changes both in magnitude and direction due to gravity.

Let the projectile is at the point P (x, y) after a time interval ’t’.

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Along X-direction, using

1
s = ut + at 2
2

x = (v0 cos θ0 ) t

x
Or t = --------------- (1)
v0 cos θ 0

1
Along Y-direction, using s = ut + at 2
2

1 2
y = (v0 sin θ 0 )t − gt -------------- (2)
2

From equations (1) and (2) ,

2
x 1  x 
y = (v0 sin θ 0 ) − g 
v0 cos θ 0 2  v0 cos θ0 

 g  2
y = (tan θ 0 ) x −  2 x
 2v0 cos θ 0 
2

g
Let tan θ 0 = A and =B
2v0 cos 2 θ0
2

.: y = Ax − Bx 2 Where A and B are constants

Hence the path of a projectile is a parabola.

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7. Explain the terms the average velocity and instantaneous velocity. When are they
equal?

A. Average Velocity:
It is defined as the ratio of displacement ∆x to the time interval ∆t .
∆x x2 − x1
Vave = =
∆t t2 − t1

It is independent of path followed by the particle between initial and final positions. It gives
only the result of motion.
Instantaneous Velocity:
The velocity of a particle at a particular instant of time is known as instantaneous velocity.
∆x dx
Vins =∆Lim
t →0 =
∆t dt

In uniform motion the instantaneous velocity of a body is equal to the average velocity.

u 2 sin 2 θ u 2 sin 2θ
8. Show that the maximum height and range of a projectile are and
2g g

respectively where the terms have their regular meanings?

A: Maximum Height (H):

The maximum vertical displacement of a projectile is called Maximum Height.

Initial velocity (uy) = u sin θ

Final velocity (vy) = 0

Acceleration (a) = -g

Displacement = H max = H

Using, v 2 − u 2 = 2as

0 − u 2 sin 2 θ = 2(− g ) H

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Or u 2 sin 2 θ = 2 gH

u 2 sin 2 θ
∴H =
2g

Horizontal Range (R):

The maximum horizontal displacement of a projectile is called Range (R).

Initial velocity ( u x ) = u cos θ

Acceleration (ax) = 0

2u sin θ
Time of flight (t) = T =
g

Displacement s = R

1
Using, s = ut + at 2
2

R = (u cos θ )T =
(u cos θ)(2u sin θ)
= u2
( 2sin θ cos θ )
g g

u 2 sin 2θ
.: R =
g

9. If the trajectory of a body is parabolic in one reference frame, can it be parabolic in

another reference frame that moves at constant velocity with respect to the first
reference frame? If the trajectory can be other than parabolic, what else it can be?

A. No, it may or may not be parabolic.

Explanation:

1) When an object is thrown out from a train moving with constant velocity with respect to
ground, then it appears to the observer in the train as vertically thrown up body with a
trajectory of straight line. Whereas for an observer on the ground the path of the body is
parabolic.

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2) If this body is observed from another train moving with constant velocity other than the
first train, then its trajectory appears as parabolic only.

10. A force 2iˆ + ˆj − kˆ Newton acts on a body which is initially at rest. At the end of 20

seconds, the velocity of the body is 4iˆ + 2ˆj + 2kˆ ms-1. What is the mass of the body?

A. Force F = 2iˆ + ˆj − kˆ and F = 4 + 1 + 1 = 6

Initial velocity u = 0
Final velocity v = 4iˆ + 2ˆj + 2kˆ and v =2 6

Time t= 20
v−u 2 6
F = ma = m ⇒ 6 =m
t 20
Mass of the body, m = 10Kg

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Problems

1. Ship A is 10 km due west of ship B. Ship A is heading directly north at a speed of 30

km/h, while ship B is heading in a direction 600 west of north at a speed of 20 km/h.
(i) Determine the magnitude of the velocity of ship B relative to ship A.
(ii) What will be their distance of closest approach?

A. (i) Velocity of ship B relative to A V BA = V B − V A

 −1 
| V BA |= VA 2 + VB 2 + 2VA VBCos1200 = 302 + 202 + 2x20x30x   = 10 7 kmph
 2 

Qsin θ 20sin120 3
(ii) tan α = = =
P + Q cos θ 30 + 20cos120 2

2
The closest approach is AC given by AC = AB cos θ = 10x = 7.56 km nearly.
7

2. If θ is the angle of projection, R is the range, h is the maximum height, T is the time of
flight then show that (a) tan θ = 4h / R and (b) h = gT2/8?

u 2 sin 2 θ u 2 sin 2θ u 2 2sin θ cos θ

A: (a) h = and R= =
2g g g

h tan θ 4h
.: = or tan θ =
R 4 R

u 2 sin 2 θ 2u sin θ 4u 2 sin 2 θ

(b) h = and T = ⇒T =
2

2g g g2

h g gT 2
∴ 2= or h =
T 8 8

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3. A projectile is fired at an angle of 600 to the horizontal with an initial velocity of 800
m/s;

(i) Find the time of flight of the projectile before it hits the ground.

(ii) Find the distance it travels before it hits the ground (Range).

(iii) Find the time of flight for the projectile to reach its maximum height.

A: θ = 600 , u = 800 m / s , g = 9.8 m/s2

3
2x800x
2u sin θ 2 = 141.4 sec
(i) T = =
g 9.8

u 2 sin 2θ (800) 2 x sin120

(ii) R = = = 56.555 km
g 9.8

T u sin θ
(iii) t = = = 70.7 sec
2 g

4. For a particle projected slantwise from the ground, the magnitude of its position vector
with respect to the point of projection, when it is at the highest point of the path is
found to be 2 times the maximum height reached by it. Show that the angle of
projection is tan -1 (2).

R^ ^
A. Position vector with respect to the point of projection r = i+ H j
2

2
R
| r |=   + H 2
2

But, | r |= 2H (given)

R2
.: 2H = + H2
4

R2
Or 2H 2 = + H 2 Or R = 2H
4

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u 2 sin 2θ u 2 sin 2 θ
=2
g 2g

Or tan θ = 2 (or) θ = tan-1 (2)

5. An object is launched from a cliff 20 m above the ground at an angle of 300 above the
horizontal with an initial speed of 30 m/s. How far horizontally does the object travel

before landing on the ground? (g = 10 m/s2)

A. h = - (u sin θ ) T + 1/2 gT2

1
20 = ( −30 × sin 30 ) t + × 10 t 2
2

Solving the above we get, t = 4 Sec

Horizontal range R= (u cos θ ) t = (30 cos 30 ) 4 = 60 3 m

6. O is a point on the ground chosen as origin. A body first suffers a displacement of

10 2m North - East, next 10 m North and finally 10 2m North - West. How far it is
from the origin?

A. S1 = 10 2m due N − E = 10iˆ + 10 ˆj m( )

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S 2 = 10m due N = 10 ˆj

S3 = 10 2 m due N − W = −10iˆ + 10 ˆj

S1 + S 2 + S3 = 10iˆ + 10 ˆj + 10 ˆj − 10iˆ + 10 ˆj

= 30 ˆj = 30m due north

7. From a point on the ground a particle is projected with initial velocity u, such that its
horizontal range is maximum. Find the magnitude of average velocity during its
ascent?

A. For maximum range, Angle of projection, θ = 450

^ ^
u = ( u cos θ ) i + ( u sin θ ) j (At point of projection)
^
v = ( u cos θ ) i (At highest point)

u+v
Average velocity, vav =
2
^ ^ ^ ^ ^

vav =
( u cos θ ) i + ( u sin θ ) j+ ( u cos θ ) i =
( 2u cos θ ) i + ( u sin θ ) j =
u ^ u ^
i+ j
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
 u   u  5u
| v av |=   +  =
 2 2 2 2 2

8. A particle is projected from the ground with some initial velocity making an angle of
450 with the horizontal. It reaches a height of 7.5 m above the ground while it travels a
horizontal distance of 10 m from the point of projection. Find the initial speed of
projection (g = 10 m/s2)

A: θ = 450 ; x = 10 m ; y = 7.5 m ; g = 10 m/s2

 g 
y = (tan θ )x -  2 2  x 2
 2u cos θ 

 10 
7.5 = (tan 450) (10) -  2 2  (10 )
2

 2u cos 45 

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Solving we get u = 20m / s

9. Wind is blowing from the south at 5 ms-1. To a cyclist it appears to be blowing from the

east at 5 ms-1. Find the velocity of the cyclist?

^
A. Velocity of wind, v w = 5 j
^
Velocity of wind relative to cyclist, v wc = 5i

v wc = v w − vc
^ ^ ^ ^
v c = v w − v wc = 5 j− ( −5i) = +5 j+ 5i

| v c |= 5 2 ms-1 towards north east.

10. A person walking at 4 m/s finds rain drops falling slantwise in to his face with a speed

of 4 m/s at an angle of 300 with the vertical. Show that the actual speed of the rain
drops is 4m/s?

A. Velocity of person | v p |= 4m / s

Velocity of rain drops relative to person, | v rp |= 4m / s

 1
| v r |= v rp 2 + v p 2 + 2v rp v p cos1200 = 16 + 16 + 2 ( 4 )( 4 )  −  = 16 = 4 m/s
 2

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LAWS OF MOTION

Important Points:
1. Newton’s First law explains the property of inertia and defines force.

2. Inertia:

It is the property of a body by virtue of which, it cannot change its state of rest or of uniform
motion along a straight line, on its own. It depends upon the mass of the body.

3. Inertia of Rest:

It is the inability of a body to change by itself, its state of rest.

E.g. When a bus at rest starts suddenly passengers fall back.

4. Inertia of Motion:

It is the inability of a body to change by itself its state of uniform motion.

E.g. when a bus in uniform motion suddenly stops, the passengers fall forward.

5. Inertia of Direction:

It is the inability of a body to change by itself its direction of motion.

E.g. When a bus takes a turn passengers will be pushed outwards

6. Newton’s second law gives the quantitative definition of force and defines the unit force.

7. Momentum:

The product of mass and velocity of a body is called linear momentum. P = mv

8. Units of Force:
SI unit: Newton
CGS unit: dyne
1 N = 105 dynes.

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9. Impulsive Force:
Large force acting on a body for a short time interval is an impulsive force.
10. Impulse:
The impulse of a force is defined as the product of the average force and the time interval for
which it acts.
Impulse =F x t = mv – mu
11. Apparent weight of a person in a Lift:

 a
a) If the lift moves up with an acceleration ‘a’ , W ' = W  1 + 
 g 

 a
b) If the lift moves down with an acceleration ‘a’, W ' = W  1 − 
g 

c) If the lift is freely falling under gravity i.e. If a = g, W ' = 0

d) If the lift is moving up or down with uniform velocity, W ′ = W = mg

12. Atwood Machine:

a) When two bodies of masses m1 and m2 are connected by a light string passing over a
frictionless pulley and if m1 > m2

 m1 − m2 
Acceleration a =  g
 m1 + m2 
2m1m2 g
Tension in the string T = ,
m1 + m2

4m1m2 g
Force on the pulley F =
m1 + m2

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13. Two blocks are on a smooth horizontal surface in contact and a horizontal force acts on one of

FM
them. The contact force between them is ;
( M + m)

14. Newton third law states, for every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction.
Action = - Reaction
15. The property which opposes the relative motion between the surfaces in contact is called
friction.
16. Advantages of Friction:
i) Safe walking on the floor is due to the friction between the floor and the feet.
ii) Nails and screws are driven in the walls or wooden surfaces due to friction.
iii) Friction helps the fingers to hold a drinking water tumbler or pen.
17. Disadvantages of Friction:
i) Friction results in the large amount of power loss in engines.
ii) Due to friction, the wear and tear of the machine increases.
iii) Due to friction, heat is generated which goes as a waste.
18. Methods to Reduce Friction:
i) By Polishing.
ii) By using Lubricants.
iii) By using Ball bearings.
iv) Streamlining.

19. Types of Friction:

i) The force of friction when there is no relative motion between the bodies in contact is called
static friction.

ii) Static friction is a self adjusting force.

iii) When the body is ready to slide the static friction becomes maximum and it is called
Limiting Friction.

b) Kinetic Friction:
i) The frictional force that exists between the bodies which are in relative motion with each
other in called kinetic (or) sliding friction.

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c) Rolling Friction:
i) Rolling friction comes into play when a body such as a wheel rolls on a surface.
ii) The rolling frictional force is inversely proportional to the radius of the rolling body.

20. Laws of Friction:

i) Friction opposes relative motion between two surfaces in contact.
ii) Friction is independent of the area of contact between the two surfaces.
iii) Friction is directly proportional to the normal reaction acting on the body.
f ∝ R ⇒ f = µR

Where = coefficient of friction

f ms
21. Coefficient of static friction ( µ s) =
R
fK
22. Coefficient of kinetic friction ( µ k) =
R
fr
23. Coefficient of rolling friction ( µr ) =
R
µ S > µ K >µ r

24. Inclined Plane:

If θ is angle of inclination and α is angle of friction

a) Normal reaction R = mg cos θ

b) If θ < α , the body is at rest on the plane.

Frictional force = mg sin θ (self adjusting force)

c) If θ = α , the body just tends to slide down the plane
Frictional force = mg sin α = µ smg cos α

d) If θ > α , the body slides down with acceleration

Frictional force = µ k mg cos θ
e) Angle of repose is the angle of the rough inclined plane for which body placed on
it may just start sliding down.
f) Net force down the plane
F = mg (sin θ – µ kcos θ )

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g) Acceleration down the plane

a = g (sin θ – µ kcos θ )

This is independent of the mass of the body

W sin φ W sin φ
h) Pulling force F = and pushing force F = where W is the weight of
cos(θ − φ ) cos(θ + φ )

body, φ is the angle of friction and θ is the angle made by F with the horizontal

i) Pulling is easier than pushing.

25. Circular Motion:

a) Uses of centrifugal forces and centrifugal machines.

i) Cream is separated from milk.
ii) Sugar crystals are separated from molasses.
iii) Precipitate is separated from solution.
iv) Hemato centrifuge, Grinder, Washing machine, etc.
b) The angle through which a cyclist should lean while taking sharp turnings is given by the
 v2 
relation θ = Tan −1  .
 rg 

c) Safe speed on an unbanked road when a vehicle takes a turn of radius r is v = µ rg

Where µ = coefficient of friction.

d) Angle of Banking is given by tan θ = v2/rg and the height of banking is given by
h = L sin θ where L is the width of the road.
v2 h
If θ is very small, then θ = =
rg L

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Very Short Answer Questions

1. What is inertia? What gives the measure of inertia?

A. If the net external force is zero, a body at rest continues to be at rest and a body in motion
continues to move with uniform velocity. This property of a body is called inertia.

Mass is the measure of inertia.

2. According to Newton’s third law, every force is accompanied by an equal and opposite
force. How can a movement ever take place?

A. Action and reaction act on two different bodies. Hence movement of each body is due to
either action or reaction.

3. When a bullet is fired from a gun, the gun gives a kick in the backward direction.
Explain.

A. This is due to the law of conservation of linear momentum. When a bullet is fired from a gun,
the gun moves back due to reaction. This is called the recoil of the gun.

4. Why does a heavy rifle not recoil as strongly as a light rifle using the same cartridges?

mv
A. From the law of conservation of momentum MV = mv ⇒ V =
M

Hence a heavy rifle does not recoil as strongly as a light rifle because of its heavy mass

5. If a bomb at rest explodes into two pieces, the pieces must travel in opposite

directions. Explain.

A. Since the initial momentum of the bomb is zero, its final momentum should be zero. If the
bomb breaks into two pieces of masses m1 and m2 moving with velocities v1 and v2, then

m1v1 + m2 v2 = 0 Or m1v1= - m2v2 Hence the two pieces move in opposite directions.

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6. Define force. What are the basic forces in nature?

A: Force:

A physical quantity that changes or tries to change the state of rest (or) of uniform motion
along a straight line. Basic forces in nature are

1) Gravitational forces 2) Electromagnetic forces

3) Weak nuclear forces 4) Strong nuclear forces

7. Can the coefficient of friction be greater than one?

A. . In general, coefficient of friction is less than one. For a heavily polished surface the frictional
force increases due to the increase of inter atomic forces. In such a case coefficient of friction
will be greater than one.

8. Why does the car with flattened tyre stop sooner than the one with inflated tyres?

A. Flattened tyre has more area of contact with the road. Hence rolling friction increases and there
by a car with flattened tyre stops sooner.

9. A horse has to pull harder during the start of the motion than later. Explain?

A. Static friction is more than kinetic friction. Hence the horse has to pull the cart harder during
start of the cart.

10. What happens to the coefficient of friction, if the weight of the body is doubled?

A. Coefficient of friction remains same as it is independent of weight of the body.

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Short Answer Questions

1. A stone of mass 0.1kg is thrown vertically upwards. Give the magnitude and direction of
the net force on the stone a) During Its Upward Motion. b) During Its Downward
Motion. c) At the highest point, where it momentarily comes to rest?

A: m = 0.1kg

a) During up ward motion

Gravitational force (F) = mg = 0.1 x 9.8 = 0.98N

b) During downward motion

Gravitational force (F) = mg = 0.1 x 9.8 = 0.98N

c) At the highest point, final velocity becomes zero, but acceleration acts down wards

Gravitational force (F) = mg = 0.1 x 9.8 = 0.98N

2. Define the terms momentum and impulse. State and explain the law of conservation of
linear momentum. Give its examples.

A. Momentum:

The product of mass and velocity of a body is called the momentum.

Momentum (P) = mv

Impulse:

The product of force and time of action of force is called impulse.

Impulse (I) = Force × Time

Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum:

The total momentum of an isolated system of interacting particles remains constant

if there is no resultant external force acting on it.

Explanation:

If no external force acts on the system, then momentum of the system remains constant.
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dp
If Fext = 0 ⇒ = 0 ⇒ dp = 0 or p = constant
dt

Examples:

i) Motion of a Rocket:

When a rocket is fired, the gases are ejected downward and as a result the rocket
moves upward.

ii) Explosion of a Shell:

For a shell exploding in mid air the vector sum of the momenta of different fragments is
equal to the initial momentum of the shell.

3. Why are shock absorbers used in motor cycles and cars?

A. When motor cycle travels on an uneven road, shock absorbers increase the time of impulse
and there by reduces the force.

4. Explain the terms limiting friction, dynamic friction and rolling friction?

A. Limiting Friction:

The maximum static frictional force between the bodies in contact at rest is called
limiting friction.

Dynamic Friction:

Frictional force between bodies in motion is called dynamic friction.

Rolling Friction:

When one body rolls on the surface of the other body, then the friction in between the
surfaces is called rolling friction.

5. Explain advantages and disadvantages of Friction?

A. Advantages:

i) Walking on the floor, motion of vehicle etc. is possible due to friction.

ii) Nails, screws etc. are driven into walls due to friction.
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iii) A match stick is lightened due to friction.

iv) Holding the objects with hands, writing with pens or pencils etc. is possible due to friction.

Disadvantages:

i) Wear and tear of machine parts are due to friction.

ii) Energy losses as heat is due to friction.

6. Mention the methods used to decrease friction?

A. Methods to Reduce Friction:

a) Polishing:

Polishing the surfaces in contact decreases the inter locking and there by friction can be
reduced.

b) Ball Bearings:

Ball bearings can reduce the friction, since rolling friction is less than the sliding friction.

c) Lubricants:

Lubricants like grease fill the irregularities between the surfaces in contact. Thus friction is
reduced.

d) Streamlining:

Automobiles and aero planes are streamlined to reduce the air friction.

7. Sate the laws of rolling Friction?

A. 1) The smaller the area of contact, lesser will be the rolling friction.

2) The larger the radius of the rolling body, the lesser will be the rolling friction.

3) The rolling friction ( Fr ) is directly proportional to the normal reaction ( N ) .

Fr
i.e. Frα N or µr = , Where µr is the co-efficient of rolling friction.
N
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8. Why is pulling the lawn roller is preferred to pushing it?

A. Pulling:

Let a pulling force F is applied on the lawn roller as shown.

Normal reaction N = mg − F sin θ

N N
Lawn
F roller
................................... F
F sinθ ..
..
..
..
)θ
..
.. F co s θ ..
)θ ..
F cos θ ..
..
..
..
. .
Lawn .................................. F
roller
fR fR
mg F sin θ
P u s h in g o f la w n R o lle r
P u llin g o f law n R o ller

Frictional force is given by,

f R = µ R N ⇒ f R = µ R ( mg − F sin θ ) − − − −(1)

Pushing:

Let a pushing force F is applied on the lawn roller as shown.

Normal reaction N = mg + F sin θ

The frictional force is given by,

f R1 = µ R N ⇒ f R1 = µ R ( mg + F sin θ ) − − − − − (2)

From equations (1) and (2) f R < f 1 ,. R

Hence pulling is easier than pushing the lawn roller.

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Long Answer Questions

1. a) State Newton’s second law of motion. Hence derive the equation of motion

F = ma from it.

b) A body is moving along a circular path such that its speed always remains constant.
Should there be force acting on the body?

A. a) Newton’s second law of motion:

The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the net force
acting on the body and it takes place in the direction of force.

To derive F = ma:

Consider a body of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’. Let its velocity be increased
by ‘dv’ in a time interval dt due to an external force F.

dp
From second law of motion Fα ,
dt

d (mv)
Or Fα (∵ p = mv)
dt

d
F =k (mv)
dt

Since the mass of the body is constant,

dv  dv 
F =km = k ma ∵ = a 
dt  dt 

Where k is proportionality constant

Unit Force:

A force which produces a unit acceleration in a body of unit mass is called a unit
force.

If m = 1 unit and a =1unit, then k = 1unit

∴ F = ma
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b) Motion in a Circular Path:

A body is moving along a circular path with constant speed experiences centripetal
force towards the center of the circular path.

2. Define angle of friction and angle of repose.

Show that angle of friction is equal to angle of repose for a rough inclined plane.

A block of mass 4kg is resting on a rough horizontal plane and is about to move when a
horizontal force of 30 N is applied on it. If g = 10 ms-2 find the total contact force exerted
by the plane on the block.

A. Angle of Friction ( θ ):

The angle made by the resultant of the normal reaction and the limiting frictional force with
normal reaction is called angle of friction.

C A

R ∅
N

B P
o
fL
∅ A n gle o f friction

Angle of Repose (α ) :

When the body is ready to slide down rough inclined plane, the angle of inclination is equal to
the angle of repose.

fs f
From the figure, tan α = and µ s = s .
N N

Hence µ s = tan α

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N

mg sin α α
mg mg cos α
)α

Angle of repose and angle of Friction:

Consider a body of mass ‘m’ placed on a rough inclined plane of inclination ‘ θ ’

When the body ready to slide down the plane, the friction on the block is called limiting
friction f s . At equilibrium, f s = mg sin θ and N = mg cos θ

f mg sin θ
∴ Coefficient of static friction µ s = = = tan θ
N mg cos θ

Here θ is the angle of repose.

Hence the angle of repose of a rough inclined plane is equal to the angle of friction of
horizontal plane.

Problem:

m = 4 kg; F = 30 N ; g = 10 ms-2 ; N = mg = 410 = 40 N

R 2 = N 2 + F 2 ⇒ R = 30 2 + 402 = 50 N

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Problems

1. The linear momentum of a particle as a function of time t is given by p = a + bt , where a

and b are positive constants. What is the force acting on the particle?

A. p = a + bt

dp
F= =b
dt

2. Calculate the time needed for a net force of 5N to change the velocity of a 10kg mass by
2m/s

Sol: F = 5N, m = 10kg

Change the velocity (v – u) = 2m/s

m( v − u ) 10(2)
F = ma = , 5=
t t

Or t = 4sec

3. A ball of mass m is thrown vertically upward from the ground and reaches a height h
before momentarily coming to rest. If g is the acceleration due to gravity. What is the
impulse received by the ball due to gravity force during its flight? (Neglect air resistance)

2u
A. Impulse F t = m a t = m g = 2 m 2 gh = 8m 2 gh
g

4. A constant force acting on a body of mass 3.0kg changes its speed from 2.0ms −1 to 3.5ms −1
in 25s. The direction of motion of the body remains unchanged. What is the magnitude
and direction of the force?

A. m = 3kg, u = 2ms −1 , v = 3.5ms −1 t = 25s

m( v − u ) 3(3.5 − 2) 3 ×1.5
F = ma = , F= = = 0.18 N
t 25 25

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5. A man in a lift feels an apparent weight W, when the lift if moving up with a uniform
acceleration of 1/3rd of the acceleration due to gravity. If the same man were in the same
lift now moving down with a uniform acceleration that is 1/2 of the acceleration due to
gravity, then what is the apparent weight?

1
A. a= g
3

 g  4mg
When the lift moves up, W = ( g + a ) = m  g +  = − − − (1)
 3 3

1
Now, a = g
2

When the lift is moving down, W ′ = m( g − a)

 g  mg
W ' = ( g − a) = m g −  = − − − − ( 2)
 2 2

3W
From (1) and (2) W ′ =
8

6. A container of mass 200kg rests on the back of an open truck. If the truck accelerate at
1.5m / s 2 , what is the minimum coefficient of static friction between the container and the
bed of the truck required to prevent the container from sliding off the back of the truck?

Sol: m =200kg ; a = 1.4m / s 2

a 1.5
F = µ mg Or ma = µ mg or µ = = = 0.153
g 9.8

7. A bomb initially at rest at a height of 40m above the ground suddenly explodes in to two
identical fragments. One of them starts moving vertically downwards with an initial
speed of 10m/s. If acceleration due to gravity is 10m / s 2 . What is the separation between
the fragments 2s after the explosion?

Sol: As the bomb explodes into two identical fragments, their velocities after explosion are equal
and opposite. As u1 = 10m / s u2 = −10m / s in upward direction.

Displacement of body (1) in 2 sec is

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1 2 1
s1 = ut + gt = 10 × 2 + × 10 × 2 2 = 40m
2 2

Displacement of body (2) in 2sec is

1 2 1
s2 = −ut + gt = −10 × 2 + × 10 × 2 2 = −20 + 20 = 0
2 2

∴ Separation between two fragments after the explosion = 40 + 0 = 40m

8. A fixed pulley with a smooth grove has a light string passing over it with a 4 kg attached
on one side and a 3kg on the other side. Another 3kg is hung from the other 3kg as shown
with another light string. If the system is released from rest, find the common
acceleration? ( g = 10m / s 2 )

Sol: m1 = 3 + 3 = 6kg

m2 = 4kg

(m1 − m2 ) g (6 − 4)10
a= = = 2m / s 2
m1 + m2 6+4

9. A block of mass of 2kg slides on an inclined plane that makes an angle of 300 with the
horizontal. The coefficient of friction between the block and the surface is 3 / 2.

a) What force should be applied to the block so that it moves down without any
acceleration?

b) What force should be applied to the block so that it moves up without any
acceleration?

3
Sol: m = 2kg , θ = 300 , g = 9.8µ =
2

 3 
i) F = mg (sin θ − µ k cos θ ) = 2 × 9.8  sin 300 − × cos 300  = 4.9 N
 2 

 3 
ii) F = mg (sin θ + µk cos θ ) = 2 × 9.8  sin 300 + × cos 300  = 24.5 N
 2 

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10. A block is placed on a ramp of parabolic shape given by the equation y = x 2 / 20 .

If µ s = 0.5 , what is the maximum height above the ground at which the block can be

 dy 
placed without slipping?  tan θ = µ s = 
 dx 

Sol:

x2
y=
20

dy 2
= ×x
dx 20

dy x  dy 
=  tan θ = µ s = 
dx 10  dx 

x
0.5 = ( µs = 0.5)
10

x = 5m

R 5
Max. Height (H) = = = 1.25m .
4 4

Here x is equal to range (R)

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11. A block is metal of mass 2kg on a horizontal table is attached to a mass of 0.45kg by a
light string passing over a frictionless pulley at the edge of the table. The block is
subjected to a horizontal force by allowing the 0.45kg mass to fall. The coefficient of
sliding friction between the block and table is 0.2. Calculate a) The Initial acceleration
b) The Tension in the string c) The Distance the block would continue to move if, after 2s
of motion, the string should break

Sol: M 1 = 2kg , M 2 = 0.45kg , µ = 0.2

i) For M 1 , T − µ M 1 g = M 1a → (1)

For M 2 , M 2 g − T = M 2 g → (2)

( M 2 − µ M 1 ) g (0.45 − 0.2 × 2)9.8

a= =
M1 + M 2 2.45

0.05 × 9.8
a= Or a = 0.2m / s 2
2.45

ii) Tension (T) = M 1 (a + µ g ) = 2(0.2 + 0.2 × 9.8)

= 0.4 (1 + 9.8) = 0.4 (10.8) T = 4.32N

iii) a = 0.2m / s 2 , t = 2s

The velocity of the block before the string breaks, v = u + at

v = 0 + 0.2 x 2 = 0.4m / s 2 , after break if the block travels a distance s, ,then

K .E ⇒ µ mg .s = 1/ 2mu 2

1 (0.4) 2
0.2 × 2 × 9.8 . s = × 2 × (0.4) ⇒ s =
2
= 0.041m = 4.1cm
2 0.4 × 9.8

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12. On a smooth horizontal surface a block A of mass 10kg is kept. On this block a second
block B of mass 5kg is kept. The coefficient of friction between the two blocks is 0.4. A
horizontal force of 30N is applied on the lower block as shown. The force of friction
between the blocks is (Taking g = 10m / s 2 ).

µ = 0 .4

B
30N
A
f ric tio n le s s

A. Applied force F = ( m1 + m2 ) a = (10 + 5 ) a ⇒ a = 2 m s 2

Frictional force between two blocks is f = m2 a = 5 × 2 = 10 N

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WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

Important Points:
1. Dot Product:

a) Scalar product is defined as the product of the magnitudes of two vectors and the
cosine of the angle between them. The dot product of two vectors a and b is given by
a.b = ab cos θ

b) Dot product of unit vectors -

iˆ.iˆ = ˆj. ˆj = kˆ.kˆ = 1

iˆ. ˆj = ˆj.kˆ = kˆ.iˆ = 0

→ →
c) If A = A1ɵi + A 2 ɵj + A3 ɵk and B = B1ɵi + B 2 ɵj + B 3 ɵk

→ →
Then A . B = A1B1 + A 2 B 2 + A3 B 3

2. Work:

Work is said to be done by a force when a body undergoes displacement in the direction
of force.

3. If a force F acts on a body at an angle θ and displaces the body through a distance ‘S’
work done, W = F .S = FS cos θ

Units: S.I. - Joule

C.G.S- erg

1Joule = 107 ergs

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5. Power:

The rate of doing work is called Power.

Work Fs W
Power ( P ) = = =
time t t

F .S
P= = F .V
t

Power is a scalar.

Unit of power:

Watt or J/sec

1 Horse Power H. P. = 746 watt

6. Energy:

The capacity of doing work is called energy. It is a scalar; its unit is same as that of
work.

SI - Joule

C. G. S - erg

7. Potential Energy:

Energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position is known as potential energy.

P. E. = mgh

8. The restoring force on the spring per unit elongation is called force constant or spring
constant

F = - Kx

(Negative sign indicates that the force is opposite to elongation)

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9. The elastic P.E. stored in a compressed spring is

1 2 1 1 F2
P.E. = kx = Fx = .
2 2 2 K

Where K is spring constant

10. Kinetic Energy:

The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called Kinetic Energy.

11. A flying bird, moving aeroplane, freely falling body, a body moving on an incline, and
oscillating pendulum posses both P. E. and K. E.

P2
12. The relation between K.E. and Momentum: KE =
2m

13. Work - Energy Theorem:

The work done by the resultant force acting on a body is equal to the change in its
kinetic energy.

1 2 1
W= mv − mu 2
2 2

14. Law of Conservation of Energy:

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. One form of energy can be converted into
another form.

15. Collision:

The interaction among bodies involving exchange of momentum is called a collision.

16. Elastic Collision:

In elastic collision both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.

17. Inelastic Collision:

In inelastic collision only momentum is conserved; kinetic energy is not conserved.

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18. Law of Conservation Of Momentum:

In the absence of external force, total momentum before collision is equal to the total
momentum after collision.

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2 v2

19. Two bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving with velocities u1 and u2 undergo head on
elastic collision, If v1 and v2 are their respective velocities after collision, then

i) m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2 v2

1 1 1 1
ii) m1u12 + m2u2 2 = m1v12 + m2 v2 2
2 2 2 2

iii) v2 − v1 = u1 − u2

 m1 − m2   2m2 
iv) v1 =   u1 +   u2
 m1 + m2   m1 + m2 

 2m1   m2 − m1 
v) v2 =   u1 +   u2
 m1 + m2   m1 + m2 

20. Coefficient of Restitution:

e=
Relative velocity of separation after collision
=
( v2 − v1 )
Relative velocity of approach before collision ( u1 − u2 )

It depends on nature of colliding bodies.

21. For a perfectly elastic collision e = 1

For a perfectly inelastic collision e = 0

For other collisions ‘e’ lies between 0 and 1

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Very Short Answer Questions

1. State the conditions under which a force does not work.

A. A force does not work, when

i) The displacement is zero,

ii) The force is zero and

iii) Force and displacement are perpendicular.

2. Define work, power and energy. State their S.I Units?

A. Work:

Work is said to be done by a force, when the body undergoes displacement in the
direction of force.

Work done = Force × Displacement

Unit: Joule

Power:

The time rate of doing work is called power.

Work done W
Power = =
Time t

Unit: watt

Energy:

The capacity of a body to do work is called energy.

Unit: Joule

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3. State the relation between kinetic energy and momentum of a body?

A. Momentum P = mv.

1
Kinetic energy E = KE = mv 2
2

E = mv 2 ×   =
1 m m2 v 2 p2
=
2 m 2m 2m

P2
∴ KE =
2m

4. State the sign of work done by a force in the following

a) Work done by a man lifting a bucket out of a well by means of a rope tied to the
bucket.

b) Work done by gravitational force in the above case

A: a) Work done is positive, because the bucket displaces in the direction of force.

b) Work done is negative because, the displacement is opposite to the gravitational

force.

W = F .S cos θ = F .S cos1800 = − F .s

5. State the sign of work done by a force in the following

a) Work done by friction on a force in the following

b) Work done by gravitational force in the above case.

A: a) Work done is negative, because friction always opposite to the direction of motion.

b) The work done is positive.

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6. State the sign of work done by a force in the following.

a) Work done by an applied force on a body moving on a rough horizontal plane

with uniform velocity.

b) Work done by the resistive force of air on a vibrating pendulum in bringing it to

rest.

A: a) The work done is positive, because the applied force and displacement are in the
same direction.

b) The work done is negative, because the direction of resistive force is opposite to the
direction motion of the pendulum.

7. State if each of the following statements is true or false. Give reasons for your
answer.

a) Total energy of a system is always conserved, no matter what internal and

external forces on the body are present.

b) The work done by earth’s gravitational force in keeping the moon in its orbit for
its one revolution is zero.

A: a) False, if external forces present, energy of the system changes.

b) True, because gravitational force is conservative.

8. Which Physical Quantity Remains Constant.

(i) In Elastic Collision (ii) in an Inelastic Collision

A. (i) Elastic Collision: Both momentum and kinetic energy remains constant.

(ii) Inelastic Collision: Momentum alone remains constant.

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9. A body freely falling from a certain height ‘h’ after striking a smooth floor
h
rebounds and rises to a height . What is the coefficient of restitution between the
2
floor and the body?

h
A. h1 = h and h2 =
2

h
h 2 = 1
e= 2 =
h1 h 2

10. What is the total displacement of a freely falling body, after successive rebounds
from the ground, before it comes to stop? Assume that ‘e’ is the coefficient of
restitution between the body and the ground.

A. The total displacement of a freely falling body, after successive rebounds from the
ground, before it comes to stop is ‘h’.

Short Answer Questions

1. What is potential energy? Derive an expression for the gravitational potential

energy.

A. Potential Energy:

The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position or state is called potential
energy.

Expression for Potential Energy:

Consider a body of mass ‘m’ initially at rest on the surface of the earth. The force
acting on the body is its weight mg, vertically downwards. Force required to lift the
body through a height h is mg upwards.

Work required in lifting the body.

W = Force × displacement = mgh

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The work done is stored as potential energy in the body P.E. =mgh

2. A lorry and a car moving with the same momentum are brought to rest by the
application of brakes, which provide equal retarding forces. Which of them will
come to rest in shorter time? Which will come to rest in less distance?

A. a) Momentum = Impulse or mv = Ft

Since momentum of the body and breaking force are constant, both lorry and car
come to rest in the same time.

p2 1
b) Fs = or s α
2m m

Since the mass of the lorry is more than the mass of the car, lorry comes to rest in
less distance.

3. Distinguish between conservative and non-conservative forces with one example

each?

A.

Conservative Force Non - Conservative Force

1. A force is conservative if the work done 1. A force is non-conservative if the work

by the force on a body along a closed done by the force along any closed path
path is zero. is not zero.

2. .Work done is independent of the path 2. Work done depends on the path by the
followed by the body. body.

Ex: Gravitational force, Electrostatic Ex: Frictional force, viscous force

force.

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4. Show that in the case of one dimensional elastic collision, the relative velocity of
approach of two colliding bodies before collision is equal to the relative velocity of
separation after collision?

A. One Dimensional Elastic Collision:

Consider two bodies of masses and moving with velocities and collide elastically. Let
and be the velocities of the two bodies after collision.

u1 u2 F1 v1 v2
m1 m2 F2 m1 m2

a)Before collision b)During collision c)A fter co llision

From the law of conservation of linear momentum,

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Or m1(u1 – v1) = m2(v2 – u2) .................. (1)

From the law of conservation kinetic energy,

1 1 1 1
m1u12 + m2u22 = m1v12 + m2 v22
2 2 2 2

Or m1 (u12 − v12 ) = m2 (v22 − u22 ) .........(2)

m1 (u12 − v12 ) m 2 (v22 − u22 )

From equations (2) and (1), =
m1 (u1 - v1 ) m 2 (v 2 - u 2 )

u1 − u2 = v2 − v1

Hence the relative velocity of approach of two colliding bodies before collision is
equal to the relative velocity of separation after collision.

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5. Show that two equal masses undergo oblique elastic collision will move at right
angles after collision, if the second body initially at rest?

A. A body collides with another body of equal mass at rest. The collision is oblique and
perfectly elastic. The two bodies move at right angles after collision.

mu1 − m × 0 = mv1 + mv2 ⇒ u1 = v1 + v2

1 1 1
mu12 = mv12 + mv22 ⇒ u12 = v12 + v22
2 2 2

Since u1 = v12 + v22 , the two bodies move at right angles after collision.

6. Derive an expression for the height attained by a freely falling body after ‘n’
number of rebounds from the floor?

A: Let a body be allowed to fall freely from a height h on to the floor. It strikes the floor
with a velocity u1 , so that-

u1 = 2 gh → (1) .

Before and after collision, the velocities of the floor is u2 = v2 = 0 .

Let v1 be the final velocity of the body after first collision.

v2 − v1 0 − v1
Now e = =
u1 − u2 2 gh − 0

∴ v1 = −e 2 gh → (2) (-ve sign indicates that the sphere rebounds)

st v12 (e 2 gh ) 2
∴ The height (h1 ) attained by it after 1 rebound is h1 = =
2g 2g

h1 = e2 h Or h1 = (e 2 )1 h → (3)

Now for the second time, the body falls from this height h1 and strikes the ground with a

velocity = 2gh1

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0 − v2
∴e = ∴ v2 = −e 2 gh1 = −e 2 ge 2 h = −e 2 2 gh → (4)
2 gh1 − 0

The maximum height attained by the body after second rebound

v22 (−e 2 2 gh ) 2
h2 = = = e4 h ∴ h2 = (e2 )2 h → (5)
2g 2g

Similarly maximum height attained after n rebounds is hn = (e 2 ) n h

7. Explain the law of conservation of energy?

A: Law of conservation of energy:

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. But it can converted into one from to
another from. The total energy of a system remains constant.

When a body undergo displacement ∆x under the action of a conservative force F. The
change in K.E. of the body is given by work energy theorem, ∆k = F ( x)dx → (1)

As the force is conservative, the change in P.E = ∆U = F ( x)∆x → (2)

∴∆k = −∆U

∆k + ∆U = 0

∆(k + U ) = 0 → (3)

The sum of K.E. and P.E. or mechanical energy of the body under the action of a
conservative force is a constant.

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Long Answer Questions

1. Develop the notions of work and kinetic energy and show that it leads work-
energy theorem?

A. a) Work:

Work is said to be done by a force, when a body undergoes displacement in the

direction of force.

Work done = Force x Displacement

b) Kinetic Energy:

The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called Kinetic energy.

1 2
KE = mv
2

Work- Energy Theorem:

The work done on a body by a resultant force is equal to the change in its kinetic
energy.

Proof:

Consider a body of mass ‘m’ moving with an initial velocity ‘u’. Let its velocity
changes to ‘v’ due to a constant resultant force ‘F’ .Let ‘a’ be its uniform acceleration
and ‘s’ be its displacement.

v 2 − u 2 = 2as

m 1 2 1
Multiplying both sides with , mv − mu 2 = m a s = F S
2 2 2

Or Final kinetic energy - Initial kinetic energy = Work done.

Hence work done by the resultant force is equal to the change in kinetic energy. This is
known as work-energy theorem.
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2. What are Collisions? Explain the possible the types of Collisions. Develop the
theory of one dimensional elastic collisions?

A. Collision:

Collision is the interaction between two or more bodies that results in sudden change in
momentum.

Types of Collisions:

(i) Elastic Collision (ii) Inelastic collision

Elastic Collision:

The collision in which both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved is called
elastic collision.

Examples:

Collision between hard billiard balls, Collision between fundamental particles etc.

Inelastic Collisions:

The collision in which, momentum alone is conserved, is called inelastic collision.

Examples:

Collision between any two vehicles.

One Dimensional Elastic Collision:

Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving with velocities u1 and u2 collide
elastically. Let u1 > u 2 .Let v1 and v2 be the velocities of the two bodies after

Collision.

u1 u2 F1 v1 v2
m1 m2 F2 m1 m2

a)Before collision b)During collision c)A fter collision

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From the law of conservation of linear momentum,

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Or m1(u1 – v1) = m2(v2 – u2) .................. (1)

From the law of conservation kinetic energy,

1 1 1 1
m1u12 + m2u22 = m1v12 + m2 v22
2 2 2 2

Or m1 (u12 − v12 ) = m2 (v22 − u22 ) .........(2)

m1 (u12 − v12 ) m 2 (v22 − u22 )

From equations (2) and (1), =
m1 (u1 - v1 ) m 2 (v 2 - u 2 )

u1 − u2 = v2 − v1 .................. (3)

Velocity of First Body:

From equation (3), v2 = u1 + v1 − u2 ------ ---- (4)

Substituting equation (4) in equation (1) and simplifying, we get

 m − m2   2m2 
v1 =  1  u1 +   u2 .................. (5)
 m1 + m2   m1 + m2 

Velocity of Second Body:

Again, from equation (3), v1 = v2 + u2 − u1

Substituting this in equation (1) and simplifying, we get

 2m1   m2 − m1 
v2 =   u1 +   u2 .................. (6)
 m1 + m2   m1 + m2 

If u2 = 0, then from equations (5) and (6),

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 m − m2   2m1 
v1 =  1  u1 and v2 =   u1
 m1 + m2   m1 + m2 

3. State the law of conservation of energy and verify in the case of a freely falling
body. What are the conditions under which the law of conservation of energy is
applicable?

A. Statement:

Energy can be neither created nor destroyed. One form of energy can be converted
into another form.

Verification:

Consider a body of mass ‘m’ dropped from a height ‘h’ above the ground.

At the point ‘A’:

Initial velocity = 0

1 2
∴ Kinetic energy KE = mv = 0
2

Potential energy PE = mgh

∴ Total energy = PE + KE = mgh + O = m g h − − − −(1)

At the point ‘B’:

Let ‘v’ be the velocity of the body at ‘B’ and let AB = x

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Potential energy PE = mg (h -x) = mgh - mgx

Using, v 2 − u 2 = 2as Or v 2 = 2 gx

1 2 1
KE = mv = m × 2 gx = mgx
2 2

Total energy = PE + KE = mgh - mgx + mgx = mgh ------(2)

At the point ‘C’:

Let ‘v’ be the velocity of the body at the ground.

Potential energy = mgh = mg (0) = 0

Using, v 2 − u 2 = 2as Or v 2 = 2 gh

1 1
Kinetic energy KE = mv 2 = m( 2 gh ) 2 = mgh
2 2

Total energy = PE + KE = 0 + mgh = mgh ------ (3)

From equations (1), (2) and (3) it is clear that the total energy is constant. Thus the
law of conservation of energy is verified.

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Problems

1. A test tube of mass 10 grams closed with a cork of mass 1 gram contains some
ether. When the test tube is heated cork flies out under the pressure of the ether
gas. The test tube is suspended horizontally by a weight less rigid bar of length
5cm. What is the minimum velocity with which the cork should fly out of the tube,
so that test tube describing a full vertical circle about the point O. Neglect the mass
of ether?

A m1 = 10 × 10−3 kg , m2 = 10 −3 kg

m = (10 + 1)10−3 = 11× 10−3 kg , l = 5cm = 5 × 10−2 m, g = 10 m s 2

Minimum velocity ( v ) = 5 gl = 5 × 10 × 5 × 10−2

∴ v = 5 10−1 m s

2. A machine gun fires 360 bullets per minute and each bullet travels with a velocity
of 6000ms −1 . If the mass of each bullet is 5gm, find the power of the machine gun?

N 360
A = 360 bullet / min = = 6 bullets / sec
t 60

v = 600m / s , m = 5 gm = 5 ×10 −3 kg

w N × 1/ 2mv 2
P= =
t t

6 × 5 × 10 −1 × 600 × 600
P= = 5400W = 5.4 K .W
2

3. Find the useful power used in pumping 3425m3 of water per hour from a well 8m
deep to the surface, supposing 40% of the horse power during pumping is wasted.
What is the horse power of the engine?

A. V = 3425m3 , t = 1hour = 60 x 60 sec

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h = 8m, 1 H.P = 746 Walts

Mass (m) = volume × density = 3425 × 103

60 mgh Vdgh
P= =
100 t t

3425 × 103 × 9.8 × 8 × 100

P= = 1.66 × 102 H .P
60 × 60 × 60 × 746

4. A pump is required to lift 600kg of water per minute from a well 25m deep and to
eject it with a speed of 50ms −1 . Calculate the power required to perform the above
task?

A. m = 600 kg s , h = 25m, v = 50 m s

1 1
mgh + mv 2 600 × 10 × 25 + × 600 × (50)2
P= 2 = 2 = 15.166kw
t 60

5. A block of mass 5kg initially at rest at the origin is acted on by a force along the

X – Positive direction represented by F = (20 + 5 x) N . Calculate the work done by the

force during the displacement of the block from x = 0 to x = 4m.

A. m = 5kg, u = 0, F = (20 + 5x) N

x = 0 to x = 4m

x =4 x=4 4
 x2 
W = ∫ F .dx = ∫ (20 x + 5 x)dx = 20[ x] + 5  
4
0
x=0 x =0  2 0

W = 120 J.

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6. A block of mass 5kg is sliding down a smooth inclined plane as shown. The spring
arranged near the bottom of the inclined plane has a force constant 600 N/m. Find
the compression in the spring at the moment the velocity of the block is maximum?

3
A: m = 5kg, K = 600 N/m; sin θ =
5

F = mg sin θ

3 F
F = 5 × 10 × = 30 N ; K =
5 x

F 30
x= = = 0.05m
K 600

∴ x = 5cm

K
7. A force F = − ( x ≠ 0) acts on a particle along the X-axis. Find the work done by
x2
the force in displacing the particle from x = +a to x = +2a. Take K as a positive
constant?

−K
A: F=
x2

x = +a to x = +2a

x =2a x =2a
−K  x −2+1   a − 2a 
2a
1  1 1
W= ∫
x=a
F .dx = ∫
x =a
x 2
dx = − K  
 −2 + 1 
=K  =K − =K
 x a  2a a   2a × a 

−K
∴W =
2a

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8. A force F acting on a particle varies with the position x as shown in the graph. Find
the work done by the force in displacing the particle from x = -a to x =+2a?

A: x = -a to x = +2a

−b + 2b b
Average force = =
2 2

2a 2a
b
W=
−a
∫ F .dx = ∫ 2 .dx
−a

b b 3ab
W = [ x]2−aa = [2a + a ] =
2 2 2

9. From a height 20m above a horizontal floor, a ball is thrown down with initial
velocity 20m/s. After striking the floor, the ball bounces to the same height from
which it was thrown. Find the coefficient of restitution for the collision between the
ball the ball and the floor? ( g = 10m / s 2 )

A: u1 = u 2 + 2 gh . u = 20m/s, g = 10m / s 2 , h = 20m

u2 = (20) 2 + 2 ×10 × 20 = 800

v1 = 2 gh = 2 × 10 × 20 = 400

v2 − u1 0 − 400
e= = (-ve sign indicates it rebounds)
u1 − u2 800 − 0

1
∴e =
2

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10. A ball falls from a height of 10m on to a hard horizontal floor and repeatedly
1
bounces. If the coefficient of restitution is . What is the total distance travelled
2

by the before it ceases to rebound?

1
A. h = 10m, e =
2

 1 + e2  1 + 1 2 
d = h 2 
= 10   = 30 m
1− e  1 − 1 2 

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SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Important Points:
1. Centre of Mass:

It is the imaginary point at which the total mass of the system is supposed to be concentrated.

2. There need not be any mass at the centre of mass

Ex.: Hollow sphere, ring etc.

3. Internal forces cannot change the position of centre of mass.

4. The algebraic sum of moments of masses of all the particles about the centre of mass is zero.

5. Centre of Gravity:

An imaginary point at which the total weight of the system is supposed to be concentrated is
called centre of gravity.

6. For small objects Centre of mass and Centre of gravity coincide but for large or extended objects
like hills, buildings they do not coincide.

7. If r1 and r2 be the distances of the particles of masses m1 and m2 from their centre of mass
respectively, then

m1r1 = m2 r2

8. Co-Ordinates of Centre of Mass:

Let us consider a system of n particles of masses m1 , m2 , ......., mn whose co-ordinates are

( x1 , y1 , z1 ) , ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) ...... ( xn , yn , zn ) , respectively. Then co-ordinates of their centre of mass are

m1 x1 + m2 x2 + ..... + mn xn
xcm =
m1 + m2 + .... + mn

m1 y1 + m2 y2 + ..... + mn yn
ycm =
m1 + m2 + ... + mn

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m1 z1 + m2 z2 + ...... + mn zn
And zcm =
m1 + m2 + .... + mn

9. Velocity of Centre of Mass:

→ → →
→ m V + m2 V2 + ..... + mn Vn
Vcm = 1 1
m1 + m2 + .... + mn

10. Momentum of Centre of Mass:

→ → → →
M Vcm = m1 V1 + m2 V2 + ..... + mn Vn

→ → → →
M Vcm = P1 + P2 + ..... + Pn

11. Acceleration of Centre of Mass:

→ → →
→ m a + m2 a2 + .... + mn an
acm = 1 1
m1 + m2 + ..... + mn

12. Vector or Cross Product:

a) The vector product of two vectors is a vector which is the product of their magnitude and sine
of the angle between them.

→ → → →
A× B = AB sin θ nˆ , where n̂ is the unit vector perpendicular to plane containing A × B .

b) The direction of cross product of two vectors is always perpendicular to the plane formed by
those vectors

→ → → →
c) Vector product does not obey commutative law A × B ≠ B × A

d) Vector product obeys distributive law

→ → → → → → →
A×  B + C  =  A× B  +  A× C 
     

e) i x j = j x j = k x k = 0

ixj=k j x i = -k

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jxk=i k x j = -i

kxi=j i x k = -j

→ →
f) If A = A1ɵi + A 2 ɵj + A3 ɵ
k and B = B1ɵi + B 2 ɵj + B 3 ɵ
k

ɵi −ɵj ɵ
k
→ →
Then A × B = A1 A 2 A3
B1 B2 B3

i ( A2 B3 − A3 B2 ) − ɵj ( A1B3 − A3 B1 ) +ɵ
=ɵ k ( A1B2 − A2 B1 )

13. Moment of Inertia:

a) Moment of inertia of a body about an axis is defined as the sum of the products of the masses
and the squares of their distances of different particles from the axis of rotation.

b) I = m1r12 + m2r22 + …… + mnrn2 or I=

Unit: kg.m2

Dimensional formula: M L2 T0

c) For a rigid body I = mk2 where K is called radius of gyration.

d) Radius of Gyration:

It is the effective distance of all particles of the body from the axis of rotation.

r12 + r22 + r32 + ..... + rn2

K= K=
n

e) MI depends on the mass, distribution of mass, the axis of rotation, shape, size and
temperature of the body.

f) MI opposes the change in the rotary motion.

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14. Moment of Inertia of Different Bodies:

a) Uniform Rod - axis passing through its centre and perpendicular to its length
M ℓ2
I=
12

M = mass and l = length

b) Rectangular plate axis passing through its center and perpendicular to the
 Ml 2 Mb 2 
plane I =  + 
 12 12 

Where M = mass, l = length and b = breadth

c) Uniform Circular Disc axis passing through its centre and perpendicular to
MR 2
its plane I =
2

MR 2
d) Solid Cylinder - about its natural axis I =
2

e) Uniform Circular Ring- about an axis which is perpendicular to its plane and passing
through its centre is I = MR 2

15. Theorems of Moment of Inertia

a) Perpendicular Axes Theorem:

Moment of inertia of a plane laminar about an axis perpendicular to its plane passing through a
point is equal to the sum of moments of inertia of the lamina about any two mutually
perpendicular axes in its plane and passing through same point.

IZ = Ix + Iy.

b) Parallel axes Theorem:

Moment of inertia of a rigid body about any axis is equal to the sum of its moment of
inertia about a parallel axis passing through its centre of mass and the product of the mass of
the body and square of the perpendicular distance between the two axes.

IZ = ICm + Mr2
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16. Torque:

The turning effect of a force about the axis of rotation is called moment of force or torque.

Torque = Force x Perpendicular distance of line of action of force from axis of rotation.

τ = r × F and τ = rF sin θ

17. Relation Betweenτ and I :

τ = r F = r m a = r m ( r α ) = mr 2 α = Iα

Where α = angular acceleration

18. Angular Momentum (L):

Moment of linear momentum of a particle about axis of rotation is known as Angular

momentum

Angular momentum is an axial vector

L = r ×P

L = rp sin θ

r = Position vector.

19. Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum:

Angular momentum of a rotating body remains constant when no external torque acting on it.

τ=
d L ()
dt

If τ = 0

d L( ) = 0 ⇒ L is constant.
dt

Where L = I ω , ∴ I ω is constant

I1 ω 1 = I2 ω 2
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1 2
20. Rotational KE = Iω
2

21. K.E of a Rolling Body:

K .Etotal = K .Etranslatory + K .Erotational

1 1 2 1 2 K2 
= mVc + I ω = mVc 1 + 2 
2

2 2 2  R 

Where Vc = Velocity of C.M

K = radius of gyration

R = radius

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Very Short Answer Questions

1. Is it necessary that a mass should be present at the centre of mass of any system?

A. No, it is not necessary that a mass should be present at the centre of mass of any system.

Ex: For a uniform circular ring the centre of mass lies at the centre of the ring where there is
no mass.

2. What is the difference in the positions of a girl carrying a bag in one of her hands and
another girl carrying a bag in each of her two hands?

A. A girl with a bag in one of her hands, slightly bends towards the side in which bag is located
due to more mass on that side.

A girl with a bag in each of her two hands, position of the body will not change, due to
uniform distribution of mass on each side.

3. Two rigid bodies have same moment of inertia about their axes of symmetry. Of the two,
which body will have greater kinetic energy?

1 L2
A: Rotational K .E = I ω 2 =
2 2I

Since the moment of inertia is same, K .E ∝ L2

A body of greater angular momentum will have greater kinetic energy.

4. Why are spokes provided in a bicycle wheel?

A. The spokes to the cycle wheel increases the moment of inertia due to the increase in the
distribution of mass. This opposes the change in the rotary motion of the wheel. Thus spokes
fitted to the cycle wheel gives a steady motion.

5. We cannot open or close the door by applying force at the hinges. Why?

A. Torque (τ ) = r × F = rF sin θ

1
r sin θ ∝ (∵ τ = constant )
F
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If the force is applied at the hinge, then r = 0

Hence force required to rotate the door becomes infinity.

6. Why do we prefer a spanner of longer arm as compared to the spanner of shorter arm?

A: Torque (τ ) = r × F = rF sin θ

If same force is applied both the spanners τ ∝ r , for a spanner of longer arm, r is more.

∴ Torque produced by spanner of longer arm is more than that of spanner shorter arm.

7. By spinning eggs on a table top, how will you distinguish a hardboiled egg from a raw
egg?

A. When the raw egg is rotated on a table top, the liquid in it move away from the axis of rotation
due to centrifugal force. Hence moment of inertia increases and angular velocity decreases It
comes to rest quickly. But the boiled egg rotates more time.

8. Why should a helicopter necessarily have two propellers?

A: If the helicopter had only one propeller, then due to conservation of angular momentum, the
helicopter itself would turn in the opposite direction.

9. If the polar ice caps of the earth were to melt, what would the effect of the length of the
day be?

A. When the polar ice caps melt, water flows towards the equator. Then moment of inertia of the
earth increases and angular velocity decreases.

I ω = constant

∴ As I increases, ω decreases

2π
But, ω =
T

∴ The time period increases. Hence the length of the day increases.

10. Why is it easier to balance a bicycle in motion?

A: Due to law of conservation of angular momentum, bicycle is balanced in motion.

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Short Answer Questions

1. Distinguish between centre of mass and centre of gravity?

A.

Centre of Mass Centre of Gravity

1. It is a point where the entire mass of the 1. It is a point where the weight of the
system is concentrated. system is concentrated.

2. It refers to the mass of the body. 2. It refers to the weight acting on all particles
of the body.

3. For small and regular bodies centre of mass 3. For huge bodies centre of gravity and
and centre of gravity will coincide. centre of mass do not coincide.

4. It does not depend on acceleration due to 4. It depends on acceleration due to gravity.

gravity.

2. Show that a system of particles moves under the influence of an external force as if the
force is applied at its centre of mass?

A. Consider a system of the particles of mass m1,m2,---- , mn moving with velocities V1,V2---
,[Link] M = m1+ m2 + ----- + mn

Velocity Vcm =
1
M
(
m1 v1 + m2 v2 + − − − + mn vn )
dVcm 1 dv dv dv
Acceleration of center of mass acm = = (m1 1 + m2 2 + − − − + mn n )
dt M dt dt dt

Or

acm =
1
M
(
m1 a1 + m2 a2 + − − − + mn an )
1
From Newton’s second law, acm = F1 + F 2 + − − − − − + F n 
M 

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∴ M acm = ∑ F n = F ext

Hence the system of particles moves under the influence of an external force as if the force is
applied at its centre of mass.

3. Explain about the Centre of mass of Earth - moon system and its rotation around the
sun?

A. The earth -moon system rotates about the common centre of mass. The mass of the earth is
about 81 times that of the moon. Hence the centre of mass of the earth-moon system is
relatively close to the earth. The gravitational attraction of the sun is an external force that acts
on the earth-moon system. The centre of mass of the earth-moon system moves in an elliptical
path around the sun.

4. Define vector product .Explain the properties of vector product with two examples?

A. Vector Product:

It is a vector which is the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors and the sine of the
angle between them. The direction is perpendicular to the plane containing the two vectors.

a × b = ab sin θ . nɵ Where nɵ is a u nit vector along a × b .

(a × b )
b

θ
a

Properties:

i. Cross product of vectors do not obey commutative law.

A × B ≠ B × A And A × B = − B × A

ii. Cross product obeys distributive law.

A × (B + C) = A× B + A + C

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iii. The cross product of two parallel vectors is a null vector. (i.e.) If θ = 00 , then
A× B = 0

iv. iˆ × iˆ = ˆj × ˆj = kˆ × kˆ = 0

iˆ × ˆj = kˆ, ˆj × kˆ = iˆ, kˆ × iˆ = ˆj

ˆj × iˆ = − kˆ ; kˆ × ˆj = − iˆ ; iˆ × kˆ = − ˆj

Examples:

1. Angular momentum L = r × p

2. Linear velocity V = ω × r

5. Define angular velocity ( ω ). Derive v = rω .

A. Angular velocity ( ω ):

The rate of change of angular displacement of a particle is called angular velocity.

dθ
ω= rad/sec
dt

To derive v = rω :

Consider a particle be moving along a circle of radius r. At any time t, let the angular
displacement of the particle be θ . Let the particle is displaced through an angle in a time
interval δ t .

 δθ  dθ
Instantaneous angular velocity ω = Lim  =
δ t →0  δ t  dt

Linear velocity of the particle is given by

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BC rδθ dθ  BC 
v = Lim = Lim =r ∵δθ = 
δ t →0 δ t δ t →0 δ t dt  r 

∴ V = rω

6. Define angular acceleration and torque. Establish the relation between angular acceleration and torque.

A. Angular acceleration:

Rate of change of angular velocity is called Angular Acceleration ( α ). Its unit is rad s-2.
change in angular velocity (dω )
α=
time(dt )

Torque:

The turning effect of a force about the axis of rotation is called moment of force or torque.

Torque = Force x Perpendicular distance of line of action of force from axis of rotation.

τ = r × F and τ = rF sin θ

Relation between angular acceleration and torque:

By definition, torque τ = r × F

τ = r × m a = r m ( r α ) = mr 2 α = Iα

∴τ = Iα

7. Write the equations of motion for a particle rotating about a fixed axis?

A: The equations of rotator motion of a rigid body are similar to the equations of linear motion.
They are given below

1) ω = ω0 + α t

1
2) θ = ω0t + α t 2
2

3) ω 2 − ω0t = 2αθ

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Where ω0 is initial angular velocity, ω is final angular velocity, α is angular acceleration and
θ is angular displacement

8. Derive expressions for the final velocity and total energy of a body rolling without
slipping.

A: Final Velocity of Rolling Body:

Let us consider the rolling motion (with out slipping) of a circular disc on a level surface. Let
VC .M is the velocity of centre of mass. Let Vr is the rotational velocity.

Vr = rω , where ω is angular velocity.

The disc on rolling motion without slipping. The essential condition is vC .M = Rω

Velocity of point P1 at the top of the disc,

vt = vC .M + Rω = 2vC .M

K.E of the Rolling Body:

The total K.E of the rolling body = K.E of transitional motion of centre of mass + K.E of
rotational motion.

K = KT + K R

1 2 1
K= mvC .M + I ω 2
2 2

vC .M
From vC .M = K ω ⇒ ω = and I = mK 2
R

Where I is moment of inertia and K is radius of gyration

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 [Link]
2
1 1 v 
K = mvC2 .M + mK 2  C .M 
2 2  R 

1 2  K3 
K= mvC .M 1 + 2 
2  R 

Long Answer Questions

1. a) State And Prove Parallel Axes Theorem?

b) For a thin flat circular disk, the radius of gyration about a diameter as axis is k. If the
disk is cut along a diameter AB as shown in to equal pieces, then find the radius of
gyration of each piece about AB?

A. a) Parallel Axes Theorem:

Statement:

The moment of inertia (I) of a rigid body about any axis is equal to the sum of moment of
inertia about a parallel axis passing through its centre of mass (IG) and the product of the mass
of the body (M) and the square of the perpendicular distance (r) between the two parallel axes.
I = I0 + Mr2

Proof:

Consider a rigid body of mass M. Let I and IG be the moments of inertia of the body about two
parallel axes AB and CD. The axis CD passes through the centre of mass of the body. Let ‘r’
be the perpendicular distance between the AB and CD.

Consider a particle P of mass m. Extend OG and draw a perpendicular PQ on to OG

produced.

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Moment of inertia of the body about AB

I = Σm(OP)2

Moment of inertia of the body about CD

I G = Σm(GP ) 2

In the triangle OPQ,

OP 2 = OQ 2 + PQ 2 = (OG + GQ) 2 + PQ 2

= OG 2 + GQ 2 + [Link] + PQ 2

= OG 2 + GP 2 + [Link] (∵ GQ 2 + PQ 2 = GP 2 )

∴ I = Σm(OP ) 2

= Σm[OG 2 + GP 2 + [Link] ]

= Σmr 2 + ΣmGP 2 + Σ[Link]

∴ I = I G + Mr 2 (∵ Σm = M )

( Σ[Link] = 0 .This is the sum of the moments of all masses about CM.)

b) Moment of inertial of circular disk

MR 2
I= (About diameter)
4

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I MR 2 R
K= = =
M 4M 2

If the disc is cut along the diameter AB into two equal pieces, then radius of gyration of each
piece about AB = K

2. a) State And Prove Perpendicular Axes Theorem?

b) If a thin circular ring and a thin flat circular disk of same mass have same moment of
inertia about their respective diameters as axes. Then find the ratio of their radii

A. a ) Perpendicular Axes Theorem:

Statement:

The moment of inertia of a plane lamina about an axis perpendicular to its plane is equal to the
sum of the moments of inertia of the lamina about two axes perpendicular to each other in its
plane intersecting each other at the point through where the perpendicular axis passes.
∴ Iz = Ix + I y.

Proof:

Consider a particle of mass ’m’ at ‘P’ in the plane lamina. Let X and Y axis lie in the plane of
the lamina and Z axis is perpendicular to the lamina. .Let the particle is at a

distance “r’ from the Z- axis. Let the moments of inertia of the plane lamina about X, Y and Z
axes are I x , I y and I z respectively.

∴ I x = Σmy 2 and I y = Σmx 2

I z = ∑ mr 2 = ∑ m ( x 2 + y 2 ) (∵ r 2
= x2 + y 2 )

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∴ Iz = Ix + I y

Hence the theorem is proved.

M 1 R12
b) Moment of inertia of a circular ring about diameter I1 = → (1)
2

M 2 R22
Moment of inertia of a circular disc about diameter I 2 = → (2)
4

Given I1 = I 2 , M 1 = M 2

2
R12 R22  R12  1
= ⇒  =
2 4  2  2

R1 1
∴ =
R2 2

3. State and prove the principle of conservation of angular momentum. Explain the
principle of conservation of angular momentum with examples?

A. Statement:

In the absence of resultant external torque on a rotating system, the angular momentum (L) of
the system remains constant both in magnitude and direction.

I ω = cons tan t Or I1ω1 = I 2ω2

Proof:

The resultant external torque τ acting on a rotating system is related to its angular momentum
dL
L as τ =
dt

dL
If the resultant external torque, τ is equal to zero. = 0 Or L = constant.
dt

∴ I ω = cons tan t Or I1ω1 = I 2ω2

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Examples:

1. A ballet dancer decreases or increases his angular speed of rotation by stretching the hands
or bringing the hands closer to the body.

2. A diver makes rotations in air by bringing the hands and legs closer to the body and
increasing the angular velocity. When the diver reaches water, legs and hands are stretched so
that moment of inertia increases and decreases.

Problems

1. ( )
Show that a. b×c is equal in magnitude to the volume of the parallelepiped formed on

the three vectors a, b and c .

A: Let a parallelepiped be formed on the three vectors

OA = a, OB = b, OC = c

Thus the moment of inertia of a disc about any of its diameter is MR 2 / 4 .

2. A rope of negligible mass is wound round a uniform hollow cylinder of mass 3 kg and
radius 40 cm. What is angular acceleration of the cylinder if the rope is pulled with a
force of 30 N? What is linear acceleration of the rope? Assume that there is no slipping?

A. M = 3 Kg, r = 0.4 m, F = 30 N

i) I = mr 2 = 3 × ( 0.4 ) = 0.48kg − m2
2

τ = rF = Iα

rF 0.4 × 30
α= = = 25 rad s −2
I 0.48

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ii) F = ma

F 30
a= = = 10 m s −2
m 3

3. A coin is kept at a distance of 10 cm from the centre of a circular turn table. If the
coefficient of static friction between the table and the coin is 0.8 find the frequency of
rotation of the disc at which the coin will just begin to slip?

A. Condition for just slipping, the required condition is mr ω 2 = µ mg

Or r × 4π 2 n 2 = µ g

µg 0.8 × 9.8
Or n2 = = 2 =2
4π r 4π × 0.1
2

Or n = 2 rev/s

4. Particles of masses 1g, 2g, 3g……100g are kept at the marks 1cm, 2cm, 3cm…100cm
respectively on a meter scale. Find the moment of inertia of the system of particles about
a perpendicular bisector of the meter scale.

A: m1 = 1gm = 10 −3 kg , m2 = 2 ×10 −3 kg

m3 = 3 × 10−3 kg ,…… m100 = 100 × 10−3 kg

r1 = 1cm = 10 −2 m = 1m , r2 = 2 × 10−2 m, r3 = 3 × 10−2 m,

r100 = 100 × 10−2 m = 1m

The axis of rotation is passing through 50cm. at 50cm a mass of 50gm is placed. Total [Link]
pairs of particles about an axis of rotation x = 50

Total no. of pairs of particles M = 100gm = 10−1 kg

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The distance of 1st pair of particles (49 & 51) from the axis of rotation

R1 = 1cm = 10−2 m

The distance of 2nd pair of particles 48 and 52 from the axis of rotation

R2 = 2cm = 10 −2 m

∴ The total moment of inertia of all pair of particles about an axis of rotation

I = Mr12 + Mr32 + ..... + Mr502

= 10 −1 × (10 −2 + 10−1 × (2 × 10−2 ) + .....10−1 × (50 × 10−2 ) 2

I = [12 + 2 2 + ..... + 502 ]10−5

50 × 51×101× 10−5  2 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 

I= ∵1 + 2 + .... + n =
2 2

6  6 

I = 0.42925 = 0.43kg − m2 .

5. Three particles each of mass 100 g are placed at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of
side length 10 cm. Find the moment of inertia of the system about an axis passing
through the centroid of the triangle and perpendicular to its plane?

A. Let G be the position of the centroid of the triangle.

0.1
Then AG = BG = CG = m
3

M.I of the system = 3 mr2

A
100g

0.1 m

B C
100g 100g

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2
 0.1  1 1 1
= 3 x 0.1 x   = 3 × × × = 10−3 Kg − m 2
 3  10 100 3

6. Four particles each of mass 100g are placed at the corners of a square of side 10cm. find
the moment of inertia of the system about an axis passing through the centre of the
square and perpendicular to its plane. Find also the radius of gyration of the system?

Sol: m = 100gm = 10−1 kg ; a = 10cm = 10−1 m

AV 2a
From fig OA = OC = OB = OD = =
2 2

a 10−1
OA = OC = OB = OD = = → (1)
2 2

i) Total moment of inertia

I = m(OA) 2 + m(OB ) 2 + m(OC )2 + m(OD)2

2
 10−1 
−1
I = 4m(OA) = 4 × 10 × 
2

 2 

I = 2 × 10−3 kg − m 2

10−1
ii) Radius of gyration K = OA =
2

K = 0.7071× 10−1 = 0.07071m .

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7. Two uniform circular discs, each of mass 1kg and radius 20cm, are kept in contact about
the tangent passing through the point of contact. Find the moment of inertia of the
system about the tangent passing through the point of contact

Sol: XX ′ is the common tangent of two discs D1 and D2 at the point of contact M.I of D1 about a
diameter parallel to

MR 2
XX ′ = I11 =
4

MR 2 5
M.I of D1 about axis XX ′ = I1 = + MR 2 + MR 2 = MR 2
4 4

5
Similarly M.I of D2 about axis XX ′ = I 2 = MR 2
4

5
Total M.I of the system I = I1 + I 2 = MR 2
2

Given M = 1kg, R = 0.2m

5 5
I= MR 2 = × 1× (0.2) 2 = 0.1 kg − m 2
2 2

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8. Four spheres each diameter 2a and mass m are placed with their centers on the four
corners of a square of the side b. Calculate the moment of inertia of the system about any
side of the square?

A. Let S1, S2, S3 and S4 be the given 4 spheres.

m
S4 S3
D C
a

A B
S1 S2

For each sphere r = a

Side of the square = b

Let I1, I2, I3 and I4 be the moments of inertia of spheres

S1, S2, S3 and S4 respectively about AB

2ma 2
∴ I1 = I2 =
5

2ma 2
I3 = I 4 = + mb 2
5

 2ma 2   2ma 2 
∴ M.I of the whole system = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 =  2 ×  + 2 + mb 2 
 5   5 

8ma 2
= + 2mb 2
5

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9. To maintain a rotor at a uniform angular speed of 200rad s −1 , an engine needs to transmit

a torque of 180Nm. What is the power required by the engine? (Note: uniform angular
velocity in the absence of friction implies zero torque. In practice, applied torque is
needed to counter frictional torque) Assume that the engine is 100% efficient

Sol: ω = 200 rad / s , τ = 180Nm

Power (P) = τω

P = 180 x 200

P = 36000W = 36kW

10. A meter stick is balanced on a knife edge at its centre. When two coins, each of mass 5g
are put one on top of the other at the 12.0cm mark, the stick is found to be balanced at
45.0cm. What is the mass of the meter stick?

Sol: Let m be the mass of the stick connected at C, the 50cm mark for equilibrium about C, the
45cm mark

10g (45-12) = mg(50-45)

10g x 33 = mg x 5

10 × 33
m= = 66 g
5

11. Determine the kinetic energy of a circular disc rotating with a speed of 60rpm about an
axis passing through a point on its circumference and perpendicular to its plane. The
circular disc has a mass of 5kg and radius 1m

60
Sol: n = 60rpm = = 1rps
60

ω = 2π rn = 2π × 1 = 2π , M = 5kg, r = 1m
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MR 2 3
I= + MR 2 = MR 2
2 2

3 15
I = × 5 × (1)2 =
2 2

1 1 15
Rotational K.E = I ω 2 = × × (2π ) 2 = 15π 2 = 148.16 J
2 2 2

12. Two particles, each of mass m and speed u, travel in opposite direction along parallel
lines separated by a distance d. Show that the vector angular momentum of the two
particle system is the same whatever be the point about which the angular momentum is
taken

Sol: Vector angular moment of the two particle system about any point A on x1 y1

LA = mv × 0 + mv × d = mvd

Similarly vector angular momentum of two particle system about any point B on X 2Y2

LB = mvd + mv × 0 = mvd

∴ vector angular moment of the two particle system about C is (∵ AC = x)

LC = mv( x) + mv(d − x) = mvd

∴ LA = LB = LC

13. The moment of inertia of a fly wheel making 300 revolutions per minute is 0.3 kgm2. Find
torque required to bring it to rest in 20 s?

A. I = 0.3 Kg-m2, n = 300/60 = 5 rev/s

ω 0 = 2 π n = 2 π x 5 = 10 π rad/s

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ω = ω0 + α t Or 0 = 10 π + 20

Or α = – 10 π /20 = – π /2 rad s–2

22 1
τ = I α = 0.3 x π /2 = 0.3 x × = 0.471 Nm
7 2

14. When 100 J of work is done on a fly wheel, its angular velocity is increased from

60 rpm to180 rpm. What is the moment of inertia of the wheel?

A. W = 100 J, ω 1 = 60 rpm = 2 π rad s–1

ω 2 = 180 rpm = 6 π rad s–1

Work done = change in rotational K.E

1 1
100 = I (ω22 − ω12 ) = I (36π 2 − 4π 2 )
2 2

200 5
Or I = = = 0.63Kg − m 2
32π 2 8

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OSCILLATIONS
Important Points:

1. Simple Harmonic Motion:

a) The acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement of the body from the fixed
point and it is always directed towards the fixed point in the path of the body.

aα − x (Or) a = − kx

F −k
Acceleration (a) = = x.
m m

k
a = −ω 2 x Where ω =
m

d2x
(Or) + ω2x = 0
dt 2

2. Every harmonic is periodic. But every periodic is not harmonic.

3. Amplitude:

The maximum displacement of a vibrating particle from its mean position is called amplitude
(A). It is a vector quantity.

4. Time Period:

The time taken for one oscillation is called time period

2π
T= Where angular velocity
ω

5. Frequency:

The number of oscillations completed by a particle in one second is called frequency.

1
Frequency f = cycles/sec.
T

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6. Phase:

Phase is that which denotes the state of vibration

7. Displacement:

Displacement of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is given by

y = A sin(ωt ± φ )

Where φ = Initial phase

ω = Angular frequency

A = Amplitude

8. Velocity:

Velocity of the particle executing simple harmonic motion is given by

V = Aω cos ωt (Or) V = ω A 2 − y 2

Vmax = Aω

9. Acceleration:

Acceleration of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is given by

a = − Aω 2 sin(ωt ± φ )

a = −ω 2 y

amax = Aω 2

For simple harmonic motion is given by

y
T = 2π
a

Where y = displacement and

a = acceleration

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10. Energy of the particle in SHM:

1 1
a) PE = mω 2 y 2 = mω 2 A2 Sin 2 ωt
2 2

1 1
b) KE = mv 2 = mω 2 ( A2 − y 2 )
2 2

1
= mω 2 A2 cos 2 ωt
2

1
c) Total energy = mω 2 A2 = 2π 2 n 2 mA2
2

d) At the mean position KE is maximum and PE is minimum.

e) At the extreme position KE is minimum and PE is maximum.

11. Simple Pendulum:

Time period of simple pendulum executing S.H.M. is

l
T = 2π
g

Where l = length of the simple pendulum

g = acceleration due to gravity

12. Seconds Pendulum:

A pendulum with time period 2 seconds is called second pendulum. Its length on earth is

100 cm.

13. Loaded Spring:

i) If a mass M is suspended vertically from a spring and if the spring elongates by ‘x’ then spring
constant is

F Mg
K= Or K=
x x

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ii) Time period of the loaded spring is

M x
T = 2π or T = 2π
K g

iii) If two springs of force constants k1 and k2 are joined in series, the effective force
k1k2
constant k =
k1 + k2

iv) If two springs of force constants k1 and k2 are joined in parallel, the effective force
constant k = k1 + k2 .

v) When a spring of force constant k is cut into n equal parts, the spring constant of each part is

nk

vi) If a uniform spring of spring constant K is cut into two pieces of lengths in the
ratio l1 : l2, then the force constants of the two springs will be
k (l1 + l2 ) k (l + l )
k1 = and k2 = 1 2
l1 l2

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Very Short Answer Questions

1. Give two examples of periodic motion which are not oscillatory?

A. 1) Motion of the seconds hand in a watch

2) Revolution earth around the sun.

2. The displacement in S.H.M. is given by y = a sin (20t +4). What is the displacement when
it is increased by 2π / ω ?

A. In time equal to time period T, the particle comes to same position. So displacement of the
2π
particle remains same even after time is increased by .
ω

3. A girl is swinging seated in a swing. What is the effect on the frequency of oscillation if
the stands?

A: When the girl stands up, her centre of mass moves up and length of swing decreases. Hence
1
frequency of oscillation increases, since v ∝
l

4. The bob of a simple pendulum is a hollow sphere filled with water. How will the period of
oscillation change, if the water begins to drain out of the hollow sphere?

A. If water begins to drain out of the hollow sphere, its centre of mass begins to shift below the
centre of the sphere. Hence the length of the pendulum increases and time period also
increases. When the entire water is drained out of the sphere, the centre of mass shifts to centre
of sphere and the time period T attains its initial value.

5. The bob of a simple pendulum is made of wood. What will be the effect on the time
period if the wooden bob is replaced by an identical bob of aluminum?

A: Since the sizes of metal bob and wooden bob are equal, the position of centre of mass does not
change. Therefore the length of the pendulum remains same so, time period remains constant.

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6. Will a pendulum clock gain or lose time when taken to the top of a mountain?

l
A: On the top of mountain, value of ‘g’ is less. Period of oscillation T ∝ , there period of
g

oscillation increases and clock loses time.

7. A pendulum clock gives correct time at the equator. Will it gain or lose time if it is taken
to the poles? If so, why?

l
A . Time period T = 2π
g

The value of ‘g’ is maximum at the poles and hence time period of the pendulum clock
decreases and hence gains time.

8. What fraction of the total energy is K.E when the displacement is one half of a amplitude
of particle executing S.H.M.

1  A2 
mω 2  A2 − 
Kinetic energy 2  4  3 A
A: = = ∵ y = 
Total energy 1 4 2
mω 2 A2
2

3
∴ Fraction of total energy in the kinetic energy =
4

9. What happens to the energy of a simple harmonic oscillator if its amplitude is doubled?

1
A. Energy of simple harmonic oscillator E = m ω 2 A2 ⇒ E α A2
2

If the amplitude is doubled, energy becomes four times.

10. Can the pendulum clocks be used in an artificial satellite?

A. No. In an artificial satellite, the bodies are weightless. Hence the pendulum clocks cannot be
used in an artificial satellite.

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Short Answer Questions

1. Define simple harmonic motion. Give two examples?

A. Definition:

A body is said to be in simple harmonic motion, if the acceleration (a) is directly proportional
to its displacement (y) from the fixed point and is always directed towards the fixed point in its
path. a∝− y

Example:

1) Oscillations of a simple pendulum.

2) Vibrations of a tuning fork

2. Present graphically the variations of displacement, velocity and acceleration with time
for a particle in S.H.M

A: Consider a particle is in SHM with amplitude A. The displacement of the particle is given by
y = A sin(ωt + φ ) → (1)

Velocity of the particle at any instant can be obtained differentiating displacement equation
with respect to time

dv
V= = aω cos(ωt + φ ) → (2)
dt

To get acceleration of the particle again differentiate the velocity equation with respect to time

dV
a= = − Aω 2 sin(ωt + φ ) → (3)
dt

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION:

i) Displacement time graph

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ii) Velocity –time graph

iii) Acceleration – time graph

3. What is phase? Discuss the phase relations between displacement, velocity and
acceleration in simple harmonic motion?

A: Phase:

The physical quantity which gives the information about the position and direction of motion
of particle in SHM at any instant from mean position is called phase.

In general, the displacement of a particle in SHM can be written as Y = A sin(ωt ± φ ) , where

(ωt ± φ ) is called phase, expressed in radian. When the particle starts from mean position,

dy  π
Y = A sin ωt velocity V = = Aω cos ωt = Aω sin  ωt +  . The phase difference between
dt  2
π
displacement and velocity is .
2

dV
Acceleration a = = − Aω 2 sin ωt = Aω 2 sin(ωt + π ) . The phase difference between displacement
dt
π
and acceleration is π and phase difference between velocity and acceleration is .
2

4. Obtain an equation for frequency of oscillation of a spring of force constant K to which a

mass m is attached.

A. Consider a mass less spring of force constant K is loaded with mass ‘m’. Let it be pulled a
little down and left to make vertical oscillations. Let ‘y’ be the displacement of the mass.

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Restoring force F = − K y

−k
From Newton’s second law, ma = - ky Or a= .y
m

Or a α − y

Hence the oscillations of a loaded spring are simple harmonic.

Acceleration of the particle in S.H.M at any time is given by a = −ω 2 y ,

k
ω= .
m

ω
But, n =
2π

1 k
∴n =
2π m

5. Derive the expression for the kinetic energy and potential energy of simple harmonic
oscillator?

A. Kinetic Energy:

The velocity of the particle executing simple harmonic motion at any position V = ω A2 − y 2

mv = mω 2 ( A2 − y 2 )
1 2 1
∴ The kinetic energy of the particle K .E =
2 2

Also, the velocity of the particle executing simple harmonic motion at any position is given
by, v = Aω cos ωt

1 2 1
∴ K .E = mv = mA2ω 2Cos 2 ωt
2 2
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Potential Energy:

Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ executing SHM. If ‘F’ is the force at the displacement ‘y’

Restoring force F = ma = − mω 2 y

Work is done in displacing the body through a small displacement dy is given by

W = F dy = −mω 2 ydy

Now the total work done in displacing the body from 0 to y is given by

y
1
W = ∫ dW = ∫ − mω 2 ydy = mω 2 y 2
0
2

This work done is stored as potential energy

1 1
∴ P.E = mω 2 y 2 = mω 2 A2 sin 2 ωt
2 2

6. How does the energy of a simple pendulum vary as it moves from one extreme position to
the other during its oscillation?

A. Consider a simple pendulum of length l and let m be the mass of the bob. Let A and B are
extreme positions and ‘O’ be the mean position. Let A be its amplitude and y be the
displacement of the bob.

At the Extreme Positions A or B (y = A):

mω 2 y 2 = mω 2 A2 And KE = mω 2 ( A2 − y 2 ) = 0
1 1 1
PE =
2 2 2

1 1
Total energy = PE + KE = mω 2 A2 + 0 = mω 2 A2 --- (1)
2 2

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At the mean position ‘O’ ( y = 0 ):

1
P.E = mω 2 y 2 = 0
2

mω 2 ( A2 − y 2 ) = mω 2 A2
1 1
KE =
2 2

1 1
Total energy = PE + KE = 0 + mω 2 A2 = mω 2 A2 --- (2)
2 2

At any position ‘P’ (OP = y):

1
P.E = mω 2 y 2
2

mω 2 ( A2 − y 2 )
1
KE =
2

Total energy = PE + KE = mω 2 y 2 + mω 2 ( A2 − y 2 ) = mω 2 A2 --- (3)

1 1 1
2 2 2

Hence from equations (1), (2) & (3) it is clear that the total energy of a simple pendulum is
constant at any point on its path.

7. Derive the expression for displacement, velocity and acceleration of a particle executes
SHM

A: Consider a particle moving along the circumference of a circle of radius A and centre ‘O’ with
a uniform speed ‘V’ or with an angular velocity 'ω ' . Suppose at time t = 0, the particle is at
point A such that ∠XOA = φ . At any time t, suppose the particle reaches the point P such that
∠AOP = ωt . Draw PN ⊥ YY 1
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Clearly, displacement of projection N from centre O at any instant t is y = ON. In right angle
triangle ∆ONP , ∠PON = ωt + φ

ON y
∴ = cos(ωt + φ ) or = cos(ω + φ )
OP A

This equation gives displacement of a particle in S.H.M at any instant. To find velocity,
differentiate the displacement with time.

dy
V= = − Aω sin(ωt + φ ) = −ω A2 − x 2 [∵ y = A cos(ωt + φ )]
dt

The negative sign shows that the velocity of N is directed towards left. To find acceleration,
differentiate the velocity with time

dV
a= = − Aω 2 sin(ωt + φ ) = −ω 2 x
dt

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Long Answer Questions

1. Define Simple Harmonic Motion?

Show that the projection of uniform circular motion on any diameter is simple harmonic.

A. Definition:

A body is said to be in S.H.M, if the acceleration is directly proportional to its displacement

from the fixed point and is always directed towards a fixed point in its path.

Expression:

Consider a particle ‘P’ moving on the circumference of a circle of radius ‘A’ with uniform
angular velocity ‘ ω ’. Let ‘O’ be the centre of the circle. Let PN be the perpendicular drawn to
the diameter YY 1 from P. As ‘P’ moves on the circumference of the circle, ‘N’ moves on the
diameter about the ‘O’. Let the position of ‘N’ at any time ‘t’ so that ∠XOP = θ

The displacement of ‘N’ with respect to the fixed point ‘O’ in the path is given by

ON = Y = A sin θ

(Or)

Y = A sin ωt (∵θ = ωt ) ................. (1)

The rate of change of displacement is called velocity.

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dy
∴v = = Aω cos ωt
dt

The rate of change of velocity is called Acceleration.

dv
a= = − Aω 2 Sin ω t
dt

Or a = −ω 2 y (∵ y = A sin ωt )

∴ Acceleration a = −ω 2 y

Hence the acceleration of ‘N’ is directly proportional to the displacement in magnitude but in
opposite direction, always towards the fixed point ‘O’ in the path.

Hence the motion of ‘N’ is simple harmonic.

2. Show that the motion of a simple pendulum is simple harmonic and hence derive an
equation for its time period. What is second’s pendulum?

A. Simple Pendulum:

Let l be the length and m be the mass of the bob of a simple pendulum. Let the bob be given a
small angular displacement ‘ θ ’ and released..Let OB = y = Displacement from the mean
position.

 y
∴θ =   ........(1)
 l

T
l

B
y
mg sinθ θ
O mg mg cos θ

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At the extreme positions ‘B’ the tangential acceleration ‘a’ = g sin θ

The torque about the point of suspension τ = − l (mg sin θ )

The restoring torque τ = Iα Where I is the moment of inertia and τ is the angular acceleration

 mgl 
Iα = − l (mg sin θ ) or α = −  θ
 I 

(When is very small, sin θ ≈ θ )

mgl
Comparing this with the equation for SHM, ω =
I

Hence the bob of the pendulum executes SHM.

2π I
But, T= = 2π and I = ml 2
ω mgl

l
∴T = 2π
g

Second’s Pendulum:

A simple pendulum whose time period is two seconds is called a second’s pendulum.

3. Derive the equation for the kinetic energy and potential energy of a simple harmonic
oscillator and show that the total energy of a particle in simple harmonic motion is
constant at any point on its path

A: i) Expression of K.E (K): The displacement of a simple harmonic oscillator is given by

x = A sin ωt

dx
Velocity of SHO is, V = = Aω cos ωt = ω A2 − x 2
dt

1 1
The K.E of SHO is given by, K = mV 2 = mA2ω 2 cos 2 ωt
2 2

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1
(Or) K = mω 2 ( A2 − x 2 )
2

ii) Expression of P.E (U) : When the displacement of SHO (particle) from its equilibrium
position is x, the restoring force acting on it is F = -Kx

If we displace the particle further through a small distance dx, then work done against the
restoring force is given by dw = -Edx = +Kx dx

The total work done in moving the SHO from mean position (x = 0) to displacement ‘x’ is
given by

x
x
 x2  1
W = ∫ dW = ∫ Kxdx = K   = Kx 2
a  2 0 2

This work done against the restoring force is stored as P.E of SHO

1 1
Hence, P.E of SHO = Kx 2 = mω 2 x 2
2 2

1
(Or) P.E of SHO U = mω 2 A2 cos 2 (ωt + φ )
2

1 1
The total energy of oscillator, E = K + U = mω 2 ( A2 − x 2 ) + mω 2 x 2
2 2

1
If the particle is at, (left extreme position) x = -A, K = 0, U = mω 2 A2 , then
2

1
E = K +U = mω 2 A2 → (1)
2

1
If the particle is at (mean position) x = 0, K = mω 2 A2 , U = 0
2

1
Then E = K + U + mω 2 A2 → (2)
2

If the particle is at (right extreme position)

1 1
x = A, K = 0, U = mω 2 A2 then E = K + U = mω 2 A2 → (3)
2 2

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Hence the total mechanical energy (E) remains constant at any point

The variation of K.E (K), P.E (U) and T.E (E) with displacement x is shown in figure.

The graphs for K and U are parabolic while that for E is a straight line parallel to displacement
axis. At x = 0, the energy is all kinetic and for x = ± A , the energy is all potential.

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Problems

1. The bob of a pendulum is made of a hollow brass sphere. What happens to the time
period of the pendulum, if the bob is filled with water completely? Why?

L
Sol: T = 2π
g

Where L = length of the pendulum

When s hollow brass sphere is completely filled with water, centre of mass does not change.
Hence length of the pendulum remains same

Therefore, time period of hollow brass sphere filled with water completely has ‘no change’.

2. Two identical springs of force constant ‘K’ are joined one at the end of the other (in
series). Find the effective force constant of the combination.

F F F K
A. Total elongation x = x1 + x2 ⇒ = + ⇒ K eff =
K eff K K 2

K
Effective force constant of combination K eff =
2

3. What are physical quantities having maximum value at the mean position in SHM?

A. Velocity and kinetic energy.

4. A particle executes SHM such that, the maximum velocity during the oscillation is
numerically equal to half the maximum acceleration. What is the time period?

1
A: Vmax = amax
2

1
But Vmax = Aω ; amax = Aω 2 ⇒ Aω = Aω 2 ⇒ ω = 2
2

2π 2π
∴ Time period T = = = π sec
ω 2

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5. A mass of 2kg attached to a spring of force constant 260Nm −1 makes 100 oscillations.
What is the time taken?

A. m = 2kg , k = 260 Nm −1

m 22 2
T = 2π = 2× × = 0.5513
K 7 260

Time for 100 oscillations = 100 × 0.5513 = 55.13s

6. A simple pendulum in a stationary life has time period T. What would be the effect on the
time period when the lift i) Move Up with uniform velocity ii) Moves Down with uniform
velocity iii) Moves Up with uniform acceleration a iv) Moves Down with uniform
acceleration ‘a’ v) Begins To fall freely under gravity?

L
A: Time period of a simple pendulum in a stationary lift; T = 2π → (1)
g

Time period of a simple pendulum in a lift moving up with uniform acceleration is

L
Tup = 2π → (2)
g +a

Time period of a simple pendulum in a lift moving down with uniform acceleration is
L
Tdown = 2π → (3)
g −a

i) Moves up with uniform velocity, acceleration of lift at = 0

L
Then Top = 2π = T [∵ (1)]
g

∴ No change in time period

ii) Moves down with uniform velocity a = 0

L
Then Tdown = 2π = T [∵ (1)]
g

∴ No change in time period

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(2) Tup g
iii) ⇒ = ⇒ Tup < T
(1) T g+a

∴ The lift moves up with uniform acceleration a, time period decreases

(3) T g
iv) ⇒ down = ⇒ Tdown > T
(1) T g −a

∴ The lift moves down with uniform acceleration a, time period increases

v) When the lift falls freely under gravity a = g

L L
⇒ Tdown = = = infinity
g−g 0

7. A particle executing SHM has amplitude of 4cm and its acceleration at a distance of 1cm
from the mean position is 2cms −2 . What will be its velocity when it is at a distance of 2cm
from its mean position?

A. A = 4cm, a1 = 3cms −2 , x1 = 1cm, x2 = 2 cm ; V = ?

But, a1 = ω2 x1 ⇒ 3 = ω2 × 1 ⇒ ω = 3

V = ω A2 − x22 = 3 42 − 22 = 3 12

8. A simple harmonic oscillator has a time period of [Link] will be the change in the phase
0.25 s after leaving the mean position?

A. T = 2s, t = 0.25 s

2π
Phase change φ = ωt = t
T

2π π
∴φ= × 0.25 = rad
2 4

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9. A body describes simple harmonic motion with an amplitude of 5cm and a period of 0.2s.
Find the acceleration and velocity of the body when the displacement is

a) 5cm b) 3cm c) 0 cm

A: A = 5cm, T = 0.2cm

−4π 2  2π 
a) If y = 5 , a = −ω 2 y = × 5 = −5π 2 ms −2  ω =
T 
∵
0.04

V = ω A 2 − y 2 = ω 5 2 − 52 = 0

4π 2
b) If y = 3, a = −ω 2 y = − × 3 = −3π 2 ms −2
0.04

2π
V = ω A2 − y 2 = 52 − 32
0.2

π
V= × 4 = 40π cms −1 = 0.4π ms −1
0.1

c) If y = 0cm, a = −ω 2 y = −ω 2 (0) = 0

2π π
V = ω A2 − y 2 = 52 − 0 2 = ×5
0.2 0.1

∴V = 0.5π ms −2

10. The mass and radius of a planet are double that of the earth. If the time period of a
simple pendulum on the earth is T, Find the time period on the planet?

L GM E
A: TE = 2π = T where g E =
gE RE2

L GM G 2M E g E
Tp = 2π But g p = 2 p = =
gp Rp 4 RE2 2

L L
⇒ Tp = 2π = 2 × 2π ∴Tp = 2T
 gE  gE
 
 2 

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11. Calculate the change in the length of a simple pendulum of length 1m, when its period of
oscillation changes from 2s to 1.5s?

3
Sol: L1 = 1m ; T1 = 2s , T2 = 1.5s = s
2

L2 = ? L2 − L1 = ?

L2 T22 L 9 9
= 2⇒ 2 = =
L1 T1 L1 4 16

9 −7
Change in length, L2 − L1 = −1 =
16 16

7
∴ Change in length is decreased by m
16

12. A freely falling body takes 2 seconds to reach the ground on a planet, when it is dropped
from a height of 8m. If the period of a simple pendulum is π seconds on the planet,
calculate the length of the pendulum?

1 2 1
gt ⇒ 8 = g ( 2 )
2
A. For a freely falling body, h =
2 2

∴ g = 4 ms −2

gT 2 4×π 2
l= = = 1m
4π 2 4π 2

13. The period of a simple pendulum is found to increase by 50% when the length of the
pendulum is increased by 0.4m. Calculate the initial length and the initial period of
oscillation at a place where g = 9.8ms −2

T2 − T1 1 3T
A: = 50% = ⇒ T2 = 1
T1 2 2

L2 − L1 = 0.6m and g = 9.8ms −2

L1 L
Initial time period T1 = 2π ⇒ T12 = 4π 2 1 → (1)
g g

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L2 L
Final time period T2 = 2π ⇒ T22 = 4π 2 2 → (2)
g g

4π 2 9T 2 4π 2 × 0.6
(2) – (1) ⇒ T22 − T12 = (l2 − l1 ) ⇒ 1 − T12 =
g 4 9.8

5T12 4π 2 × 0.6 4 × 4π 2 × 0.6

⇒ = ⇒ T12 = = 1.931 ∴T1 = 1.931 = 1.391s
4 9.8 5 × 9.8

gT12 9.8 × 4 × 4π 2 × 0.6 2.4

Initial length L1 = = ∴ L1 = = 0.48m
4π 2 4π 2 × 5 × 9.8 5

14. A clock regulated by a second’s pendulum keeps correct time. During summer the length
of the pendulum increases to 1.02m. How much will the clock gain or lose in one day?

A: The correct time of a clock, T = 2s

L 1.02
Time period of a clock during summer, T1 = 2π = 2π = 2.0273s
g 9.8

Increase in time period for each oscillation T1 − T = 0.0273s

∴ The clock loses time for each oscillation = 0.0273s

No of oscillations made by pendulum keeping correct time is a day

24 × 60 × 60 s 24 × 60 × 60 s
= = = 43, 200 s
T 2

∴ Loss of time by clock in a day = 0.0273 x 43,200 = 1180s

15. The time period of a body suspended from a spring is T. What will be the new time
period if the spring is cut into two equal parts and the mass is suspended

i) From one part ii) Simultaneously from both the parts?

A: The time period of a body of mass m suspended from a spring of spring constant K is
m
T = 2π → (1)
K

l
If the spring of length l is cut into two equal parts, length of each part l1 =
2
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Let the spring constant of each part is K1

1 1 K l l
The spring constant ∝ ∝ , 1 = = , ∴ K1 = 2 K
elongation length of the spring K l1 l
2

m
i) With one part of the spring, time period T1 = 2π → (2)
K1

(2) T K K T
⇒ 1= = ∴T1 =
(1) T K1 2K 2

ii) The same mass is suspended simultaneously from both the parts, time period

m
T2 = 2π → (2)
K2

(3) T K
⇒ 2 = But K 2 = K1 + K1 = 2 K1 = 2 × 2 K = 4 K
(1) T K2

K T
∴T2 = T =
4K 2

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GRAVITATION
Important Points:

1. Kepler’s Laws

a) Law of Orbits:

Every planet revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun at one of the foci.

b) Law of Areas:

The areal velocity of the radius vector drawn from the sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas
in equal time intervals.

c) Law of time Periods:

The square of the time period of a planet around the sun is proportional to the cube
of the semi-major axis. T 2 α R 3

2. Kepler’s second law obeys the law of conservation of angular momentum.

r2 ω = const. (or) r v = const.

Or Iω = const

Where r = the distance between the sun and the planet.

V = the speed of the planet.

ω = the angular velocity of the Planet.

3. Basic forces in Nature:

i) Gravitational Force

ii) Electromagnetic Force

iii) Strong Nuclear Force

iv) Weak Nuclear Force

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4. The ratio strengths of gravitational, weak nuclear, Electromagnetic and strong nuclear forces are
respectively 1:1031 :1036 :1038

5. Newton’s law of Gravitation:

The force of attraction between any two bodies is directly proportional to product of their
Gm1m2
masses and inversely proportional to square of distance between them F =
r2

Where G is universal gravitational constant

6. Value and units of G:

G = 6.67 x 10-11 Newton - m2 kg-2

Dimensional formula : G = M −1L3T −2

7. Relation between ‘G’ and ‘g’:

Relation between gravitational constant and acceleration due to gravity is given by

Gm
g=
R2

8. Variation of ‘g’:

a) Acceleration due to gravity at certain altitude (height)’h’ is given by

2
 R   2h 
gh = g   ≅ g 1 − 
 R+h  R

b) Acceleration due to gravity at certain depth‘d’ is given by

 d
g d = g 1 − 
 R

c) Acceleration due to gravity at certain altitude φ is given by

gφ = g − Rω 2 cos 2 φ Where φ latitude angle

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GMm mgr
9. Gravitational PE = =
2r 2

GMm mgr
10. Gravitational KE = − =−
2r 2

GMm mgr
11. Gravitational. Total energy = − =−
2r 2

13. Orbital Velocity:

It is the horizontal velocity with which a body should be projected in order that it may revolve
round the Earth in an orbit.

GM GM
V0 = ≅ ≅ gR = 7.92km / sec
R+h R

14. Escape Velocity (Vc):

The minimum velocity with which a body should be projected to overcome the Earth’s
gravitational field is called the escape velocity.

GM
Ve = = 2 gR ≅ 11.2km / s
R

15. Relation between ' ve ' and ‘ v0 ’ is Ve = 2v0 = 1.414v0

16. Geo-Stationary or Polar Satellite:

i. Time period is 24hrs.

ii. Its velocity relative to the Earth is zero.

iii. Height of the geo-satellite from the surface of the Earth is about 36,500km and 42,500 Km
1/3
 GM 
from the centre of the Earth. h =  2 T 2  − R
 4π 

iv. Geo-satellites are used to know the shape and size of the Earth, communication purpose etc.

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Very Short Answer Questions

1. State the units and dimensions of universal gravitational constant (G)?

A. Units : N − m2 / kg 2

Dimensional formula:  M −1L3T −2 

2. State vector form of Newton’s law of gravitation?

A. The force of attraction of between the bodies of masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r

Gm1m2 Gm1m2
is given by F = ˆ
r = r
r2 r3

3. If the gravitational force of Earth on the moon is F, what is the gravitational force of
moon on Earth? Do these forces from the action reaction pair?

A: i) The gravitational force of the moon on the Earth = F

ii) These two forces equal and opposite direction. Hence they from action and reaction pair.

4. What would be the change in acceleration due to gravity (g) at the surface, if the
radius of the Earth decreases by 2%, keeping the mass of the Earth constant?

GM ∆g ∆R
A. g= 2
⇒ = −2
R g R

∆g  ∆R
×100 = −2 

× 100  = −2 ( −2% ) = 4% .
g  R 

If the radius decreases by 2%, then acceleration due to gravity also increases by 4%

5. As we go from one planet to another how will a) the mass and b) the weight of body
change?

A: a) Mass of the body remains same

b) As g changes, weight of the body also changes

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6. Keeping the length of a simple pendulum constant, will the time period be the same on all
planets? Supports your answer with reason?

 1 
A: No As ‘g’ changes from planet to planet. Time period T ∝  also changes
 g 

7. Give the equation for the value of g at a depth ‘d’ from the surface of Earth. What is the
value of ‘g’ at the centre of Earth?

 d
A: The equation of g at a depth‘d’ from surface of Earth, g d = g 1 − 
 R

 R
At the centre of the Earth g d = g 1 −  = 0 [∵ d = R ]
R 

8. What are the factors that make ‘g’ the least at the equator and maximum at the poles?

A: Equator:

The factors that make ‘g’ the least at the equator are

i) Equatorial radius of the Earth is maximum.

ii) Latitude, φ = 00 [ ∵ gφ = g − Rω 2 cos 2 φ ] .

Poles:

The factors that make ‘g’ maximum at the poles are

i) Polar radius of the Earth is minimum.

ii) Latitude φ = 900 .

9. “Hydrogen is in abundance around the sun but not around the Earth”. Explain?

A. The escape velocity on Earth is, which is less than r.m.s. velocity of hydrogen gas. But the
escape velocity on Sun is, which is greater than the r.m.s. velocity of hydrogen gas. Hence the
hydrogen is abundance around the sun and less around the Earth.

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10. What is the time period of revolution of a geo-stationary satellite? Does it rotate from
west to east or from east to west?

A: Time period of revolution of a geostationary satellite is 24 hours. It rotates from west to east.

11. What are polar satellites?

A: A satellite that revolves in a polar orbit is called a polar satellite. A polar orbit passes over
north and south poles of the Earth and has a smaller radius 500 – 800km

Short Answer Questions

1. State Kepler’s laws of planetary motion

A: Kepler’s Laws:

1) I Law (or) Law of Orbits:

All planets move in elliptical orbits around the Sun with the sun situated at one of the foci.

2) II Law (or) Law of Areas:

The line that joins any planet to the sun sweeps equal areas in equal intervals of time.

3) III Law (or) Law of Periods:

The square of the time period of revolution of a planet around the Sun is proportional to the
cube of the semi major axis of the ellipse traced out by the planet i.e., T 2 ∝ a 3

2. Deduce the relation between acceleration due to gravity (g) at the surface of a
planet and gravitational constant (G)?

A. Relation Between g and G:

Consider a body of mass ‘m’ on the surface of a planet of radius R and mass M. The
gravitational force acting on the body is given by-

F = mg ——— (1)

According to universal law of gravitation

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GMm
F= —— (2)
R2

GMm GM
Equating (1) & (2), mg = 2
Or g = 2
R R

3. How does the acceleration due to gravity (g) change for the same values of height (h)
and depth (d)?

 2h 
A. a) For smaller heights, the variation of ‘g’ with height ‘h’ is g h = g 1 − 
 R 

 d
The variation of ‘g’ with depth‘d’ is g d = g 1 − 
 R

 h h gh
If d = h, g h = g 1 − −  = g d −
 R R R

∴ gh < gd

Hence for same value of d and h, the value of ‘g’ decreases more at height compared to
depth.

2
 R 
b) For larger heights, the variation of ‘g’ with height ‘h’ is g h = g  
 R+h

 d
The variation of ‘g’ with depth‘d’ is g d = g 1 − 
 R

g
If d = h, gh = and g d = 0
4

∴ gh > gd

Hence for same value of d and h, the value of ‘g’ increases more at height compared to depth.

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4. What is Orbital velocity? Obtain an expression for it?

A. Orbital Velocity:

The velocity to be given to a body in order to revolve round the Earth in circular orbit
is known as orbital velocity.

Expression:

Consider a satellite of mass ‘m’ revolving around the Earth at a height ‘h’. Let M be the
mass and R be the radius of the Earth. Let ‘ vo ’ be the orbital velocity on the surface of
the Earth. The gravitational force between Earth and satellite provides necessary

centripetal force.

mv02
( R + h)
V0 m
GMm
2
( R + h)
R
M

mvo 2 GMm Gmm

∴ = Or vo 2 =
( R + h ) ( R + h )2 ( R + h)

GM
∴ vo =
( R + h)

GM GM
But, g = ⇒ = g ( R + h)
( R + h)
2
( R + h)

∴ vo = g ( R + h )

If the satellite is very close to Earth, vo = gR = 7.92Km/sec.

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5. What is escape velocity? Obtain expression for it?

A. Escape Velocity:

The minimum velocity required by a body to escape from the gravitational influence of
Earth is called escape velocity (Ve ) of the body.

Expression:

Consider a body of mass ‘m’ on the surface of the Earth of mass ’M’ and radius R. Let Ve
be the escape velocity of the body.

The work done in bringing the body from infinity to the surface of the Earth is stored as
gravitational potential energy.

GMm
Gravitational potential energy =− ------- (1)
R

The negative sign indicates that the body is bound to the Earth.

1
Kinetic energy = mVe2 —— (2)
2

From (1) and (2)

1 GMm 2GM
mVe2 = ⇒ Ve =
2 R R

GM
But , g=
R2

∴Ve = 2 gR = 11.2 Km/sec

6. What is a Geo Stationary satellite? State its uses?

A. Geo - Stationary or Polar Satellite:

A Satellite whose time period of revolution is equal to that of rotation of Earth ( 24 hours) is
called Geostationary Satellite.

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Uses:

These are used to

1) Know the shape and size of the Earth.

2) Study the changes in the atmosphere.

3) Study the upper regions of the atmosphere.

4) Identify the minerals and natural resources present inside the Earth.

7. If two places are at the same height from the mean sea level. One is a mountain and other
is in air. At which place will ‘g’ be greater? State the reason for your answer

GM 4  4 3 
A: g= = π RρG ∵ M = V ρ = 3 π R ρ 
R2 3

Where ρ is the mean density of the Earth. Since g ∝ ρ , the density of the mountain is greater
than that of air. Therefore, g is more at the mountain.

8. The weights of an object is more at the poles than at the equator. At which of these can
we get more sugar for the same weight? State the reason for your answer.

A: Since the weight of the object is more at the poles than at the equator, Wp > We ⇒ M p g p > me g e

Hence g p > g e [∵ m p = me = constant]

1
If weight, W = mg = constant, then m ∝
g

As g p > g e , me > m p i.e., mass of sugar at equator is more than mass of sugar at poles. Hence at

equator, we get more sugar for the same weight.

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9. If a nut becomes loose and gets detached from a satellite revolving around the Earth,
will it fall down to the Earth or will it revolve in the same orbit as the satellite? Give
reason for your answer?

A. The nut is initially revolving around the Earth along with the satellite. Hence it revolves in
the same orbit around the Earth even after it becomes loose.

10. An object projected with a velocity greater than or equal to 11.2km.s −1 will not return to
Earth. Explain the reason

A: The escape velocity on the surface of the Earth is 11.2km/s. hence an object is projected with a
velocity greater than or equal to 11.2 km/s the object will not come back to the Earth.

Long Answer Questions

1. Define gravitational potential energy and derive an expression for it associated with two
particles of masses m1 and m2 .

A: When two or more bodies interact with each other due to gravitational forces, some work must
be done in assembling together in their respective places. That work done is called potential
energy of the system.

For a system of two masses, potential energy of the system is defined as the amount of work
done in bringing these two masses from infinity to their respective places

Consider a space, where there is no gravitational field. now work is done to bring a body of
mass m1 to a point A. now, m1 produces a gravitational field in the space. To bring another
body of mass m2 from infinity to point B at a distance r from m1 some work is required. This
work is done by the gravitational force of attraction of m1 acting on m2

Gm1m2
Gravitational force acting on m2 , which is at P is F =
x2

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Let the body m2 is displaced by a distance dx to point Q work done

Gm1m2
dW = F .dx = Fdx cos θ = 2
dx [∵θ = 00 ]
x

∴ Total work done to bring the mass m2 from infinity to point B is

−Gm1m2
r
Gm1m2
W = ∫ dW = ∫ 2
dx =
∞
x r

We know that work done by conservation force is equal to negative of change in potential
energy

i.e., W = −(U r − U t ) ⇒ W = U t − U r

Since P.E. at infinity is zero W = U t = U ( say )

Gm1m2
∴U = −
r

2. Derive expression for the variation of acceleration due to gravity?

(a) Above and (b) Below the surface of the Earth.

A. Height:

Let M be the mass, R be the radius and be the density of the Earth .

GM
On the surface of the Earth g =
R2

GM
At a height ‘h’ from the surface of the Earth g h = − −(2)
( R + h)
2

2
 R 
From equations (1) & (2), gh = g  
 R+h

 2h 
If h <<R , gh = g 1 − 
 R

Hence the acceleration due to gravity decreases with the increase of height.

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Depth:

Let M be the mass, R be the radius and be the density of the Earth .

GM
On the surface of the Earth g =
R2

4
But mass of the Earth (M) = π R3 ρ
3

4
∴g = π RG ρ -------- (1)
3

The gravitational force at a depth ‘d’ from the surface of the Earth is only due to the
inner solid sphere of radius (R-d).

4 
∴ g d =  π G ρ  ( R − d ) ------- (2)
3 

gd (R − d )
From equations (1) & (2), =
g R

 d
∴ g d = g 1 − 
 R

Thus the value of ‘g’ decreases with i.e. increases of depth.

3. State Newton’s universal law of gravitation. Explain how the value of the gravitational
constant (G) can be determined by Cavendish method?

A. Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation:

Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force, which is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them. This force acts along the line joining the two particles.

Let two particles of masses m1 and m2 are separated by a distance 'r'. From the law of

gravitation, the force of attraction F between them is

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m1 m2 mm
F∝ 2
Or F = G 1 2 2
r r

m1 m 2
F F

Where G is called universal gravitational constant.

Cavendish Method:

Two small lead spheres each of mass ‘m’ are attached at the ends of a bar AB .The bar AB is
suspended from a rigid support by a fine quartz fiber in the horizontal plane. Two big lead
spheres, each of mass ‘M’, are brought close to small ones but on opposite sides as shown in
figure. The small spheres move towards the big ones due to gravitational force of
GMm
attraction, F = , where d is the distance from the centre of big to its neighboring small
d2
sphere.

S 2

F
A
B
F
S1

This produces a torque which deflects the rod. If L be the length of the rod, then the deflecting
GMmL
gravitational torque = F × L =
d2

Restoring torque of the suspension wire = τθ

Where θ is the angle of twist of the suspended wire,

At equilibrium, deflecting gravitational torque = restoring torque

GMmL τ θd2
= τ θ Or G =
d2 MmL

Thus the value of G can be determined G = 6.67 ×10−11 Nm 2 kg −2 .

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Problems

1. Two spherical balls each of mass 1kg are placed 1cm apart. Find the gravitational force
of attraction between them?

A: m1 = m2 = 1kg ; r = 1cm = 10 −2 m

From Newton law of gravitation,

Gm1m2 6.67 × 10−11 × 1× 1

F= 2
= −4
= 6.67 × 10 −7 N
r 10

2. The mass of a ball is four times the mass of another ball. When these balls are separated
by a distance of 10cm, the gravitational force between them is 6.67 × 10−7 N . Find the
masses of the two balls?

A: m1 = m ; m2 = 4m ; r = 10 cm = 10 −1 m ; F= 6.67 × 10−7 N

Gm1m2
Using Newton law of gravitation, F =
r2

6.67 × 10−11 × m × 4m
6.67 ×10−7 = ⇒ m = 5kg
10−2

∴m1 = 5 kg , m2 = 20kg

3. Three spherical balls of mass 1kg, 2kg and 3kg are placed at the corners of an equilateral
triangle of side 1m. Find the magnitude of gravitational force exerted by the 2kg and 3kg
masses on the 1kg mass.

A. Force between 1kg and 2kg is-

Gm1m2 G × 1× 2
F1 = 2
⇒ F1 = = 2G
r (1) 2

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Similarly force between 1kg and 3kg is-

Gm1m2 G ×1× 3
F2 = = = 3G
r2 (1)2

In equilateral triangle θ = 600 , F1 = 2G and F2 = 3G

∴ Resultant force (F) = F12 + F22 + 2 F1 F2 cos θ

= 2(G ) 2 + 3(G ) 2 + 2(G )3(G ) cos 600

= 4G 2 + 9G 2 + 6G 2

∴ F = G 19

4. At a certain height above the Earth’s surface, the acceleration due to gravity is
4% of its value at the surface of the Earth. Determine the height?

g1 R2 4 R2
A: = ⇒ =
( R + h) 100 ( R + h ) 2
2
g

h = 4R = 4 x 6400 = 25600km

5. A satellite is orbiting the Earth at a height of 1000km. Find its orbital speed.

A: h = 1000km, R = 6400km

GM 6.67 × 10−7 × 6 × 1024 40.02 ×1013

Orbital velocity V0 = = =
R+h (6400 + 1000)103 7400 × 103

∴V0 = 0.7354 × 10 4 m = 7.354km

6. A Satellite orbits the Earth at a distance equal to the radius of the Earth .Find its
(i) Orbital Speed and (ii) Period of Revolution.

A. M = 6 ×10 24 kg ; R= 6400km

GM
(i) Speed of satellite Vo =
R+h

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6.67 × 10−11 × 6 × 1024

Vo = = 5.592km / s
2 × 6400 × 103

2π ( R + h ) 2π × 2 × 6400 × 103
(ii) T= Or T = = 4 hours
Vo 5.592 × 109

7. The gravitational force of attraction between two objects decreases by 36% when
the distance between them is increased by 4m. Find the original distance between them.

2
F1  r2  100 r + 4 10 r + 4
A. =  Or = ⇒ =
F2  r1  64 r 8 r

∴ r = 16 m

8. For identical masses of m are kept at the corners of a square of side a. Find the
gravitational force exerted on one of the masses by the other masses.

A: m1 = m2 = m3 = m4 = m

Gm 2
Force between m1 and m2 , F21 = 2
a

Gm 2
Similarly force between m2 and m3 , F23 =
a2

Resultant force between F21 and F23 is FR = F212 + F232

2 2
 Gm 2   Gm 2  Gm2 Gm 2
⇒ FR =  2  +  2  = 2 2 and F24 =
 a   a  a 2a 2

FR and F24 are parallel forces. So resultant of them is

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Gm 2 Gm 2 Gm 2  1
F = FR + F24 = 2 2
+ 2
= 2  2+ 
a 2a a  2

9. Two spherical balls of mass 1kg and 4kg are separated by a distance of 12cm. Find
the distance from 1kg at which the gravitational force on any mass become zero?

A. m1 = 1Kg ; m2 = 4 Kg ; d = 12cm

Gmm1 Gmm2 1 4
= Or =
(d − x) (12 − x )
2 2 2 2
x x

∴ x = 4cm

10. Three uniform spheres each of mass m and radius R are kept in such a way that each
touches the other two. Find the magnitude of the gravitational force on any one of the
spheres due to the other two?

A: m1 = m2 = m3 = m ; r = 2R

Gm 2
Force between 1 and 3 spheres F1 = = F ( say )
(2 R)2

Gm2
Force between 1 and 2 spheres F2 = =F
(2 R) 2

In equilateral triangle θ = 600

Resultant force between F1 and F2 is FR = F12 + F22 + 2 F1F2 cos θ

= F 2 + F 2 + 2 F 2 cos 600 = 3F

Gm 2
∴ FR = 3
4R2

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11. Two satellites are revolving round the Earth at different heights. The ratio of their
orbital speeds is 2:1. If one of them is at height of 100km, what is the height of the other
satellite?

A: (V0 )1 : (V0 ) 2 = 2 :1 ; h1 = 100km ; h2 = ?

(V0 )1 R + h2  Gm 
= ∵V0 = 
(V0 ) 2 R + h1  R+h

2 R + h2 4 R + h2
⇒ = ⇒ = ⇒ h2 = 3R + 400 = 3 × 6400 + 100
1 R + 100 1 R + 100

∴ h2 = 19600km

12. A satellite is revolving round in a circular orbital with a speed of 8kms −1 at a height where
the value of acceleration due to gravity is 8ms −1 . How high is the satellite from the Earth’s
surface? (Radius of planet = 600nm)

A: V0 = 8kms −1 ; g = 8ms −2 = 8 × 10−3 ms −2 ; R = 6000 km

Orbital velocity V0 = g ( R + h) ⇒ 8 = 8 ×10−3 ( R + h)

⇒ 64 = 8 × 10 −3 ( R + h) ⇒ R + h = 8000

⇒ h = 8000 − R = 8000 − 6000 = 2000km

13. a) Calculate the escape velocity of a body from the Earth’s surface. B) the Earth were
made of wood, its mass would be 10% of its current mass. What would be the escape
velocity if the Earth were made of wood?

A: M = 6 ×10 24 kg ; g = 9.8ms −2 ; R = 6400 km = 6.4 × 106 m

a) Escape velocity Ve = 2 gR = 2 × 9.8 × 6.4 × 106 = 11.2km s −1

10
b) M wood = M e = 6 × 1023 kg
100

2GM 2 × 6.67 × 10−11 × 6 × 1023

Ve = = Ve = 12.51×106 = 3.536 kms −1
R 6.4 × 106

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

Important Points:

1. Elasticity:

The property of a body by virtue of which it regains its original size and shape when
deformation force is removed is called elasticity.

Ex: Steel, Rubber.

2. No body is perfectly elastic. Quartz is the nearest example of elastic body.

3. Plasticity:

The property of a body by virtue of which it does not regain the size and shape when
the deformation force is removed is called Plasticity.

Ex: Putty dough, Chewing gum, etc.

4. Stress:

The restoring force per unit area is called Stress.

F
Stress =
A

Unit: N/m 2 or Pascal.

Dimensional Formula M 1L−1T −2

5. Strain:

The change produced per unit dimension is called Strain.

change in dimension
Strain =
original dimension

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6. Hooke's Law:

With in the elastic limit, stress is directly proportional to strain.

Stress
E=
Strain

E = Modulus of Elasticity

S.I. Unit: N / m 2 or Pascal

7. With in the elastic limit, stress-strain graph is a straight line passing through the origin.

change in length(∆l)
8. Linear strain =
original length(l)

linear stress Fl
Young’s Modulus = =
linear strain A∆l

Fl Fl mgl
Y= = =
A∆l Ae π r 2 e

change in length e
Longitudinal strain = =
original length ℓ

change in volume ∆v
9. Bulk strain = =
original volume v

bulk stress − Fv
Bulk modulus = =
bulk strain A∆v

PV
K =−
∆V

The negative sign indicates that as pressure increases volume decreases.

10. The reciprocal of bulk modulus   is called compressibility(C).

1
K  

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AA′
11. Shearing strain =
AD

F
A A ′ B B ′

θ θ

D C

displacement in the upper surface

Tan θ =
distance between the layers

tangential stress
Rigidity modulus =
tangentialstrain

F F  AD 
n= = × 
A × tan θ A  AA′ 

12. Poisson's Ratio ( σ ):

The ratio of lateral contraction strain to the longitudinal elongation strain is called
Poisson's ratio.

lateral contraction strain

σ=
longitudinal elongation strain

σ=
( r)
− ∆r

( ∆l l )
i) It has no units and no dimension.

ii) Theoretical limits of σ = −1 to 0.5

Practical limits of σ = 0 to 0.5

13. The work done in stretching a wire

1
W= Stress x Strain x Volume
2

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Very Short Answer Questions

1. State the Hooke’s law of Elasticity.

A. Hooke’s Law:

Within the elastic limit, the stress on body is directly proportional to the strain produced
in it.

Stress α strain

stress
Or E = where E is called modulus of elasticity.
strain

2. State the Units and dimensions of Stress.

A. i) Units of stress: Nm–2 or Pascal

ii) Dimensions of stress:  ML−1T −2 

3. State the units and dimensions of modulus of elasticity.

A. i) Units of modulus of elasticity: Nm–2 or Pascal

ii) Dimensions of modulus of elasticity:  ML−1T −2 

4. State the units and dimensions of Young’s modulus.

A. i) Units of Young’s modulus: Nm–2 or Pascal

ii) Dimensions of Young’s modulus:  ML−1T −2 

5. State the units and dimensions of modulus of rigidity.

A. i) Units of modulus of rigidity: Nm–2 or Pascal

ii) Dimensions of modulus of rigidity:  ML−1T −2 

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6. State the units and dimensions of Bulk modulus.

A. i) Units of Bulk modulus: Nm–2 or Pascal

ii) Dimensions of Bulk modulus:  ML−1T −2 

7. State the examples of nearly perfectly elastic and plastic bodies.

A. i) Nearly perfectly elastic body: Quartz fiber.

ii) Nearly perfectly elastic body: Clay, wax.

Short Answer Questions

1. Define Hooke’s law of Elasticity, proportionality limit, permanent set and

breaking stress?

A. Hooke’s law of Elasticity:

With in the elastic limit, stress is directly proportional to strain.

Stress
E=
Strain

E = Modulus of Elasticity

Proportionality Limit:

The maximum stress applied on the wire up to which stress is directly proportional to
strain and Hooke’s law is obeyed, is called proportionality limit.

Permanent Set:

If the wire is loaded beyond the elastic limit the wire gets stretched to an extent, it
deforms permanently It is called permanent set

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Breaking Stress:

The stress for which the wire breaks is called breaking stress.

2. Define modulus of elasticity, stress, strain and Poisson's Ratio?

A. Modulus of elasticity:

With in the elastic limit, the ratio of stress and strain is called modulus of elasticity.

Stress
E=
Strain

E = Modulus of Elasticity

Stress:

The restoring force per unit area is called stress.

Re storing force F
Stress = =
Area A

. Strain:

The change produced per unit dimension is called strain.

change in dimension
Strain =
original dimension

Poisson's Ratio ( σ ):

The ratio of lateral contraction strain to the longitudinal elongation strain is called
Poisson's ratio.

lateral contraction strain

σ=
longitudinal elongation strain

σ=
( r)
− ∆r

( ∆l l )
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3. Define Young’s modulus, Bulk modulus and shear modulus?

A Young’s Modulus:

Within the elastic limit, the ratio between longitudinal stresses to longitudinal strain is
called Young’s modulus.

longitudinal stress F / A
Young’s modulus (Y) = =
longitudinal strain e / l

Bulk Modulus:

Within the elastic limit, the ratio between volume stress and volume strain is called bulk
modulus.

volume stress −P
Bulk modulus (K) = =
volume strain ( ∆V / V )

Shear Modulus:

Within the elastic limit, the ratio between tangential stresses to tangential strain is called
rigidity modulus.

Tangential stress F / A
Rigidity modulus, (η ) = =
Tangential strain θ

4. Define stress and explain the types of stress?

A. Stress:

The restoring force per unit area is called stress.

F
Stress =
A

Types of Stress:

a) Longitudinal Stress:

If the deforming force causes a change in length of a body, then the restoring force per
unit area is called longitudinal or linear or tensile stress.
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Re storing force F
Longitudinal Stress = =
Area A

b) Shearing Stress:

If the deforming force causes a change in the shape of a body at constant volume, then
the restoring force per unit area is called shearing stress.

Re storing force F
Shearing Stress = =
Area A

c) Bulk Stress:

If the deforming force causes a change in volume of a body, then the restoring force per
unit area is called bulk or volume stress.

Re storing force F
Stress = =
Area A

5. Define strain and explain the types of strain?

A. Strain:

The change produced per unit dimension is called strain.

change in dimension
Strain =
original dimension

Types of Strain:

a) Longitudinal Strain:

When the deformation force is applied on a body along its length, then the ratio of
change in length of the body to its original length is called longitudinal (or) linear strain

Change in length ∆L
Longitudinal strain = =
Original length L

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b) Shearing Strain:

When deformation force is applied on a body along a tangential plane to cause the
change in the shape of the body, the strain obtained is called shearing strain. It is
defined as the ratio of the relative displacement between the two layer’s to the normal
distance between the two layers

In the figure 'θ ' is the measure of shearing strain

From the figure,

x x
Tan θ = ⇒θ =
L L

[∴ If θ is small, then tan θ = θ ]

c) Bulk Strain:

When deformation force applied on a body causes the change in its volume, then the
ratio of change in the volume of the body to its original volume is called volume strain
(or) bulk strain

Change in volume −∆V

Bulk strain = =
Original volume V

[Here negative sign indicates decrease in volume]

6. Define strain energy and derive the equation for the same.

A. Strain Energy:

The work done in deforming a body is stored as potential energy called strain energy.

1
Strain energy = × stress × strain × volume
2

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Derivation:

Let a deformation force ‘F’ is applied on a wire of length ‘L’ and area of cross section
YAx
‘A’. Let ‘x’ is the elongation produced. Then F=
L

The work done for the elongation dx is given by

YAx
dW = F.d x ⇒ dW = dx
L

The total work done for the elongation ‘x’ is given by

x x x
YAx YAx 2
∫ dW = ∫ dW =∫
0 0 0
L
dx ⇒ W =
2L

This work done will be stored in the form of strain energy

YAx 2
∴E =
2l

1 Yx x
Strain energy E= × × × AL
2 L L

1
Or E = × stress × strain × volume
2

7. Explain why steel is preferred to copper, brass, aluminium in heavy-duty machines

and in structural designs?

A. The Young’s modulus of steel is 2 × 1011 Nm −2 . But for copper, brass and aluminum,
these values are less than for steel. That is steel is more than that of copper, brass and
Aluminium .Hence steel is preferred to copper, brass, Aluminium in heavy-duty
machines and in structural designs.

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8. Describe the behavior of a wire under gradually increasing load.

A Behavior of a wire under increasing load:

A graph drawn by taking strain on x-axis and stress on y-axis is shown.

Proportionality Limit:

The maximum stress applied on the wire up to which Hooke’s law is obeyed is called
proportional limit .The point ‘A’ is called the proportional limit.

Sb D
B C
Stress

A E

O OI X
Strain

Elastic Limit:

Between A and B, the wire does not obey Hooke’s law.

The point ‘B’ is called Elastic limit.

Permanent Set:

If the wire is loaded beyond ‘B’, the wire deforms permanently. It is called permanent
set.

Yielding Point:

Beyond ‘C’, the extension in the wire increases rapidly without an increase in the load.
This is called yielding point.

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Breaking Point:

Beyond D the wire becomes thin and it finally breaks at ‘E’. At point ‘D’, the stress is
the ultimate tensile strength of given material.

9. Two identical balls, one ivory and the other of wet- clay are dropped from the
same height onto the floor. Which one will rise to a greater height after striking
the floor and why?

A. Let two identical balls, one ivory and the other of wet- clay are dropped from the same
height onto the floor. Ivory is more elastic than wet-clay. The ball which more elastic
will rise to a greater height. Hence Ivory ball will rise to a greater height.

10. While constructing buildings and bridges a pillar with distributed ends is

Preferred to a pillar with rounded ends why?

A. Use of pillars or columns is also very common in buildings and bridges. A pillar

With rounded ends as shown in figure (a) supports less load than that with a disturbed

Shape at the ends as shown in figure (b). The precise design of a bridge or a building has

To take into account the conditions under which it will function, the cost and long

Period, reliability of usable materials

(a ) (b )

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11. Explain why the maximum height of a mountain on earth is approximately 10km?

A: The maximum height of mountain on earth depends upon shear modulus of rock. At the
base of the mountain, the stress due to all the rock on the top should be less than the
critical shear stress at which the rock begins to flow. Suppose the height of the mountain
is h and the density of its rock is ρ . Then force per unit area (due to the weight of the
mountain) at the base = hρ g

The material at the experience this force per unit area in the vertical direction, but sides
of the mountain area free. Hence there is a tangential shear of the order of hρ g . The
elastic limit for a typical rock is about 3 ×108 Nm −2 and its density is 3 ×103 kgm −3

Hence hmax ρ g = 3 ×108

3 × 108 3 × 108
Or hmax = = = 10, 000m = 10km
ρg 3 × 103 × 9.8

This is more than the height of the Mount Everest.

12. Explain the concept of elastic potential energy in a stretched wire and hence obtain
the expression for it?

A. When a wire is stretched, the work done against the inter-atomic forces is stored as
elastic potential energy.

Derivation:

Let a deformation force ‘F’ is applied on a wire of length ‘L’ and area of cross section
YAx
‘A’. Let ‘x’ is the elongation produced. Then F=
L

The work done for the elongation dx is given by

YAx
dW = F.d x ⇒ dW = dx
L

The total work done for the elongation ‘x’ is given by

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x x x
YAx YAx 2
∫0 dW = ∫0 dW =∫0 L dx ⇒ W = 2 L

This work done will be stored in the form of strain energy

YAx 2
∴E =
2l

1 Yx x
Strain energy E= × × × AL
2 L L

1
Or E = × stress × strain × volume
2

Long Answer Questions

1. Define Hooke’s Law of Elasticity.

Describe the experiment to determine the Young’s modulus of the material of the
wire.

A. Hooke’s Law:

Within the elastic limit the stress on body is directly proportional to the strain produced
in it.

I.e. stress α strain

stress
E= where E is called modulus of elasticity.
strain

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Determination of Young’s Modulus:

Description:

Two metallic wires A and B of same length, same material and same radii are
suspended from a rigid support. The wire A is called reference Wire and the wire B is
called experimental Wire. The wire A carries a millimeter scale M and a pan to
place the weights. The wire B carries a pan in which unknown Weights are placed. A
vernier V is attached to a pointer at the bottom of the wire B and to the main scale.

Procedure:

The initial length ‘l’ and radius ‘r’ of wire B is measured. Both the wire are made
straight by putting same load on the pans. The Vernier reading is noted. Now the
experimental wire is loaded (M) and the Vernier reading is again noted. The difference
of these two readings gives the extension (e) of the wire. Vernier reading repeats the
same by adding loads to the weight hanger in regular steps and also by unloading .The
difference between the average of loading and unloading values and initial reading
gives the extension (e) of the wire. The Values are tabulated as below.

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M
Average value of =
e

Graph:

A graph is plotted between elongation (M) on x-axis and varying values of ‘e’ on y-
M
axis. is calculated from the graph.
e

The value of Young’s modulus can be determined by using the formula, Young’s
modulus of wire,

gl  M 
Y =
π r 2  e 

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Problems

1. A copper wire of 1 mm diameter is stretched by applying a force of 10 N. Find the

stress in the wire

Force F 10
A. Stress = = 2 = = 1.273 107 Nm–2
Area πr 22 -4 -4
×5×10 ×5×10
7

2. A tungsten wire of length 20 cm is stretched by 0.1 cm. Find the strain on the wire.

A. L = 20 cm; ∆ L = 0.1cm

∆ L 0.1
Strain = = = 5 x 10–3
L 20

3. If an iron wire is stretched by 1% what is the strain on the wire?

∆L 1
A: =
L 100

∴ Strain = 10–2

4. A brass wire of diameter 1mm and length 2m is stretched by applying a force of

20N. If the increase in length is 0.51mm find i) the stress ii) the strain and iii) the
young’s modulus of the wire?

A: d = 2r = 1mm ⇒ r = 0.5mm = 5 ×10−4 m ; L = 2m

F = 20N; ∆L = 0.51mm = 51×10−5 m

F F 20
i) Stress = = 2 = = 2.546 ×107 Nm−2
A πr 22
× (5 × 10−4 ) 2
7

∆L 51× 10−5
ii) Strain = = = 0.255 × 10−3 m
L 2

stress 2.546 × 107

iii) Young’s modulus, Y = = = 9.984 × 1010 Nm−2
strain 0.255 × 10−3

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5. A copper wire and an Aluminium wire have lengths in the ratio 3: 2, diameters in
the ratio 2: 3 and forces applied in the ratio 4: 5. Find the ratio of the increase in

length of the two wires? (YCu = 1.1 x 1011 N m–2 , YAl = 0.70 × 1011 N m–2 `)

A. L1 : L2 = 3 : 2 ; D1 : D2 = 2 : 3 ; Y1 = 1.11011 Nm–2 ; Y2 = 0.70 ×

1011 Nm–2

F1 : F2 = 4 : 5 r1 : r2 = 2 : 3

∆ L1 : ∆ L2 = ?

F L FL
Y= 2
⇒ ∆L=
πr ∆ L Yπr 2

∆ L1 F1 L1 r22 Y2 4 3 9 0.7 189

= = × × × =
∆ L 2 F2 L 2 r12 Y1 5 2 4 1.1 110

6. A brass wire of cross sectional area 2mm 2 is suspended from a rigid support and a
body of volume 100cm3 is attached to its other end. If the decreases in the length of
the wire is 0.11mm, when the body is completely immersed in water, find the
natural length of the wire (Ybrass = 0.91×1011 Nm−2 , ρ water = 103 kgm −3 )

A: A = 2mm 2 = 2 × 10−6 m 2 ; V = 100cm3 = 10 −4 m3

∆L = 0.11mm = 11× 10−5 m ; Yb = 0.91× 1011 Nm −2 , ρ w = 103 Kgm −3

FL MgL V ρ w gL
Using Yb = = =
A∆L A∆L A∆L

Yb A∆L 0.91× 1011 × 2 × 10−6 × 11× 10 −5

L= = = 2.043m
V ρ2 g 10−4 × 103 × 9.8

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7. There are two wires of same material. Their radii and lengths are both in the
ratio 1: 2. If the extensions produced are equal, what is the ratio of the loads?

A. r1 : r2 = 1 : 2 ; l1 : l2 = 1 : 2 ; e1 = e2 ; Y1 = Y2

Mg L
Y=
πr 2 e

M1 L r2 2 1 1
⇒ = 2 × 12 = × =
M2 L 1 r2 1 4 2

8. Two wires of different material have same lengths and areas of cross-section. What
is the ratio of their increase in length when forces applied are the same?
(Y1 = 0.9 × 1011 Nm −2 , Y2 = 3.6 ×1011 Nm −2 )

A: L1 = L2 = L ; A1 = A2 = A ; F1 = F2 = F ; Y1 = 0.90 × 1011 Nm −2

∆L1
Y2 = 3.6 × 1011 Nm −2 ; =?
∆L2

∆L1 F1 L1 A2Y2 Y2  FL 
= × = ∵ Y = A∆L 
∆L2 AY
1 1 F2 L2 Y1

∆L1 3.6 × 1011 4 ∆L1

= = ∴ = 4 :1
∆L2 0.9 × 1011 1 ∆L2

9. A metal wire of length 2.5 m and area of cross section 1.5 x 10–6 m2 is stretched

through 2 mm. If its Young’s modulus is 1.25 × 1011 Nm–2, find the tension in
the wire.

A. L = 2.5 m ; A = 1.5 x 10–6 m2 ; e = 2 mm = 2 × 10–3 m ; Y = 1.25 × 1011

Nm–2 F = ?

YAe 1.25 × 1011 ×1.5 × 10−6 × 2 × 10−3

F= = = 150 N
L 2.5

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10. An Aluminium wire and a steel wire of the same length and cross section are joined
end-to-end. The composite wire is hung from a rigid support and a load is
suspended ratio of the i) stress in the two wires and ii) strain in the two wires
(YAl = 0.7 × 1011 Nm −2 ; Ysteel = 2 × 1011 Nm −2 )

A: L1 = L2 = L ; A1 = A2 = A ; F1 = F2 = F ;

Y1 = 7 ×1010 Nm −2 ; Y2 = 2 × 1011 Nm −2 ;

∆L = ∆L1 + ∆L2 = 1.35mm

stress, S1 F1 A2 FA
i) = × = =1 ∴ S1 : S 2 = 1:1
stress, S 2 A1 F2 AF

∆L1 Y2 2 × 1011 20  FL 
ii) = = = ∵ ∆L = AY 
∆L2 Y1 7 × 1010 7

∴∆L1 ∆L2 = 20 : 7

11. A 2 cm cube of some substance has its upper face displaced by 0.15 cm, by a
tangential force of 0.30 N fixing its lower face. Calculate the rigidity modulus of
the substance?

Displacement in the upper surface 0.15

A. tan θ = =
distance between the layers 2

F
η=
A × Tan θ

F 0.3 × 2
η= = −4
= 104 Pa
A × Tan θ 4 ×10 × 0.15

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12. A spherical ball of volume 1000cm3 is subjected to a pressure of 10 atmosphere. The

change in volume is 10−2 cm3 . If the ball is made of iron, find its bulk modulus.
(1 atmosphere = 1×105 Nm−2 )

A: V = 1000cm3 = 10 −3 m3 ; P = 10atm = 10 × 105 Nm −2

= 106 Nm −2 ; ∆V = 10−2 cm3 = 10 −8 m3

PV 10 × 105 × 10−3
K= = = 1×1011 Nm−2
∆V 10 −8

3. A copper cube of side of length 1cm is subjected to a pressure of 100 atmosphere.

Find the change in its volume if the bulk modulus of copper is 1.4 ×1011 m −2 .
(1atm = 1× 105 Nm −2 )

A: L = 1cm = 1× 10 −2 m ; ⇒ V = L3 = 10 −6 m3 ; P = 100atm

= 100 × 105 Nm −2 ; K = 1.4 × 1011 Nm −2

PV 100 × 105 × 10−6

∆V = = = 0.7143 × 10 −10 m3
K 1.4 × 1011

14. Determine the pressure required to reduce the given volume of water by 2%. Bulk

modulus of water is 2.2 x 109 N m–2?

∆V 2
A. K = 2.2 ×109 Nm −2 ; = 2% =
V 100

∆V
P=K = 2.2 x 109= 4.4 x 107 Nm–2
V

15. A steel wire of length 20cm is stretched to increase its length by 0.2cm. Find the
lateral strain in the wire if the poisson’s ratio for steel is 0.19?

A: L = 20cm = 2 ×10 −1 m ; ∆L = 0.2cm = 2 ×10 −3 m ;

σ = 0.19

1
Lateral strain = σ × longitudinal strain = 0.19 × = 0.0019 .
100
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Important Points:
1. Buoyancy:

Whenever a body is immersed in a liquid partly (or) wholly, it experiences an upward force
called buoyant force (or) buoyancy.

2. A body of volume v density d1 is fully immersed in a liquid of density d2 then

Apparent weight = True weight – up thrust

= vd3g – vd1g

 d   d 
w′ = w 1 − l  = vd B g 1 − l 
 dB   dB 

3. Stream Line Flow:

a) Every particle of the liquid follows the path of its preceding one.

b) The mass of the liquid entering the tube is equal to that of leaving the tube.

c) No radial flow.

4. Turbulent Flow:

The velocity of the particle crossing any particular point of the liquid is not constant in both
magnitude and in direction.

5. Critical Velocity:

The velocity of the liquid below which the flow becomes streamline is called critical velocity.

Kη
Critical velocity (Vc) =
ρd

ρ – Density of the liquid

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d – Diameter of the pipe

If K < 1000, the flow is streamline.

If K > 3000 the flow is turbulent

If K is in between 1000 and 3000 the flow is unsteady.

6. Viscosity:

The property of a fluid by virtue of which it opposes the relative motion between its different
layers is called viscosity.

7. Co-Efficient of Viscosity (h):

Co-efficient of viscosity is defined as the tangential force between two layers of a liquid of
unit surface area and unit velocity gradient.

dv
F = -η A
dx

dv
Velocity gradient = sec-1
dx

η Is called the co-efficient of viscosity

8. Units of η :

CGS: dy sec/cm2 or poise

MKS: Ns/m2 or poiseuille

1 poise = 0.1 N.S/m2

1 deca poise = 10 poise

9. Viscous force is electromagnetic in nature.

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10. Poiseuille’s equation is given by

π Pr 4
V=
8η L

Where

V = Volume of liquid following per sec.

P = Pressure difference between the ends of the capillary tube.

L = Length of the capillary tube

r = Radius of capillary tube.

11. Equation of Continuity:

When a non-viscous liquid flows steadily through a tube of uniform bore the product
of area of cross section and the velocity of the flow is same at every cross-section of the tube.

Mass flux = Avd = const.

Volume flux = AV = const.

12. Stoke’s Formula:

a) Stoke’s formula for viscous force is given by

F = 6πη r V
t

Where F = Viscous force, V = terminal velocity

t

2 r2
b) V = (ρ − σ ) g
T 9η

Where

ρ = density of solid

σ = density of liquid

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13. Bernoulli’s Theorem:

When a non-viscous incompressible fluid flows between two points, then the sum of
pressure energy, PE and KE per unit volume of the liquid is constant.

PV + mgh + ½ mv2 = constant.

Per unit volume, P + dhg + ½ dv2 = const

p 1
Per unit mass, + gh + v 2 = constant.
d 2

Ex: Spinning motion of a cricket ball (Magnus Effect), Aerodynamic lift,

Atomizer etc.

14. Torricelli’s Theorem:

The speed of a liquid coming out of a hole at a depth ‘h’ below the surface of a liquid is same
as that of a particle fallen through the height ‘h’ under gravity. This is called Torricelli
Theorem.

Velocity of efflux V = 2 gh

15. Surface Tension:

The force acting on the surface of the liquid per unit length on its either side is called surface
tension.

Force( F )
T=
length(l )

Unit : N/m

Dimensional formula : M 1L0T −2

16. Surface Energy:

The potential energy per unit area of the surface film is called surface energy

W =T (A2 – A1)

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17. Angle of Contact:

The angle between the tangent to the liquid surface at point of contact and the solid surface
inside the liquid is known as angle of contact.

18. Wetting agents decrease the angle of contact below 90°.

Ex: detergents.

19. Non-wetting agents (water proofing) increase the angle of contact above 90°.Ex: rain
coats.

20. Capillarity:-

The rise (or) fall of liquid in a capillary tube is called Capillarity.

21. Importance in Daily Life:-

a) Ink absorbed by paper

b) Water soaked by plant

c) Oil raised in wick of a lamp

d) Water absorbed by towel

22. Formula to determine surface tension by capillarity method.

hrdg
T=
2 cos θ

h = capillary height.

r = radius of bore

d = density of liquid

θ = Angle of contact.

4T
23. Excess pressure inside a soap bubble P =
R

Where ‘R’ is the radius of the bubble

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2T
24. Excess pressure inside a liquid drop P =
R

Where ‘R’ is the radius of the drop

Very Short Answer Questions

1. Define average pressure. Mention its units and dimensional formula. Is it a scalar or
vector?
A. Average Pressure:
The normal force exerted by fluid at rest per unit area of the surface in contact with it, is called
average pressure of liquid.
If F be the normal force acting on a surface of area A in contact with fluid ,then pressure
exerted by liquid on this surface is P = F/A
Units: N/m2 or Pascal (S.I.)
Dimension: P = [ ML−1T −2 ]

2. Define co-efficient of viscosity. What are its units and dimensions?

A. Viscosity:

The property of a fluid by virtue of which one layer of fluid opposes the relative motion of the
other is called viscosity.

Coefficient of Viscosity:

Definition:

The coefficient of viscosity of a liquid is the tangential viscous force per unit area per unit
velocity gradient normal to the direction of flow.

Units: SI : N .Sm−2 ( or ) Pa.S

CGS: Poiseulli

-1 -1
Dimensional formula: ML T
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3. What is the principle behind the carburetor of an automobile?

A. The working of carburetor of an automobile is based on Bernoulli’s theorem. The carburetor of

an automobile has a venture channel (nozzle) through which air flows with a large speed. The
pressure is then lowered at the narrow neck and the petrol is sucked up in the chamber to
provide the correct mixture of air fuel necessary for combustion.

4. What is Magnus Effect?

A. Magnus effect:
When a sphere or cylinder moves in still air while spinning about an axis perpendicular to the
direction of its motion, its curved path is more curved than when it is moving without
spinning. This is called Magnus effect.

5. Why are drops and bubbles are spherical?

A. For a given volume, sphere has minimum surface area due to surface tension. Hence small rain
drops are spherical in nature. Similarly bubbles are also spherical.

6. Give an expression for the excess pressure in a liquid drop?

2T
A. Excess pressure in a liquid drop P =
r

Where T = Surface tension and r = radius of drop.

7. Give an expression for the excess pressure in an air bubble inside the liquid?

2T
A. Excess pressure in an air bubble inside the liquid P =
r

Where T = Surface tension and r = radius of air bubble.

8. Give an expression for the excess pressure for the soap bubble?

4T
A. Excess pressure inside a soap bubble in air P =
r

Where T = Surface tension and r = radius of soap bubble.

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9. What are water proofing agents and water wetting agents? What do they do?

A. Water Proofing Agents:

Water proofing agents increase the angle of contact above 90°. It doesn’t wet the solid.

Wetting Agents:

Wetting agents decrease the angle of contact below 90°. These are used in detergents to clean
the clothes.

10. What is Angle of Contact?

A. Angle of Contact:

The angle made by the tangent drawn to the surface of the liquid at the point of contact of the
liquid with the solid surface, measured inside the liquid is known as the angle of contact.

11. Mention any two examples that obey Bernoulli's theorem and. justify them.
A. Applications:
1) Dynamic lift on aeroplane wing:
The aeroplane wing (or) airfoil is more curved at the top. Hence velocity is more and pressure
is less at the top. At bottom velocity is less. Hence pressure is more at bottom. Due to this
pressure difference aeroplane experiences a dynamic lift.
2) Magnus effect.
When a sphere or cylinder moves in still air while spinning about an axis perpendicular to the
direction of its motion, its curved path is more curved than when it is moving without
spinning. This is called Magnus effect.

12. When water flows through a pipe, which of the layers moves fastest and slowest?
A. The water layer which moves along the axis of the pipe is fastest. The water layer which is in
contact with the pipe moves slowest.

13. "Terminal velocity is more if surface area of the body is more" Give reasons in support
of your answer?
2 r g ( ρ-ρ o )
2
A. According to stokes’s law, the terminal velocity Vt is given by Vt =
9 η

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Where r = radius of the spherical body

η = coefficient of viscosity
g = Acceleration due to gravity
ρ = Density of the falling spherical body

ρ o = Density of the fluid through which the spherical body is travelling

Hence if Terminal velocity is more if surface area of the body is more.

Short Answer Questions

1. What is atmospheric pressure and how is it determined using barometer?

A: The envelope of gases surrounding the earth is called atmosphere. The pressure exerted by the
atmosphere on the earth’s surface is called atmosphere pressure.

The atmospheric pressure at any point is numerically equal to the weight of a column of air of
unit cross sectional area extending from that point to the top of the atmosphere

Barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure. It consists of a long glass tube filled with
mercury and then inverted in thought of mercury to stand vertically as shown in figure. The
space above the mercury column in the tube is almost except for negligible mercury vapours.
This space is called Torricelli vacuum.

The pressure inside the column at point A must be equal to the pressure at point B which is at
the same level. Pressure at B = atmospheric pressure = Pa

Pa = ρ gh = pressure at A

Where ρ is the density of mercury and h is the height of the mercury column in the tube.

In the experiment it is found that the mercury column in the barometer has a height of about
76cm at sea level equivalent to one atmosphere.
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2. What is gauge pressure and how is a manometer used for measuring pressure
differences?

A. Gauge Pressure:

The pressure difference of between the two points separated by a depth h is known as gauge
pressure.

Manometer:

A manometer consists of a U-shaped tube filled with mercury for measuring a high gauge
pressure or with light density liquid to measure low gauge pressure. One end of the tube is
open while the other end is connected to the system whose pressure is to be measured. The
pressure P at A is equal to pressure at point B. Let P be the absolute pressure and Pa be the
atmospheric pressure, then P − Pa gives gauge pressure

Pa

P
h2

h1

A B

P + h1 ρ g = Pa + h2 ρ g ⇒ P − Pa = (h2 − h1 ) ρ g = h ρ g

P = absolute pressure, Pa = atmospheric pressure.

3. State Pascal’s law and verify it with the help of an experiment?

A. Pascal’s Law:

The pressure in a fluid at rest is same at all points if they are at the same height.

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Verification:

Consider a very small element in the form of a right angled prism ABCDEF placed inside a
fluid at rest. As the element is very small every part of it can be considered at the same depth
from the liquid surface. The force exerted by the fluid at rest on the element has to be
perpendicular to its surfaces. Thus the fluid exerts pressures Pa, Pb and Pc on this element of

area corresponding to the normal forces Fa, Fb and Fc as shown in the figure BEFC, ADFC

and ADEB denoted by Aa, Ab and Ac respectively. Then

D
Fb
A

Fc
F Fa
θ
B C

Fb sin θ = Fc ; Fb cos θ = Fa (By equilibrium)

Ab sin θ = Ac ; Ab cos θ = Aa (By geometry)

Fa Fb Fc
Hence = = ⇒ Pa = Pb = Pc
Aa Ab Ac

Hence pressure exerted is same in all directions in a fluid at rest.

4. Explain hydraulic lift and hydraulic brakes?

A. Pascal’s Law:

An external pressure is applied on any part of a fluid contained in a vessel is transmitted

undiminished and equally in all directions.

1) Hydraulic Lift:

It consists of two pistons of unequal cross sectional areas separated by the space filled with a
liquid. A piston of small cross section A1 is used to exert a force F1 directly on the liquid .The

pressure developed due to this P = F1/A1 is transmitted through out the liquid.

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The larger piston of area A2 experiences an upward force of P x A2. Hence the piston is

capable of supporting a large force F2= PA2 = F1 A2/A1. By changing the force at A1 the

platform can be moved up or down. Thus the applied force has been increased by a factor of
A2/A1 this factor is called mechanical advantage of the device.

F1

A1 A2

F2

2) Hydraulic Brake:

When a brake pedal is pressed with foot, the lever system works. Piston is pushed into the
master cylinder. The pressure developed is transmitted through the brake oil to act on a piston
of larger area. A large force acts on the piston and is pushed down expanding the brakes shoes
against brake lining. Thus a small force on the pedal produces a large retarding force on the
wheel.

5. What is hydrostatic paradox?

A:

Consider three vessels A, B and C of different shapes as shown in figure. All these vessels
have the same area of base and all of them are filled with water to the same depth. The
pressure at the base of each vessel is same regard less of the shapes of the vessels pressure
directly proportional to depth and by applying Pascal’s law it can be seen that pressure is
independent of the size and shape of containing vessel. This is quite puzzling and contradictory
to common sense because the three vessels are of different shapes and hold different amounts
of water this is known as hydrostatics paradox.

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6. Explain how pressure varies with depth?

A: Consider a liquid of density ρ contained in a vessel as shown in figure. To calculate the

pressure different between two points P and Q separated by a vertical distance ‘h’. Consider an
imaginary cylinder of liquid of cross sectional area A, such that point P and Q lie on its upper
and lower circular faces respectively.

As the fluid is at rest the resultant horizontal forces should be zero and the resultant vertical
forces should balance the weight of the imaginary cylinder. The forces acting in the vertical
direction are due to the fluid pressure at the top ( P1 A) acting downward, at the bottom ( P2 A)
acting upward.

∴ P2 A − P1 A = mg = ( Ah) ρ g (Since mass = (vol) density m = Ah ρ g )

Where ρ is the density of the fluid ⇒ P2 = P2 = ρ gh

This equation gives the different of pressure between the point P and Q when the effect of
gravity is considered

If the point P lies at the surface of the liquid and the point Q is at a depth ‘h’ below it. Then
pressure at P is P1 = Pa

Where Pa is atmospheric pressure. Pressure at Q, P2 = Pa + hρ g

∴ Pressure exerted by a column of liquid of depth ‘h’ is P = P2 − P1 = h ρ g

7. What is Torricelli’s law? Explain how the speed of efflux is determined with an
experiment?

A: Toricelli’s law (or) Law of efflux: The velocity of efflux of a liquid through an orifice is equal
to velocity acquired by the body in falling freely from the free surface of a liquid to the orifice.
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Consider a liquid of density ρ in a tank up to point Y and orifice (hole) is located at point X
which is a depth h from the free surface of liquid

If A1 , A2 and V1 , V2 are the areas of cross section and velocities of liquid at points X and Y then.
According to equation of continuity

 A1 
1 1 = A2V2 , V2 = 
AV  V1 since A2 >> A1 velocity of liquid at the top can be taken as at rest V2 = 0
 A2 

At point XP1 = atmospheric pressure Pa ; h1 = h1 ; V1 = V1

At point YR2 = P h2 = h2 ; V2 = 0

1
Using Bernoulli’s theorem Pa + ρV12 + ρ gh1 = P + ρ gh2 (since h2 − h1 = h )
2

2( P − pa )
V1 = 2 gh +
ρ

If the tank is open to atmosphere then P = Pa

Then velocity of efflux = V1 = 2 gh

8. What is Venturimeter? Explain how it is used?

A. Venturimeter:

It is used for measuring the rate of flow of liquid through pipes. It is based on Bernoulli’s
theorem.

It consists of two identical coaxial tubes A and C connected by a narrow co-axial tube B. Two
vertical tubes D and E are mounted on the tubes A and B to measure the pressure of the flowing
liquid.
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When the liquid flows in the tube ABC, the velocity of flow in part B will be larger than in
the tube A or C. So the pressure in part B will be less than that in tube A or C.

Let a1 and a2 are area of cross section of tube A and B respectively.

v1 , v2 = Velocity of flow of liquid through A and B respectively.

P1 , P2 = Liquid pressure at A and B respectively.

∴ P1 − P2 = h ρ g …(i) [ ρ = density of flowing liquid]

From Bernoulli’s theorem for horizontal flow of liquid.

1 1
P1 + ρ v12 = P2 + ρ v22
2 2

1
P1 − P2 = ρ (v22 − v12 )
2

1 1 V 2 V 2 
From (i) and (ii) hρ g = ρ (v2 − v1 ) = ρ  2 − 2 
2 2
[∵V = a1v1 = a2 v2 ]
2 2  a2 a1 

2a12 a22 hg 2hg

∴V 2 = Or V = a1a2 2 2
a1 − a2
2 2
a1 − a2

9. What is Reynolds number? What is its significance?

A. Reynolds Number:

It is defined as the ratio of the inertial force per unit area to the viscous force per unit
area for a flowing fluid.

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Inertial force per unit area

NR =
Viscous force per unit area

If a liquid of density ρ is flowing through a tube of radius r and cross section A then
dm
mass of liquid flowing through the tube per second = volume flowing per second ×
dt
density = Av × ρ

dp / dt v(dm / dt ) vAv ρ
Inertial force per unit area = = = = v2 ρ
A A A

ηv
Viscous force per unit area F / A =
r

So by the definition of Reynolds number

Inertial force per unit area v 2 ρ vρ r

NR = = =
Viscous force per unit area η v / r η

Value of Reynold’s Number:

(i) 0 to 1000 - Streamline Flow.

(ii) 1000 to 3000 - Flow Is Unstable

(iii) Above 3000 - Turbulent flow.

10. Explain dynamic lift with examples.

A. Dynamic Lift:

The force that acts on a body by virtue of its motion through a fluid is called Dynamic Lift.

Examples:

1. Aerodynamic Lift:

Aeroplane wings are so designed that the velocity of air flow above the wing is higher than
the velocity of air flow under the wing. According to Bernoulli’s

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Principle, this difference of air speeds, creates pressure difference, due to which an upward
force called “dynamic lift” acts on the plane.

Dynamic lift = pressure difference x area of the wing

1
= (P2-P1) x A = ρ V22 − V12  xA
2

v large, P small

v small, P large

2. Magnus Effect:

The deviation of spinning cricket ball from its usual path is called Magnus effect.

If the cricket ball is moving from left to right and also spinning about a horizontal axis
perpendicular to the direction of motion, then relative to the ball air will be moving from right
to left. The resultant velocity of air above the ball will be v + rw while below it

v - rw. Hence according to Bernoulli’s principle pressure above the ball will be less than below
it.

Due to this pressure difference the ball experiences an upward force called “dynamic lift”.

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11. Explain Surface Tension and surface energy?

A. Surface Tension:

The tangential force acting per unit length on either side of an imaginary line drawn on the
liquid surface is called Surface Tension.

Force( F )
SurfaceTension =
Length( L)

Surface Energy:

The work done to increase the surface area of the liquid film by unit amount is called surface
W
energy. W =T (A2 – A1) or T= J/m2
A

12. Explain how surface tension can be measured experimentally?

A: Surface tension can be measured directly by using an apparatus as shown in figure. A common
balance is taken such that one arm of the balance is attached to the a flat vertical glass plate,
below which a vessel of some liquid is kept. The plate is balanced by weight on the other side
with horizontal edge just over liquid just touches the glass plate and pulls it down a little due to
surface tension. Weights are added till the plate just clears the liquid. Suppose the additional
weight (W = Mg) is required to pull the plate from the liquid then

W Mg
(2l ) S = W = mg ⇒ S = =
2l 2l

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Long Answer Questions

1. State Bernoulli's principle. From conservation of energy in a fluid flow through a tube,
derive Bernoulli's equation. Give an application of derive Bernoulli's theorem?

A. Statement:

When a no viscous, irrotational and incompressible fluid flows steadily, the sum of the
pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy per unit volume remains constant at all
points in the path of the flow.

1 2
P + ρ gh + ρ v = cons tan t
2

Proof:

Consider a steady, non viscous and incompressible flow of a fluid of density ' ρ ‘through a tube
as shown. Let v1 , P1 and A be the velocity, pressure and area of cross section at first end. Let
1
v2 , P2 and A be the corresponding values at second end
2

 F ds 
The amount of work done is W = F .ds = PA ( v dt ) ∵ P = and v = 
 A dt 

Work done by the fluid on the tube at first end is W1 = P1 A1v1 ( dt )

Work done on the fluid by the tube at second end is W = F .ds = PA ( v dt )

Net work done due to pressure difference (or) pressure energy

= W1 − W2

= P1 A1v1 ( dt ) − P2 A2 v2 ( dt )

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The net potential energy of the system = mgh1 − mgh2

The total work done due to pressure difference and height difference is

W= Pressure energy + P.E

W = P1 A1v1 ( dt ) − P1 A2v2 ( dt ) + mgh1 − mgh2 → (1)

1 2 1 2
According to work- energy theorem, W= mv2 − mv1 → (2)
2 2

From equations (1) & (2)

1 2 1 2
P1 A1v1 ( dt ) − P2 A2 v2 ( dt ) + mgh1 − mgh2 = mv2 − mv1
2 2
1 1
P1 A1v1 ( dt ) + mgh1 + mv12 = P2 A2 v2 ( dt ) + mgh2 + mv22
2 2

Divide with 'm' on both sides.

P1 A1v1 ( dt ) 1 P A v ( dt ) 1
+ gh1 + v12 = 2 2 2 + gh2 + v22
m 2 m 2

But m = ρ1 A1v1 ( dt1 ) = ρ2 A2v2 ( dt2 )

P1 1 P 1
+ gh1 + v12 = 2 + gh2 + v22
ρ1 2 ρ2 2

P 1
+ gh + v 2 = cons tan t
ρ 2

This equation is known as Bernoulli's equation.

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Application:

Aerodynamic Lift:

Aeroplane wings are so designed that the velocity of air flow above the wing is higher than
the velocity of air flow under the wing. According to Bernoulli’s

Principle, this difference of air speeds, creates pressure difference, due to which an upward
force called “dynamic lift” acts on the plane.

Dynamic lift = pressure difference x area of the wing

1
= (P2-P1) x A = ρ V22 − V12  xA
2

v large, P small

v small, P large

2. Define coefficient of viscosity. Explain Stokes law and explain the conditions under
which a rain drop attains terminal velocity. Give the expression for vt .

A. Coefficient of Viscosity (η ):

It is defined as the tangential viscous force acting per unit area per unit velocity gradient.

F Force
η= =
 ∆v  Area × Velocity gradient
A 
 ∆x 

Stroke’s Formula:

The viscous force of high viscous liquids like castor oil, glycerin is given by
Fv = 6πη rv

Where r is the radius of the spherical body

η = coefficient of viscosity.

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VT = the velocity of the body.

Terminal Velocity:

The constant velocity acquired by body after falling through a long column of a fluid is called
the terminal velocity.

Condition for Terminal Velocity:

Consider a spherical body of radius r and density ρ falling through a fluid of density. The
forces acting on the body are

4 3
i) Weight W = mg = π r ρ g (Downwards)
3

ii) Viscous force ( Fv ) = 6πη rv (Upwards)

4
iii) Buoyant force FB = π r 3σ g (Upwards)
3

If ' vt ' is the terminal velocity of the body, then W = Fv + FB

4 3 4
Or π r ρ g = π r 3σ g + 6πη rvt
3 3

4 3
Or π r ( ρ − σ ) g = 6πη rvt
3

2 r g ( ρ −σ )
2

∴ vt =
9 η

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Problems

1. Calculate the work done, in blowing a soap bubble of diameter 0.6 cm against the surface

tension forces. Surface Tension of soap solution is equal to 2.5 x 10-2 N/m?

A: D = 0.6 cm, r = 0.3 cm =0.3 x 10-2 m, T = 2.5 x 10-2 N/m

Work Done

= 2 X 2.5 X 10-2 X 4× 3.14 X (0.3 X 10-2)2 = 5.65 X 10-6 J

2. How high does methyl alcohol rise in a glass tube of diameter 0.06cm? (Surface tension of
methyl alcohol = 0.023Nm−1 and density = 0.8gmcm −3 . Assume that the angle of contact is
zero)

A: Diameter of glass tube = D = 0.06cm = 0.06 × 10−2 m

Radius of glass tube = a = 0.03 × 10−2 m

Surface tension = S = 0.023Nm −1

Density = ρ = 0.8 gm / cm3 = 0.8 × 103 kg / m3

2S 2 × 0.023
Capillary rise = h = = = 0.029m = 2.9cm
ρ ga 0.8 × 10 × 9.8 × 0.03 × 10−2
3

3. What should be the radius of a capillary tube if the water has to rise to a height of 6 cm

(
in it? Surface tension of water is 7.2 X 10−2 N / m. g = 10m / sec 2 , d = 103 kg / m3 )
A: h = 6cm = 6 X 10−2 m , T = 7.2 X 10−2 N / m , θ = 00 , d = 1000 kg/m3 , r=?

hrdg 2T 2 X 7.2 X 10−2

T= ⇒ r= = = 0.24 mm
2 hdg 6 X 10−2 X 1000 X 10

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4. Find the depression of the meniscus in the capillary tube when a capillary tube of
diameter 0.4 mm is dipped in a beaker containing mercury. Density of mercury is 13.6 X

103 kg/m3. Angle of contact is 1300 and surface tension of mercury is 0.49 N/m

(g = 9.8 m/sec2)

A: D = 0.4 mm = 0.4 X 10-3 m, r = 0.2 X 10-3 m,

d = 13.6 X 103 kg/m3, ,cos (130) = - 0.6428

T = 0.49 N/m, h = ?

hrdg 2T cos θ 2 X 0.49 (−0.6428)

T= ⇒ h= = ⇒ h = −0.024 m
2 cos θ rdg 0.2 X 10−3 X 13.6 X 103 X 9.8

5. If the diameter of a soap bubbles 10mm and its surface tension is 0.04Nm −1 , find the
excess pressure inside the bubble?

A: Diameter of soap bubble = D = 10mm = 10 ×10−3 m

Radius of soap bubble = a = 5 × 10−3 m

Surface tension = S = 0.04 Nm −1

4 S 4 × 0.04
Excess pressure inside the bubble = = = 0.032 Pa
a 5 × 10 −3

6. If the work done by an agent to form a bubble of radius R is W, then how much energy is
required to increase its radius to 2 R?

A: R1 = R , R2 = 2 R

W1 = W , W2 = ? , W2 − W1 = ?

1
W = 4π R 2T (n 3
− 1) ⇒ W ∝ R 2

2 2
W1  R1  R 
=   ⇒ W2 =  2  W1
W2  R2   R1 

W2 = 4W ⇒ W2 − W1 = 4W − W = 3W

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7. If two soap bubbles have radii R1 and R2 in vacuum. If they coalesce under isothermal

conditions, what is the new radius of the bubble. If T is surface tension of the soap
solution?

4T 4 4T 4 4T 4
A: 1 1 + PV
PV 2 2 = PV ⇒ π R13 + π R23 = π R3 ⇒ R 2 = R12 + R22 ⇒ R = R12 + R22
R1 3 R2 3 R 3

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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Important Points:

1. Heat is a form of energy which has capacity to do the work.

Unit: SI - Joule

C. G. S - Calorie

1 cal = 4.2 J

2. Temperature is degree of hotness or coldness in a body which determines direction of

flow of heat.

F − 32 C − 0 K − 273
3. = =
180 100 100

4. Co-Efficient of linear Expansion:

The ratio of increase in length of a metal rod per rise in temperature to its original length is
called linear co-efficient of expansion ( α ).

(l 2 − l 1 )
α= / 0C.
l1 (t2 − t1 )

5. Co-Efficient of Areal Expansion:

The ratio of increase in area of metal plate per rise in temperature to its original area is called
co-efficient of Areal expansion ( β ).

(a 2 − a 1 )
β= / 0C.
a1 (t2 − t1 )

6. Co-Efficient Volume Expansion:

The ratio of increase in volume of metal cube per rise in temperature to its original volume is
called co-efficient of volume expansion ( γ ).
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γ=
( V2 − V1 ) / 0C.
V1 ( t 2 − t1 )

7. Relation Between α .β and γ

α : β :γ = 1: 2 : 3

8. Variation of Density of with Temperature:

As temperature increases, density decreases.

d0 = dt (1 + γ t)

d0 and dt are densities at 00C and t0C respectively.

γ Co-efficient of volume expansion

9. Platinum is used to seal with glass due to same co-efficient of linear expansion.

10. If two rods of different materials have the same difference between their lengths (X) at all
temperatures.

l1α1 = l2α 2

X α2 X α1
l1 = , l2 =
α1 ~ α 2 α1 ~ α 2

11. Invar steel (steel + nickel) has very low α . So it is used in making pendulum clocks,
balancing wheels and measuring tapes.

12. Linear and a real expansion have no significance for a liquid since shape of liquid depends on
shape of vessel.

13. Anomalous Expansion of Water:

When water at 0°C is heated, its volume decreases up to 4°C and from 4°C its
volume increases with the increase of temperature. This peculiar behavior of water is
called anomalous expansion of water.

14. Water has maximum density and minimum volume at 4°C (or) 277 K

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15. Anomalous expansion of water can be demonstrated with Hopes apparatus (or) Dilatometer.

16. Volume Co-Efficient of a Gas ( α ):

The ratio of increase in volume of a gas per degree rise of the temperature to the volume at

00C at constant pressure is called Volume Coefficient

vt − v0 v −v
α= Or α = 2 1
v0t v1t2 − v2t1

17. Pressure Co-Efficient of a Gas ( β ) :

The ratio of increase in pressure of a gas per degree rise of temperature to its pressure at 00C
at constant volume is called Pressure Co-Efficient.

pt − p0 p −p
β= Or β = 2 1 .
p0t p1t2 − p2t1

18. Relation Between α and β

1
For all gases α = β = = 0.00367 / 0 C
273.15

19. Boyle’s Law:

At constant temperature, the pressure of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its
volume.

1
P∝ or PV = k (T = constant)
V

At high temperature and low pressure gases obey Boyle’s law.

20. Charles’s -I Law:

At constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of gas is proportional to absolute

temperature.

V V V
= constant ⇒ 1 = 2
T T1 T2

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21. Charles’s -II Law:

At constant volume, the pressure of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature.

P P1 P2
= constant ( or ) =
T T1 T 2

22. Real Gas:

The gas which obeys gas laws at high temperature and low pressure is called a Real Gas.

23. Ideal gas Equations:

PV
=R
T

Where P is the pressure, V is the volume of 1gram mole of a gas, T is the absolute temperature
and R is the universal gas constant.

R = 8.31 Joule /gm/K = 2 cal/gm/mole/K

PV PV
24. From gas equation 1 1
= 2 2
T1 T2

25. Boltzmann’s Constant:

R
K = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K and K = K =
N

Where N = 6.02 x 1023 molecules per mole. N is the Avogadro’s number.

26. Absolute Zero:

It is the temperature at which the volume of a gas becomes zero at constant pressure (or)
pressure becomes zero at constant volume.

27. Specific Heat:

The quantity of heat required to rise the temperature of unit mass of a substance through 10 C is
called Specific Heat ‘c’

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1 dQ
c= .
m dt

Units: S.I.: J kg K

C. G. S: Cal 0
C
gm

Dimensional formula: L2T −2 K −1

28. Latent Heat:

The amount of heat required by unit mass of a substance to change its state at constant
temperature is called Latent Heat (L)

Q=mL

Units : S.I.: J/kg

C. G. S : cal/ gm

Dimensional formula ∴ L2T −2

29. Latent heat of fusion of Ice:

The quantity of heat required to change the state of 1gram of ice into water at is called
Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice.

Lice = 80cal / gm

Lice = 0.336 × 106 J / kg

30. Latent heat of Steam:

The quantity of heat required to change the state of 1gram of water into steam at 1000 C is
called Latent Heat of Steam.

Lsteam = 540cal / gm

Lsteam = 2.268 × 106 J / kg

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31. Co-Efficient of Thermal Conductivity:

a) At steady state the quantity of heat Q flowing through a metal rod of l length and cross-
section A in a time t when its ends are at temperature θ1 and θ 2 (θ1 > θ 2 ) is given by

KA ( θ1 − θ2 )
Q= t
l

Where K is coefficient of thermal conductivity

b) K depends on the nature of the metal.

c) It is defined as the rate of flow of heat per unit area and per unit temperature
gradient in steady state.

d) Junction Temperature:

In steady state,

θ=
( K1θ1 + K 2 θ2 )
( K1 + K 2 )

32. Thermal Resistance:

Thermal resistance R of a conductor of length, cross-section A and conductivity K is given by

l
R=
KA

33. Radiation:

The process of transfer of heat that takes place without the help of the intervening medium is
called Radiation.
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Ex. Heat received by the earth from the sun.

34. Black Body:

A body completely absorbing the radiation of all wavelengths falling on it is called a black
body.

35. Emissive Power:

a) The amount of energy emitted per second per unit surface area of a body at a given
temperature for a given wavelength range is called emissive power.

b) At a given temperature if the radiations emitted have a wave length difference, then the
emissive power is equal to eλ d λ .

c) Unit -Wm-2

D.F. - MT-3

36. Emissivity (e):

a) The ratio of radiant energy emitted by a surface to radiant energy emitted by a black
body under same conditions is called Emissivity.

b) For a perfect black body emissivity e = 1.

37. Absorptive Power (aλ ) :

a) At a given temperature, for a given wavelength range, the ratio of energy absorbed to the
energy incident on the body is absorptive power.

Amount of radiant energy absorbed

aλ =
Amount of radiant energy incident

b) For a perfect black body, the absorptive power, aλ = 1 .

38. Prevost theory of heat Exchange:

a) Every object emits and absorbs radiant energy at all temperatures except at absolute zero.

b) The rate of emission increases with the increase in the temperature of the body.

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c) If the body emits more radiant energy. Than absorbed, its temperature decreases.

d) If the body absorbs more radiant energy than it emits, its temperature increases.

39. Kirchhoff’s Laws:

a) At a given temperature, for a given wave length range, the ratio of emissive power to
absorptive power of a substance is constant.

b) This constant is equal to the emissive power of a perfect black body at the given
temperature and wavelength.

eλ
i.e. =const = Eλ ,
aλ

Where ‘ Eλ ’is the emissive power of perfect black body. ‘ eλ ’ And ‘ aλ ’ are emissive and
absorptive powers of a given substance respectively.

c) Good absorbers are good emitters.

40. Stefan’s Law:

The amount of heat radiated by a black body per second per unit area is directly proportional
to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.

E ∝T4 ⇒ E =σ T4.

Where

σ = Stefan’s constant

= 5.67 ×10−8Wm −2 K −4

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41. Stefan - Boltzmann’s Law:

a) If a black body at absolute temperature T is surrounded by an enclosure at absolute

temperature To , then the rate of loss of heat energy by radiation per unit area is given by.

E = σ (T 4 − T0 4 )

b) For any hot body, E = σ Ae(T 4 − T0 4 )

Where ‘e’ is the emissive power and ‘A’ is the area of cross-section of the hot body

42. Newton’s Law of Cooling:

The rate of cooling of a hot body is directly proportional to the excess mean of temperature
of the body above the surroundings, when the difference in temperature of the body and
that of surroundings is small.

dθ  θ1 + θ 2 
α − θ0 
dt  2 

θ1 ,θ 2 are the initial and final temperatures of the body respectively. θ0 is temperature of
surroundings .

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Very Short Answer Questions

1. Distinguish between heat and temperature?

A.

Heat Temperature

1) Heat is a form of energy. 1) It is the degree of hotness or coldness

contained in a body.

2) Heat is the source. 2) Temperature is the effect

3) Unit of heat energy is Joule 3) Unit of temperature is centigrade.

2. What are the lower and upper fixed points of Celsius and Fahrenheit scale?

A. Celsius Scale:

Lower fixed point: 00C

Upper fixed point: 1000C

Fahrenheit scale:

Lower fixed point: 320F

Upper fixed point: 2120F

3. Do the values of coefficients of expansion differ, when the temperatures are measured on
Centigrade scale or on Fahrenheit scale?
C F − 32
A. Yes. =
5 9

4. Can a substance contract on heating? Give an example?

A. Yes, Lead, cast iron, pure water when heated from, rubber etc. contract on heating.

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5. Why gap are left between rails on a railway track?

A. A gap should be left between two successive rails to allow for linear expansion of the rails in
summer.

6. Why do liquids have no linear and areal Expansions?

A. Liquids do not have a specific size or shape. The shape of a liquid depends on the shape of
the container. Hence the liquids do not have linear and areal expansions.

7. What is latent of heat of fusion?

A. Latent of heat of Fusion:
At constant temperature, the quantity of heat required to change unit mass of substance from
solid state to liquid state is called latent heat of fusion.

8. What is latent heat of Vaporization?

A. Latent heat of Vaporization:

The amount of heat required to change unit mass of liquid into vapor at constant temperature
is called latent heat of vaporization.

9. What is specific gas constant? Is it same for all Gases?

PV PV
A. i) For 1 gm of a gas =r. For m grams of the gas = mr ‘r’ is the specific gas
T T
constant. ii) The specific gas constant is different for different gases.

10. What are the units and dimensions of specific gas constant?

A. Units: J Kg-1 K-1

Dimensions: M0 L2T-2K-1

11. Why utensils are coated black? Why the bottoms of the utensils are made of Copper?

A. i) Black surface is a good absorber and good emitter. Hence utensils are coated black.

ii) Copper is a good conductor of heat .Hence copper is used at the bottom of cooking utensils.

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12. State wein’s displacement Law.

A. The wavelength λ m corresponding to maximum energy emitted by a black body is inversely

proportional to its absolute temperature.

λ T=constant.
m

The value of constant is 2.9x10-3 [Link] is called wein’s displacement law.

13. Ventilators provided in rooms just below the roof. Why?

A. Ventilators are placed below the roof in rooms to allow hot air to escape.

14. Does a body radiate heat at 0 K? Does it radiate heat at 00C?

A. i) A body does not radiate heat at 0 K.

ii) A body can radiate heat at 00C.

15. State the different modes of transmission of heat. Which of these modes require medium?

A. Heat is transferred or propagated by three distinct processes namely conduction, convection

and radiation.
Conduction and convection require medium.

16. Define coefficient of thermal conductivity and temperature gradient?

A. Thermal Conductivity:

It is the quantity of heat flowing normally per unit time through unit area of the substance per
unit temperature gradient.

Qd
K=
A(θ2 − θ1 )t

θ −θ
If A = 1m2, 2 1 =10 c/m and t = 1s, then K = Q
d

Temperature Gradient:

Temperature difference per unit length is called temperature gradient.

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θ2 − θ1 0
Temperature gradient = c/m
d

17. What is thermal resistance of a conductor? On factors does it depend?

A. Thermal resistance (R):

The thermal resistance of a body is a measure of its opposition to the flow of heat through it.
It is defined as the ratio of temperature difference to the heat current.
l
R=
KA
Thermal resistance of a body depends on length and area of cross-section of the conductor.

18. State the units and dimensions of Coefficient of Convection?

A. Units : Wm−2 K −1

Dimensions :  MT −3 K −1 

19. Define emissive power and emissivity.

A. Emissive power ( eλ ):

i) The amount of energy emitted per second per unit surface area of a body at a given

Temperature for a given wavelength range ( λ and λ +d λ ) is called emissive power.

ii) At a given temperature if the radiations emitted have a wavelength difference d λ , then the

Emissive power is equal to eλ d λ .

iii) S.I unit of emissive power is Wm-2 and its dimensional formula is MT-3.

Emissivity (e): The ratio of radiant energy emitted by a surface to radiant energy emitted by

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a black body under same conditions is called emissivity.

i) For a perfect black body emissivity e=1.

20. What is Green House Effect? Explain Global Warming?

A. The surface of the earth and atmosphere gets heated up due to absorption of radiation from
sun by green house gases, namely Carbon dioxide, Methane, Nitrous oxide, etc. This is known
as green house effect.

Hence the earth becomes warmer and the average temperature of the earth increases. This is
known as global warming. This global warming may cause problem for human life, plants
and animals. Because of global warming, ice caps are melting faster, sea level is rising and
weather pattern is changing.

21. Define absorptive power of a body. What is the absorptive power of a perfect black body?

A. Absorptive Power ( a λ ):

i) At a given temperature, for a given wavelength range, the ratio of energy absorbed to the
energy incident on the body is absorptive power.
ii) For a perfect black body, the absorptive power, a λ =1.

22. State Newton’s Law of Cooling?

A. Newton's Law of Cooling:

The rate of fall of temperature of a body is proportional to the excess mean temperature of
the body over the surroundings.

If a body cools from a temperature θ1 to the temperature θ2 in the surroundings at a θ0

temperature, then

dθ  θ1 + θ 2 
α − θ0 
dt  2 

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23. State the conditions under which Newton's law of cooling is applicable?

A. Conditions: Newton’s law of cooling is applicable when

(i) Heat lost by the body is mainly by convection.

(ii) The hot body is cooled in uniformly stream lined flow of air or forced convection.

(iii) The temperature of every part of the body is same.

24. The roof buildings are often painted white during summer. Why?

A. The roof buildings are often painted white during summer, because white is a poor absorber.

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Short Answer Questions

1. Explain Celsius and Fahrenheit scales of temperature. Obtain the relation between
Celsius and Fahrenheit scales of temperature.
A. Celsius scale of temperature:

In the centigrade scale, the lower fixed point (ice point) is 00C and the upper fixed point
(steam point) is 1000C. The difference between two fixed point values is 1000C. The interval

between these two points is divided into 100 equal parts and each corresponds to 10C on the
scale.
Fahrenheit scales of Temperature:

In the Fahrenheit scale, the lower fixed point is 320F and upper fixed point is taken as 2120F .
The difference between two fixed point values is 1800F. The interval between these two points
is divided into 180 equal parts then each part corresponds to 10F on the scale.
Relation between Celsius and Fahrenheit scales:
The temperature difference between the ice and stream points should be the same on Celsius
and Fahrenheit scales.

In the centigrade scale, the lower fixed point (ice point) is 00C and the upper fixed point
(steam point) is 1000C.

In the Fahrenheit scale, the lower fixed point is 320F and upper fixed point is taken as 2120F .
The difference between two fixed point values is 1800F.
Let the temperature of a body on Celsius and Fahrenheit scales be C and F respectively.
C -0 F − 32 C F − 32
Then, = ⇒ =
100 180 5 9

2. Two identical rectangular strips one of copper and the other of steel are riveted together
to form a bimetallic strip. What will happen on heating?
A. Bimetallic Strip:
A bimetallic strip consists of strips made of two different metals of different coefficients of
expansion, riveted together. When heated, it bends such that the strip with more expansion
(copper) lies on the convex side.

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Uses:
A bimetallic strip is used
(i) For continuous recording temperature
(ii) As a thermostat to control the temperature of a body
(iii) As a fire alarm.

3. Pendulum clocks generally go fast in winter and slow in summer. Why?

l
A. T = 2π or T α l
g

Time period of a pendulum clock is directly proportional to square root of the length of the
Pendulum.

i) In winter the length of the pendulum decreases and its time period decreases. So clock goes
fast.

ii) In summer the length of the Pendulum increases and its time period increases. So the clock
goes slow.

4. In what way is the anomalous behavior of water advantageous to aquatic animals?

A. In cold countries, at nights as temperature decreases, the upper layers of the lake contract and

sink to the bottom. This process goes on until the temperature of water becomes 40C. When
the top layer cools further it does not sink to the bottom. With further cooling the top layers

gradually form ice at the top. This results in water at the bottom at 40C, so that aquatic life
can live in a pond.

5. Explain conduction, convection and radiation with Examples?

A. Conduction:

The process of transfer of heat that takes place without the movement of the particles of the
medium is called conduction.

Ex. Heating up of a metal rod

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Convection:

The process of transfer of heat with the bodily movement of the particles of the medium is
called convection.

Ex. Heating up of a liquid

Radiation:

The process of transfer of heat that takes place without the help of the intervening medium is
called radiation.

Ex. Heat received by the earth from the sun.

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Long Answer Questions

1. State Boyle’s law and Charles’ law. Hence derive ideal gas equation. Which of the two
laws is better for the purpose of thermometry and why?

A. Boyle’s Law:

At constant temperature, the pressure (P) of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to
1
its volume (V). Pα Or PV = constant
V

Charles’ Law at Constant Pressure:

At constant Pressure, the volume (V) of given mass of gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature (T). V ∝T Or V / T = constant

Charles Law at Constant Volume:

At constant volume, the pressure (P) of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to its
P
absolute temperature (T). P α T Or = Constant
T

Ideal Gas Equation:

Consider a gas of volume; pressure and temperature are V1, P1 and T1 respectively. Let these

1 1 = PV
values are changed to V2, P2 and T2 in two different stages PV 2 .

i) Keeping the temperature T1 constant, the pressure of the gas is changed from P1

to P2. Then let its volume changes from V1 to V.

From Boyles law,

PV
∴V = 1 1
.......................... (1)
P2

ii) Now Keeping pressure P2 constant, the temperature of the gas is changed from T1 to

[Link] let its volume changes from V1 to V2.

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V V2
From Charles law = ,
T1 T2

V2T1
∴V = ............................. (2)
T2

From equations (1) and (2)

PV VT PV PV PV
Or 1 1
= 2 1 ⇒ 1 1= 2 2⇒ =r
P2 T2 T1 T2 T

The constant ‘r’ is called specific gas constant which is different for different gases. For one
mole of gas,

PV = RT this is called ideal gas equation.

Here R is called universal gas constant. R = 8.314 J mole-1 k-1

For ‘n’ moles of gas, PV = nRT

Gas Thermometers:

Charles’ law is better for the purpose of measurement of temperature because in Boyle’s law
temperature is constant.

2. Explain thermal conductivity and coefficient of thermal conductivity.

A copper bar of thermal conductivity 401W/(mK) has one end at 1040 C and the other at
240 C. The length of the bar is 0.10m and the cross sectional area is 1.0 ×10−6 m2 . What is
the rate of heat conduction along the bar?

A. Thermal Conductivity:
Definition:
The ability of a solid to conduct heat is called thermal conductivity.
Explanation:
When one end of a metal rod is heated, the amplitude of vibration of the atoms at that end
increases. These atoms collide with the adjacent atoms by sharing their energy with them.
Thus heat energy flows from higher temperature end to lower temperature end of the rod.

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Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity (K):

The amount of heat (Q) flowing through a rod is directly proportional to
i. The area of cross section (A) of the rod
ii. Temperature difference ( θ 2 − θ1 ) between the ends of the rod
iii. The time (t) of flow the heat through the rod and
iv. is inversely proportional to the length ( l ) of the rod.
Where K is called the co-efficient of thermal conductivity of the rod
Definition of K:
Q /t
K =
A( θ1 − θ2 )/ l

( θ1 − θ2 ) Q
If A = 1 and =1 , then K =
l t
It is defined as the quantity of heat flowing normally per second through unit area of cross-
section of the rod per unit temperature gradient.
Problem:

K = 401 w/mk ; L = 0.1 m ; A = 1 × 10-6 m2 ; θ 2 − θ1 = 104 - 24 = 80ºC

 Q  ∆θ
Rate of heat conduction (P) =   =
t  R
L 0.1
Where R = thermal resistance of Cu = = = 249.3
K cu A 401x10−6

∆θ 80
P= = = 0.32 W
R 249.3

3. State and explain Newton's Law of cooling. State the conditions under which Newton's
Law of cooling is applicable.
A body cools down from 60ºC to 50ºC in 5 minutes and to 40ºC in another 8 minutes.
Find the temperature of the surroundings.
A. Newton's Law of Cooling:
The rate of fall of temperature of a body is proportional to the difference between the mean
temperature of the body and the temperature of the surroundings

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Explanation:
Let a body cools from a temperature θ2 to θ0 the temperature .Let be the temperature of
dθ
the surroundings. Then the rate of fall of temperature of the body is given by
dt
dθ  θ1 + θ2 
α − θ0 
dt  2 
dθ  θ + θ2 
Or =K  1 − θ0 
dt  2 

Where K is a positive constant that depends on area and the nature of the surface of the
body
dQ dθ
The amount of heat lot is given by Q = msθ ⇒ = ms
dt dt
dθ 1 dθ dθ
(or ) = σ A (T 4 − T04 )
1
Or =
dt ms dt dt ms

Conditions:
Newton’s law of cooling is applicable when (i) the heat lost by conduction is negligible and
heat lost by the body is mainly by convection (ii) the hot body is cooled in uniformly stream
lined flow of air or forced convection (iii) the temperature of every part of the body is same.
Problem:
From Newton’s law of cooling,
( 60 − 50 ) α  60 + 50 − θ   50 − 40   50 + 40 
  and  α  −θ 
5  2   8   2 
Dividing, θ = 28.34ºC

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Problems

1. What is the temperature for which the readings on Kelvin and Fahrenheit scales are
same?

K − 273.15 F − 32
A: =
100 180

Here K = F

F − 273.15 F − 32
=
100 180

∴ F = 574.60 C

2. Find the increase in temperature of aluminum rod if its length is to be increased by

1 %.( α for aluminum= 25 × 10−6 / 0 C ).

l2 − l1 l −l
A: α = ⇒ ( t2 − t1 ) = 2 1
l1 ( t2 − t1 ) l1α

∴ Percentage increase in length = 25 × 10−6 × 1 × 100

1 = 25 × 10−6 ( t2 − t1 ) × 100

1 1
( t2 − t1 ) = −6
× = 400o C.
25 × 10 100

3. The mass of a litre of a gas is 1.562g at 0o C under a pressure of 76cm of Mercury.

The temperature is increased to 250o C and the pressure to 78cm of mercury. What is

the mass of one litre of the gas under new conditions?

A: P1 = 76cm of mercury; P2 = 76cm of mercury; T1 = 273K ;

T2 = 273 + 250 = 523K ; ρ1 = 1.562 g / litre

P1 P
= 2
ρ1T1 ρ 2T2

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P2T1 ρ1 78 × 273 × 1.562

ρ2 = = = 0.8366 g
PT
1 2 76 × 523

4. The volume of a mass of gas at 37°C and a pressure of 75cm of mercury is 620 c.c. Find
the volume at N.T.P

A: At NTP, P1 = 76cm ; T1 = 273K

PV PV
1 1
= 2 2
T1 T2

75 × 620 76 × V
Or = ⇒ V = 538.8 C.C
310 273

5. How much steam at 1000 C is to be passed into water of mass 100g at 200 C to raise its
temperature by 50 C ? (Latent heat of steam is 540 cal/g and specific heat of water is
1cal / g 0C )

A: t2 = 1000 C , m1 = 100 g , t1 = 200 C , t3 = t1 + 5 = 20 + 5 = 250 C

L = 540 cal/gm, S = 1cal / g 0C

Heat gained by cold body = heat lost by hot body

If m is the mass of vapour to be added m1s(t3 − t1 ) = m( L + s × t2 − t3 )

100 ×1× (25 − 20) = m(540 + 1× (100 − 25))

500 = m (615)

500
m= = 0.813 gm
615

6. 2kg of air is heated at constant volume. The temperature of air is increased from 293K to
313K. If the specific heat of air at constant volume is 0.718kJ/kg K, find the amount of
heat absorbed in kJ and kcal. (J = 4.2 kJ/kcal)

A: m = 2kg, T1 = 273K , T2 = 313K

Cv = 0.719 KJ / Kg K , J = 4.2 KJ / Kcal

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Q = mCv (T2 − T1 ) = 2 × 0.718 × (313 − 273) = 28.72kJ

28.72
= = 6.838 K cal
4.2

7. A clock, with a brass pendulum, keeps correct time at 200C, but loses 8.212 s per day,

when the temperature rises to 300C. Calculate the coefficient of linear expansion of
brass?

1 1
A: Loss of time for one day = × α ( t2 − t1 ) × 86400 ⇒ 8.212 = × α × 10 × 86400
2 2

α = 19 ×10−6 / 0 C

8. If the volume of nitrogen of mass 14kg is 0.4m3 at 300 C . Calculate the pressure?

A: Mass of the gas = m = 14kg = 14 x 103 gm

Molecular weight of nitrogen (M) = 28

V = 0.4m3 , T = 30 + 273 = 303K

m
PV = nRT ⇒ PV = RT
M

mRT 14 ×103 × 8.317 × 303

P= = = 31.5 × 105 N / m 2
MV 28 × 0.4

9. A body cools from 60ºC to 40ºC in 7 minutes and what will be its temperature
after next 7 minutes, if the temperature of its surroundings is 10ºC?

A. From Newton’s law of cooling,

( 60 − 40 ) α  60 + 40 − 10  and  40 − θ  α  40 + θ 
− 10 
    
7  2   7   2 

Dividing and solving, θ = 28 ºC

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10. If the maximum intensity of radiation for a black body is found at 2.65 µ m,
what is the temperature of the radiating body?

(Wien’s constant = 2.90 × 10-3 mK)

A. λmax = 2.65 µ m = 2.65×10-6 m.

But, λmax T = constant = 2.90 × 10-3 mK.

2.90 × 10−3 2.90 × 10−3

T= = = 1094 K
λmax 2.65 × 10−6

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THERMODYNAMICS

Important Points:

1. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:

a) This law gives the concept of temperature.

b) If the temperatures of two bodies are equal then they are said to be in thermal equilibrium.

c) When two bodies A and B are in thermal equilibrium with a third body C individually, then
the bodies A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

2. Calorie:

The quantity of heat required to rise the temperature of 1gram of water from 14.50 C to 15.50 C
is called standard Calorie.

3. External Work:

a) The work done by the system is positive.

b) The work done on the system is negative. .

4. Internal Work:

When the work done by one part of the system on another part of the same system is called
Internal Work.

5. Internal Energy:

a. The sum of potential energy and kinetic energy of individual molecules in the system is
called Internal Energy.

Internal energy U = P.E. + K .E

∴ Change in internal energy

dU = U f − U i
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Where U f is final internal energy and

U i is initial internal energy

b. Internal energy of a system increases with temperature.

6. External work done by an ideal gas during Expansion:

dW = PdV

7. First law of Thermodynamics:

The quantity of heat energy is supplied to a system is equal to sum of the external work done
by the system and increase in its internal energy. This obeys the law of conservation of energy.

dQ = dU + dW

Where dQ = amount of heat

dU = increase in internal energy

dw = PdV = work done

8. Specific Heat of Gas at Constant Volume:

It is defined as the amount of heat required to rise the temperature of unit mass of gas through
at constant volume

1 dQ
cV = .
m dT

9. Specific Heat of Gas at Constant Pressure:

It is defined as the amount of heat required to rise the temperature of unit mass of a gas
through 10 C at constant pressure.

1 dQ
cP = .
m dT

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10. Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume:

It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of gas through
10 C at constant volume.

1 dQ
CV = .
n dT

11. Molar Specific Heat at Constant Pressure:

It is defined as the amount of heat required to rise the temperature of one mole of gas through
10 C at constant pressure.

1 dQ
CP = .
n dT

12. Relation between CP and CV:

CP
CP − CV = R ; CP > CV and =γ
CV

13. Isothermal Process:

a) The changes in volume and pressure of a gas taking place at constant temperature is called
Isothermal Process.

b) Isothermal process obeys Boyle’s law PV = constant.

c) This process takes place in conducting vessel.

d) Internal energy of the system does not change.

e) This is a slow process.

f) Molar specific heat is infinity in this process.

g) Work done in isothermal process is

v 
W = 2.302 nRT log10  2 
 v1 

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14. Adiabatic Process:

a) The changes in pressure, volume of a gas taking place at constant heat energy is called
adiabatic process.

b) This process is represented by PV γ = constant .

c) This process takes place in insulated vessel.

d) Heat content does not change.

e) Molar specific heat is zero.

f) It is a quick process.

g) Work done in adiabatic process is

R
W= (T − T )
(1 − γ ) 2 1

15. Relation between P, V and T:

a) Relation between P, V is given by

PV
γ = constant

b) Relation between V, T is given by TV γ −1 = constant

c) Relation between P, T is given by P1− γ T γ = constant

16. Method of Mixtures:

a) Heat lost by the hot body = heat gained by the cold body

b) Two substances of masses m1 and m2 specific heats c1 and c2 are at temperatures θ1 and
θ 2 are mixed then final temperature of mixture is

m1c1θ1 + m2 c2θ 2
θ=
m1c1 + m2 c2

m1θ1 + m2θ 2
c) If c1 = c2 i.e. substances are made of same material then θ =
m1 + m2

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17. Joules Law:

The amount of work performed is directly proportional to the amount of heat generated W ∝ Q

W = JQ Where

J = Joules constant (or) mechanical equivalent of heat.

J = 4.2 J/cal

Triple Point:

The pressure and temperature at which the three states (liquid, solid and gas) of a substance
exist is known as triple point. Pressure and temperatures of triple point of water are 610.13 Pa
and 273.16K

18. Second law of thermo dynamics:

a) Claudius Statement:

It is impossible for a self acting machine unaided by any external agency to transfer heat from
a body at lower temperature to a body at higher temperature (Or)

Heat cannot by itself flow from a colder body to hotter body.

b) Kelvin Plank Statement:

It is impossible to construct a heat engine operating in a cycle to convert the heat energy
completely into work without any change of working system.

19. Heat engine is a device which converts heat energy into mechanical energy.

Q2 T
Efficiency η = 1 − = 1− 2
Q1 T1

20. Refrigerator (heat pump) is reverse of heat engine.

Q3 Q3 1
Co-efficient of performance K = = =
W Q1 − Q3  T1 
 − 1
 T2 

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Very Short Answer Questions

1. Define thermal equilibrium. How does it lead to Zeroeth Law of Thermodynamics?

A. Thermal Equilibrium:
If two bodies are at the same temperature then they are said to be in thermal equilibrium.
When bodies are in thermal equilibrium, no exchange of heat takes place.

Explanation:
Consider two systems A and B separated by an insulating wall .These systems are in turn
contact with a third system C by a conducting wall .The states of A and B change until they
come to thermal equilibrium with C. Now the insulating wall between A and B is replaced by a
conducting wall and C is insulated from A and B. Then no change is observed in the states of
A and B. This led to Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics.

2. Define calorie. What is the relation between calorie and mechanical equivalent of heat?
A. Calorie:
The amount of heat energy required to rise the temperature of 1gm of water through 10c is
called calorie.
Relation between calorie and mechanical equivalent of heat:
J = 4.2Joule/Cal

Where J is called mechanical equivalent of heat. (or) Joule's constant.

3. What thermodynamic variables can be defined by a) Zeroth Law b) First Law?

A. a) Zeroth Law:

The thermodynamic variables that can be defined by Zeroth Law is temperature.

b) First law:

The thermodynamic variables that can be defined by first law is internal energy, pressure and
volume.

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4. What is specific heat capacity of the substance? On what factors does it depend?
A. Specific Heat Capacity:
Specific heat capacity is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
1 dQ
unit mass of the body through 10 C. C =
m dT
Specific heat capacity depends on the nature of the substance and its temperature.

5. Define molar specific heat capacity.

A. Molar specific heat capacity is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature
1 dQ
of unit mole of the body through 10 C. C =
µ dT

6. For a solid, what is the total energy of an oscillator?

A: Total energy = potential energy + kinetic energy

7. Indicate the graph showing the variation of specific heat of water with temperature.
What does it signify?

A:

The specific heat of water varies slightly with temperature, so defining calorie as amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of 1gm of water by 10 C is not exactly correct. So for a
precise definition of calorie it is necessary to specify unit temperature interval. One calorie is
defined to be amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1gm of water from 14.50 C to
15.50 C .

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8. Define state variables and equation of state?

A. State Variables:

A thermodynamic system is completely described by certain macroscopic variables like

pressure, volume, temperature and mass. These are called state variables.

Equation of State:

A relation among the any of the three thermodynamic variables of the system is called its
equation of state.

9. Why a heat engine with 100% efficiency can never be realized in practice?

A. For 100% efficiency T1 = ∞ (or) T2 = 0 k. As absolute zero and infinite temperature cannot be

realized in practice, the efficiency of a heat engine cannot have 100%. The efficiency of a heat
engine is always less than unity.

10. In summer, when the valve of a bicycle tube is opened, the escaping air appears cold.

A. When the valve of the cycle tube is opened, the gas expands suddenly which is adiabatic
expansion. Hence temperature decreases producing cooling effect.

11. Why does the brake drum of an automobile get heated up while moving down at constant
speed?

A: Brakes are to be applied during the driving of an automobile for constant speed. As a result of
friction between wheel and brake drum, the temperature of wheel and brake drum of an
automobile increase.

12. Can a room be cooled by leaving the door of an electric refrigerator open?

A. A refrigerator is a heat engine that works in backward direction i.e., it extracts heat from a low
temperature reservoir and transfers it to a high temperature reservoir. Thus it exhausts more
heat into the room than it extracts from it. Hence the room gets heated.

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13. Which of the two will increase the pressure more, an adiabatic or an isothermal process,
in reducing the volume to 50%?

V2
A: 1 1 = PV
For isothermal process PV 2 2 since V2 =
2

P2 iso = 2 P1

γ γ
1 1 = PV
For adiabatic process PV 2 2

γ
V 
P2 adia = P  1  = P1 (2)γ
 V2 

γ is the ratio of specific heats. It is always greater than one so P2 adi > P2iso

14. A thermos flask containing a liquid is shaken vigorously. What happens to its
temperature?

A. Its temperature increases because liquid moves against the viscous forces. Work done against
viscous forces is converted into heat.

15. A sound wave is sent into a gas pipe. Does the internal energy change?

A: As the propagation of sound wave in a gas is an adiabatic process then its temperature and
hence its internal energy will increase.

16. How much will be the internal energy change in i) isothermal process ii) adiabatic
process?

A. i) Isothermal process:
As temperature is constant, internal energy does not change.
ii) Adiabatic process:
During adiabatic expansion internal energy decreases and adiabatic compression internal
energy increases.

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17. The coolant in a chemical or a nuclear plant should have high specific heat. Why?

1 dθ 1
A. S= ⇒s∝
m dt dt

The coolant in a chemical or a nuclear plant should absorb large amount of heat for a small rise
in temperature. Hence the specific heat of the coolant must be high.

18. Explain the following processes. i) Isochoric Process, ii) Isobaric Process.

A. i) Isochoric Process:

A thermodynamic process in which volume remains constant is known as isochoric process.

ii) Isobaric Process:

A thermodynamic process in which pressure remains constant is known as isobaric process.

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Short Answer Questions

1. State and explain the first law of Thermodynamics?

A. Statement:

The amount of heat supplied to a system is equal to the algebraic sum of the change in internal
energy of the system and the amount of external work done. This obeys the law of
conservation of energy.

Explanation:

If dQ is the amount of heat supplied to the system, dU is the increase in internal energy and
dW is the external work, then dQ = dU + dW

Limitations:

1) It does not explain the direction of heat flow.

2) It does not tell us about the efficiency of conversion heat into work.

2. Define two principal specific heats of a gas. Which is greater and why?

A. 1. Principal Specific Heat At Constant Pressure (CP):

It is defined as the amount of heat required to increase temperature of one gram of a gas
through 1ºC at constant pressure.

2. Principal Specific Heat At Constant Volume (CV):

It is defined as the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of one gram of gas
through 1ºC at constant volume.

CP > CV of a gas:

The heat supplied to a gas at constant volume is used only to increase the temperature (internal
energy) of the gas. But heat supplied to a gas at constant pressure it is used to

1) Increase the temperature of the gas and

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2) Do external work against constant pressure.

Hence more heat is required.

Hence for a given mass of a gas for the same rise in temperature heat supplied to the gas at
constant pressure is greater than that supplied at constant volume i.e. CP > CV.

3. Derive the relation between the two heat capacities of a gas on the basis of first law of
Thermodynamics.

A. Relation between CP and CV:

Consider one mole of an ideal gas in a cylinder fitted with an air tight movable piston of area
of cross section ‘A’. Let the temperature of the gas is increased through 1ºC at constant
pressure. Let ‘dL’ is the displacement in the piston.

Work done by the gas on the piston, dW = [Link]

Or dW = [Link] (∵ F = PA )

∴ dW = [Link] …………. (1)

1 dQ
Also, CP = ⇒ C P = dQ ……….. (2)
n dT

From the first law of thermodynamics dQ = dU + dW,

Or CP = dU + PdV ………… (3)

Also, from PV = RT

Or PdV = RdT

∴ PdV = R ………… (4)

From equations (3) and (4)

C p = dU + R ……........ (5)

1 dQ
At constant volume, CV = ⇒ Cv = dQ ……… (6)
n dT

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Again from first law of thermodynamics, dQ = dU ……….. (7) [∵ dW = 0]

From equations (6) and (7) dU = Cv

Or CP = C V + R

∴ C p − Cv = R

4. Obtain an expression for the work done by an ideal gas during isothermal change.

A. Work done in Isothermal Process:

Let a gas expands isothermally through small volume dv.

Work done by the gas dW = PdV

Work done by the gas in changing its volume from v1 to v2 is given by,

v2 v2 v2
RT dv
W = ∫ P dV = ∫ dv = RT ∫
v1 v1
V v1
v

⇒ W = RT [log v]vv12

⇒ W = RT [log v2 − log v1 ]

v2
⇒ W = RT log e
v1

v 
W = 2.303RT log10  2 
 v1 

But, p1v2 = p2 v2

p 
∴ W = 2.303RT log10  1 
 p2 

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5. Obtain an expression for the work done by an ideal gas during adiabatic change and
explain?

A. Work done in Adiabatic Process:

Let a certain mass of an ideal gas undergoes an adiabatic process. Let dv be the change in
volume at constant pressure P. then the work done for change in volume from v1 to v2 is given

by

v2

W = ∫ Pdv
v1

K
But PV r = cons tan t or P =
Vr

v2
K K K
(V 1−γ )
v2
W=∫ dv = V −γ +1 =
v1
V γ
(1 − γ ) 1− γ v1

W=
K
1− γ
(V21−γ − V11−γ )

1 1 = PV
2 2 = K
r r
But PV

∴W =
1
1− γ
( PV γ 1−γ
2 2 V2 − PV γ 1−γ
1 1 V1 )

1
Or W = ( PV 1 1)
2 2 − PV
1− γ

nR
For n moles of a gas, W = [T − T ]
γ −1 1 2

6. Compare isothermal Process and adiabatic Process.

Isothermal Process Adiabatic Process

1. The pressure and volume of gas change at 1. The pressure, volume and temperature of a
constant temperature. gas change.

2. It is a slow process. 2. It is a quick process.

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3. The system is in thermal contact with the 3. The system is in thermally insulated from
surroundings. the surroundings.

4. The internal energy of the system does not 4. Heat content does not change i.e. dQ = 0
change i.e, du = 0

5. It obeys the Boyle’s law i.e., PV=K. 5. The adiabatic process is represented by
PV γ = constant.

V  nR
6. Work done W=2.303RTlog10  2  6. Work done W = [T − T ]
 V1 
γ −1 1 2

7. Explain the following processes. i) Cyclic process with [Link]) Non-cyclic process with
example.
A. Cyclic process:
The process in which the system after passing through various stages ( pressure, volume and
temperature changes) returns to its initial condition is called a cyclic process.
i) In cyclic process, dU = 0. Hence dQ = dW
ii) P – V graph for a cyclic process is a closed curve.
In cyclic process total heat absorbed by the system equals the work done by the system.
Ex. A gas in a cylinder at pressure P1, volume V1 and temperature T1 are taken to different
stages and again taken back to the initial conditions of pressure P1, volume V1 and temperature
[Link] process is called a cyclic process.
ii) Non-cyclic process:
The process in which the system does not return to its initial conditions is called a non-cyclic
process.
Ex. Consider a gas in a cylinder provided with an air tight movable piston. Let its pressure P1
and volume V1 are changed to pressure P2 and volume [Link] work done in this process is the
area under the P-V curve with volume axis. This is a non-cyclic process.

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8. Explain Quasi-Static process?

A. Quasi-Static Process:
An infinitesimally slow process in which at each and every intermediate stage, the system
remains in thermal and thermodynamic equilibrium with the surroundings throughout the
entire process is called quasi - static process.
Explanation:
1) Consider a gas enclosed in a cylinder by piston. If the piston is suddenly pushed down, the
gas inside will undergo sudden compression. During the compression, the gas inside the
cylinder passes through several states that are not in equilibrium. This is because the pressure
and temperature of the system will rapidly change. But after certain time, the gas will attain the
thermodynamic equilibrium with surroundings.
2) Instead of pushing the piston in a sudden manner. Let us lower it down in infinitely slow
manner such that at every stage of the system, the pressure difference, and temperature
difference between system and surroundings should be infinitesimally small. It is called quasi-
static process.

9. Explain qualitatively the working of a heat engine?

A. Heat Engine:

It is a device which converts heat energy into mechanical work.

Working:

Source (T1)
Q1
Heat W = Q1 – Q 2

Engine Q2

Sink (T2)

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There are three parts in a heat engine.

1) Source (hot body)

2) Working substance

3) Sink (cold body)

1) Source:

It is at a very high temperature T1 K and Q1 heat is extracted from this body (Hot reservoir)

2) Working Substance:

In steam engine working substance is steam and in diesel engine working substance is mixture
of fuel vapour and air.

3) Sink:

It is at a very low temperature T2 K and Q2 heat is rejected by the working substance to this
(Cold reservoir).

Work done W = Q1 − Q2

The efficiency of heat engine is defined as ratio of work done by the engine to the amount of
heat absorbed by the engine.

W Q T
∴η = =1− 2 =1− 2
Q1 Q1 T1

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Long Answer Questions

1. Explain reversible and Irreversible Processes.

Describe the working of a Carnot engine. Obtain the expression for efficiency.

A. Reversible Process:

A process that can be retraced back in opposite direction in such a way that the system passes
through the same states as in the direct process and finally the system and surroundings return
to their original states is called reversible process.

Example:

1) Pettier effect and see beck effect.

2) Fusion of ice and vaporization of water.

Irreversible processes:

A process that cannot be retraced back in opposite direction is called irreversible process. All
the spontaneous natural processes are irreversible.

Examples:

1) Diffusion of gases.

2) Work done against friction.

Carnot’s Heat Engine:

Carnot ideal heat engine consists of four components.

1) Cylinder:

The walls are perfectly non-conductive and base is perfectly conducting, fitted with a
non–conducting frictionless movable piston.

2) Source:

It is at a high temperature T1K and has infinite thermal capacity.

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3) Sink:

It is at a lower temperature T2k and has infinite thermal capacity.

4) Insulating Stand:

It is a perfectly non- conducting stand on which the cylinder containing the working
substance can be put and it can be made perfectly insulated from the surroundings.

The working substance (perfect gas) in the cylinder is subjected to cycle of four operations
and it is known as Carnot cycle.

1. Isothermal Expansion:

The cylinder containing ideal gas is allowed to expand slowly at this constant
 υ2 
temperature T1. W1 = Q1 = RT1 log e   = area ABFH
 υ1 

2. Adiabatic Expansion:

Now the gas is allowed to expand adiabatically till the temperature falls from T1 to T2.

R(T1 − T2 )
W2 = = area BCEF
γ −1

3. Isothermal Compression:

The gas is compressed at constant temperature T2.

Work done = Heat released by the system

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V4
Q2 = W3 = − RT2 log e = area CDGE
V3

V3
(Or) Q2 = + RT2 log e
V4

4. Adiabatic Compression:

Finally the compression is continued so that gas returns to its initial stage.

R (T2 − T1 ) −R (T1 − T2 )
W4 = + = = area ADGH
γ −1 γ −1

Net work done by the engine in complete cycle is given by,

W = W1 + W2 – W3 – W4

But W2 = W4.

W = W1 – W3

Efficiency:

The efficiency of engine is defined as the ratio of work done to the heat supplied.
work done W
η= =
heat input Q1

Net work done during the complete cycle

W = W1 + W2 + (−W3 ) + (−W4 ) = W1 − W3 = Area ABCD

[As W2 = W4 ]

W W1 − W3 Q1 − Q2 W Q
η= = = = 1− 3 = 1− 2
Q1 W1 Q1 W1 Q1

RT2 log e (V3 / V4 )

Or η = 1 −
RT1 log e (V2 / V1 )

Since points B and C lie on same adiabatic curve

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r −1
r −1 r −1 T V 
TV
1 1 =TV
2 3 Or 1 =  3  …..(i)
T2  V2 

Also point D and A lie on the same adiabatic curve.

r −1
r −1 r −1 T V 
TV
1 1 =TV
2 4 Or 1 =  4  …..(ii)
T2  V2 

V3 V4 V V V  V 
From (i) and (ii), = or 3 = 2 or log e  3  = log e  2 
V2 V1 V4 V1  V4   V1 

T2
Hence the efficiency of Carnot engine η = 1 −
T1

2. State second law of thermodynamics. How is heat engine different from refrigerator?

A. Classius Statement:
It is impossible for a self acting machine unaided by an external agency to transfer heat from a
body at lower temperature to another at a higher temperature.
Kelvin Statement:
It is impossible to construct a heat engine operating in a cycle to convert the heat energy
completely into work without any change of working system.
The second law always states that the heat flows from a body at higher temperature to a body
at lower temperature. Also it is impossible to construct any heat engine with 100% efficiency.
Refrigerator:
Any device capable of transferring heat from a cold body to a relatively hotter body is called
Refrigerator. An ideal heat engine operating in the reverse processes is called refrigerator.
The working substance absorbs heat energy from the sink at lower temperature, a net amount of
work is done on it by an external agent and a large amount of heat is refused to the source. The
working substance is called refrigerant. In a house hold refrigerator, work is done by an electric
motor and the working substance (refrigerant) is Freon.
If Q2 is the heat energy absorbed from the sink at T2k and Q1 is the heat given to the source at
T1k. Then
 Q1 
W = Q1 – Q2 (or) W = Q2  − 1
 Q2 

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Q1 Τ1 T 
Since = , W = Q 2  1 − 1
Q2 T2  T2 

The ratio of heat extracted from the sink and to the work required to be done on the refrigerator
Q2 Q2 1
is called the coefficient of performance K = = =
W Q1 − Q2  T1 
 − 1
 T2 
Heat engine and Refrigerator:
An ideal heat engine operating in the reverse processes is called refrigerator. In a heat engine,
the efficiency can never exceed 100%. But in the case of a refrigerator, the coefficient of
performance may be much higher than 100%.

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Problems

14. If a mono-atomic ideal gas of volume 1 litre at N.T.P is compressed adiabatically to half
of its volume, find the work done on the gas. Also find the work done if the compression
is isothermal. ( γ = 5 / 3)

Sol: i) T1V1γ −1 = T2V2γ −2

V1 5
But, T1 = 273K; V2 = ;γ =
2 3
5
5 −1
−1  V 3
∴ 273V 1
3
= T2  1 
 2
2
T2 = ( 2 ) 3 273 = 431.6K

1litre 1
Number of moles, n = =
22.4litre 22.4

nR
Work done = (T − T )
γ −1 1 2
nR 8.314 8.34 × 3
= (T − T ) = [ 273 − 431.6] = ( −158.6 ) = −89J
γ −1 1 2 5  22.4 × 2
22.4  − 1
3 

 V2 
ii) Work done during isothermal compression is W = 2.3026 nRT log10  
 V1 

1
n = number of moles = ;T = 273K; R = 8.314 J mol −1 K −1
22.4
V2 1
= = 0.5
V1 2

2.3026 × 8.314 × 273log10 ( 0.5 )

w=
22.4

or W = −79 J

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2. Five moles of hydrogen when heated through 20K expand by an amount of

8.3 × 10−3 m3 under a constant pressure of 105 N / m 2 . If CV = 20 J / mole K , find CP .

A: CP − CV = R

Or nC P ∆T − nC V ∆T = nR∆T

Or n∆T ( CP − CV ) = P∆V (∵ nR∆T = P∆V )

Or 5 × 20 ( CP − 20 ) = 105 × 8.3 ×10−3

∴ C P = 28.3 J / mole K

2. How much steam at 1000 C is to be passed into water of mass 100gm at 200 C to raise its
temperature by 50 C ? (Latent heat of steam is 540cal/gm and specific heat of water
is 1cal / gm 0 C )

A: heat lost by steam = heat gained by water

ms Ls + m ss (100 − t ) = m w s ( t − 20 )

ms × 540 + ms × 1(100 − 25) = 100 × 1( 25 − 20 )

500
ms = = 0.813gm
615

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Kinetic Theory of Gases

Important Points:
1. Assumptions:

a) Every gas consists of extremely small particles called molecules.

b) The molecules of a gas are identical, spherical, rigid and perfectly elastic point masses.

c) Their size is negligible in comparison to intermolecular distance (10–9 m)

d) The volume of molecules is negligible in comparison to the volume of gas.

e) Molecules of a gas are in random motion in all directions with all possible velocities.

f) The speed of gas molecules lies between zero and infinity

g) The gas molecules collide among themselves as well as with the walls of vessel. These
collisions are perfectly elastic.

h) The time spent in a collision between two molecules is negligible in comparison to time
between two successive collisions.

i) The number of collisions per unit volume in a gas remains constant.

j) No attractive or repulsive force acts between gas molecules.

k) Gravitational attraction among the molecules is negligible due to their small masses and
very high speed.

l) The change in momentum is transferred to the walls of the container causes pressure.

m) The density of gas is constant at all points of the container.

2. Mean Free Path:

a) The distance travelled by a gas molecule between two successive collisions is known as free
path.

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b) If λ1 , λ2 , λ3 …..Are the distances travelled by a gas molecule during n collisions respectively,

λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + .... + λn
then mean free path of a gas molecule λ =
n

3. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure:

The total pressure exerted by a mixture of non-reacting gases in a vessel is equal to the sum of
the individual pressures which each gas exert if it alone occupied the same volume at a given
temperature.

For n gases P = P1 + P2 + P3 + .......Pn

Where p = pressure exerted by mixture and P1 , P2 , P3 ,.......Pn = partial pressure of

component gases.

4. The perfect gas equation

PV = µ RT

M mass of the gas

µ= = .
M0 molar mass

1
5. Kinetic theory of an ideal gas gives the relation P = n m v 2
3

Where n is number density of molecules, m the mass of the molecule and is the mean of
squared speed.

6. Kinetic interpretation of temperature.

1 3
m v2 = K B T
2 2

3 K BT
vrms =
m

7. The translational kinetic energy

3
E= K B NT .
2

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8. Degrees of Freedom:

The total number of independent ways in which a system can possess energy is called the
degree of freedom (f).

a) Monatomic Gas: Molecule of monatomic gas can have three independent motions
and hence 3 degrees of freedom (all translational).

b) Diatomic Gas: Molecule of diatomic gas has 5 degree of freedom.3 translational and 2
rotational.

c) Triatomic Gas: A non-linear molecule can rotate about any of three co-ordinate
axes. Hence it has 6 degrees of freedom: 3 translational and 3 rotational.

Very Short Answer Questions

1. Define Mean Free Path.

A. The distance travelled by a gas molecule between two successive collisions is known as free
path.

total distance travelled by a gas molecule between successive collisons

λ=
total number of collisons

Let λ1 , λ2 , λ3 .... be the distance travelled by a gas molecule during n collisions

λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + .... + λn
respectively, mean free path λ=
n

2. Name two prominent phenomena which provide conclusive evidence of molecular motion.

A. Dalton’s law, Avogadro’s Law.

3. How does kinetic theory justify Avogadro hypothesis and show that Avogadro Number in
different gases is same?
A. Avogadro's Law:
Avogadro law states that at the same temperature and pressure equal volumes of all gases
contain the same number of molecules.

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Consider 1 c.c of each gas at the same temperature and pressure. Let n1 and n2 be the number of

molecules per c.c. m1 and m2 their masses and C1 and C2 their root mean square velocities in

the two gases respectively. According to kinetic theory of gases we have

1 1
P= m1n1C12 = m2n2C22 ....... (i)
3 3

or m1n1C12 = m2n2C22

Since the temperatures are the same, there will be no change in temperature when the two
gases are mixed. This is possible only if the mean kinetic energy per molecule in the two gases
is the same. Hence,
1 1
m1C12 = m2C22 or m 1 C1 2 = m 2 C2 2 ....... (ii)
2 2

From (i) and (ii), we find n1 = n2

i.e., the numbers of molecules per c.c. in the two gases are equal.

4. When does a real gas behaves like an Ideal Gas?

A. A real gas behaves as an ideal gas at low pressure and high temperature.

5. State Boyle’s law and Charles’ law.

A. Boyle’s Law:
At constant temperature, the volume of a given mass of gas in inversely proportional to its
pressure.
If P and V be the pressure and volume of a given mass of gas at constant temperature T, then
PV = a constant.
Charles’ Law at Constant Pressure:
At constant Pressure, the volume of given mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature.
If V is the volume and T is the absolute temperature of a gas at constant pressure, then
V / T = constant.
Charles’ Law at Constant Volume:
At constant volume, the pressure of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature.

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If P is pressure and T is the absolute temperature of a given mass of a gas, then

P
= Constant
T

6. State Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure

A. Dalton’s law of Partial Pressure:

The total pressure exerted by a mixture of non-reacting gases in a vessel is equal to the
sum of the individual pressures which each gas exerts if it alone occupied the same
volume at a given temperature.

For n gases P = P1 + P2 + P3 + .....Pn

Where p = pressure exerted by mixture and P1 , P2 , P3 ,.....Pn = partial pressure of component

gases.

7. Pressure of an ideal gas in a container is independent of shape of the container. Explain.

1
A. The pressure of an ideal gas in a container is given by P = nm v 2 which is independent of shape
3
of the container.

8. Explain the concept of degrees of freedom for molecules of a gas.

A. Degrees of Freedom:

The total number of independent ways in which a system can possess energy is called the
degree of freedom (f).

1) Mono-Atomic Gas: molecule of mono-atomic gas can have three independent translational
motions and hence it has 3 degrees of freedom.

2) Di-Atomic Gas: molecule of diatomic gas has 5 degree of freedom i.e. 3 translational and
2 rotational.

3) Tri-atomic Gas: a non-linear molecule can rotate about any of three co-ordinate axes.
Hence it has 6 degrees of freedom i.e. 3 translational and 3 rotational. At high temperature the
molecule will have additional degrees of freedom due to vibrational motion. Hence the
molecule will have 7 degrees of freedom.
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9. What is the expression between pressure and kinetic energy of a gas molecule?

A. If P is the pressure and E is the kinetic energy

1 2 1 2
P = ρC 2 = × ρC2 = E
3 3 2 3
1
Where E = ρC2 is the mean kinetic energy per unit volume of the gas.
2
Hence the pressure of a gas is numerically equal to two-thirds of the mean kinetic energy per unit
volume of the molecules.

10. The absolute temperature of a gas is increased by 3 times. What will be the increase in rms
velocity of the gas molecule?

3KT
A. vrms =
m
T1 = T ; T2 = 3T

v1 T1 v T
= ⇒ 1=
v2 T2 v2 3T

∴ v2 = 3 vrms

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Short Answer Questions

1. Explain the kinetic interpretation of Temperature?

A. Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature:

The internal energy of an ideal gas, which is purely the kinetic energy of the gas particles
3
E= K B NT where K B is Boltzmann constant, n is the total number of molecules, t is
2
the absolute temperature of the gas.

E 3
Then = K BT is the average kinetic energy of a gas molecule
N 2

3 1
Also, K BT = mv 2
2 2

Hence the mean kinetic energy per molecule in a given mass of gas is proportional to the
absolute temperature of the gas.

2. How specific heat capacity of mono atomic, diatomic and poly atomic gases can be
explained on the basis of law of Equipartition of Energy?

A. Law of Equipartition of Energy:

for any system in thermal equilibrium, the total energy is equally distributed among all
1
of its degree of freedom and each degree of freedom is associated with energy kT
2

(where k = 1.38´10–23 j/k and t = absolute temperature of the system).

Specific Heat Capacity - Monatomic Gas:

The monatomic gas molecules can have only the translational motion. According to the
theory of equipartition of energy, this energy will be equally divided among the three
translational degrees of freedom.

The total energy u of 1 gram molecule of the gas at the absolute temperature t is given
by u =3/2 rat

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Where r is the gas constant per gram molecule.

dU
If CV is the molar specific heat at constant volume, then cv = = 3/2r
dT

If cp is the molar specific heat at constant pressure, then

5
cp – cv = r or cp = cv + r = r
2

Diatomic Gas:

For diatomic gases, remembering that they have in all five degrees of freedom, three
translational and two rotational, the total energy is given by

5
u= rt
2

5 7
Hence cv = r and cv = r
2 2

Poly atomic Gas:

Polyatomic gases have 3 translational and 3 rotational degrees of freedom and additional
degrees of freedom due to vibration motion. Hence one mole of such a gas has

Cv = 3 + f vib and C p = 4 + f vib

3. Explain the concept of absolute zero of temperature on the basis of kinetic theory

1
A: According to kinetic theory of gases, we have the equation for the pressure P = mnv −2 ,
3

ρ RT
From the perfect gas equation, P =
M0

1 ρ RT
∴ P = mnv −2 =
3 M0

If T = 0 then the mean of squared speed becomes zero. Hence pressure becomes zero. Then the
gas converts into liquids. Thus this temperature is called absolute zero.

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4. Prove that the average kinetic energy of a molecule of an ideal gas is directly proportional to
the absolute temperature of the gas.
A. The pressure exerted by a gas of n molecules and occupying a volume V is given by

1 mn 2
P= C
3 V
1
Or PV = mnC2
3
If V is the volume occupied by a gram-molecule of the gas and M the molecular weight,
then M = mN

1
Where N is Avogadro's Number ∴ PV = MC2
3
Using the perfect gas equation PV = RT,

1 1 3
MC 2 = RT Or MC2 = RT
3 2 2
1M 2 3R
Dividing both sides by Avogadro's, number N , we have C = T
2N 2N
M R
But = m and = k, a constant, known as the Boltzmann's gas constant.
N N

3
∴ mC2 = kT
2
Hence the mean kinetic energy per molecule in a given mass of gas is proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas

5. Two thermally insulated vessels 1 and 2 of volumes V1 and V2 are joined with a valve and
filled with air at temperatures (T1 , T2 ) and pressure ( P1 , P2 ) respectively. If the valve joining
the two vessels is opened, what will be the temperature inside the vessels at equilibrium?
A: n1T1 + n2T2 = (n1 + n2 )T

 PV PV 
1 1 + PV
2 2 = + 2 2 T
1 1
PV
 T1 T2 

(R is canceled on both sides)

1 1 + PV
( PV 2 2 )T1T2
⇒T =
1 1T2 + PV
( PV 2 2T1 )

T is the temperature inside the vessels at equilibrium.

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6. What is the ratio of r.m.s. speed of oxygen and hydrogen molecules at the same
temperature?

1 v m1 MO 2 1
A. vα ⇒ 1 = = = =
m v2 m2 MH 32 4

7`. Four molecules of a gas have speeds 1, 2, 3 and 4km/s. find the rms speed of the gas
molecule.

v12 + v22 + v32 + v42 12 + 22 + 32 + 42

A. vrms = = = 2.7386
4 4

8. If a gas has f Degree of Freedom, find the ratio of Cp and Cv

f f  f 
A. CV = R, CP = CV + R = R + R =  1 +  R
2 2  2

 f 
 1+ 
CP  2 f 2
= = R =1 +
CV f 2 f
R
2
9. Calculate the molecular kinetic energy of 1 gram of helium (molecular weight 4) at
127 0 C . Given R = 8.31Jmol −1 K −1

3 3
A. Kinetic energy = K B T = × 1.38 × 10 −23 × 400 = 8.28 × 10−21 J
2 2

10. When pressure increases by 2%, what is the percentage decrease in the volume of a gas,
assuming Boyle’s law is obeyed?

P1 V2 P V
A: = ⇒ = 2
P2 V1 102 P V1
100

100 V2 V − V 100 − 102

= ⇒ 2 1=
102 V1 V 100

∆V −2 ∆V
= × 100 = 2%
V 100 V

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Long Answer Questions

1. Derive an expression for the pressure of an ideal gas in a container from

kinetic theory and hence give kinetic interpretation of temperature.

A. Consider an ideal gas enclosed in a cubical container of side l.

1) Consider a molecule of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity v . The velocity v is resolved in to
components vx , v y and vz along x, y and z axes respectively so that

v2 = vx2 + vy2 + vz2.

( ) 1
Since the gas is isotropic vx2 = v y2 = vz2 = vx2 + v y2 + vz2 = v 2
3

Where v 2 is the mean of squared speed?

2) In a small time interval ∆t , a molecule within a distance vx ∆t from the wall will hit the
wall. Hence molecules within the volume Avx ∆t only can hit the wall in time ∆t . But, on the
average, half of these are moving towards the wall and the other half away from the wall.
1
Hence the number of molecules hitting the wall in time ∆t is Avx ∆tn . Where n is the
2
number of molecules per unit volume.

3) Since the collision of the molecule with the wall of the container is elastic, the molecule
rebounds with the same velocity. Then change in momentum of the

Molecules are (−mvx − mvx ) = −2mvx . By the principle of conservation of momentum, the
momentum imparted to the wall in the collision = 2mvx .

1 
The total momentum transferred to the wall in time ∆t is Q = (2mvx )  nAvx ∆t 
2 

4) Since the force on the wall is the rate of change of momentum and pressure is
Q
force per unit area P = = nmvx2
A∆t

1 1
∴ P = nm v 2 ( ∴ vx2 = v 2 )
3 3
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Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature:

The internal energy of an ideal gas, which is purely the kinetic energy of the gas particles
3
E= K B NT where K B is Boltzmann constant, n is the total number of molecules, t is
2
the absolute temperature of the gas.

E 3
Then = K BT is the average kinetic energy of a gas molecule
N 2

3 1
Also, K BT = mv 2
2 2

Hence the mean kinetic energy per molecule in a given mass of gas is proportional to the
absolute temperature of the gas.

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