FEATURED ARTICLE
Computational Methods and
Techniques Across Acoustics
Grant C. Eastland
Sound in the World acoustics, often requiring solving the acoustic wave equa-
Throughout human history, people and cultures have cre- tion. Indeed, there is potential for advancement in new
ated sound for more than simple communication. For areas of research not contained in the traditional areas
example, early humans likely made music using primitive by employing computational acoustics. This is already
flutes (Atema, 2014) and considered sound integral in seen from the great developments and advancements in
the design of cities (e.g., Kolar, 2018). Furthermore, the all areas of acoustics over several decades where the com-
Mayans designed structures at the ruins at Chichen Itza plexity has required extensive use of numerical methods,
in Mexico that used sound for worship (Declercq et. al., optimization, computational modeling, and simulation.
2004). Specifically, clapping in front of the stairs of the
El Castillo pyramid creates a sound resembling a highly Like the relationships of computational physics to math-
revered bird by way of a series of reflections up the stairs ematics and computer science, the relationship between
(available at [Link]/3jPfOTk). acoustics, mathematics, and computer science define
computational acoustics as described by the Venn-type
In addition to an interest in making sound, sound and diagram shown in Figure 1.
vibration have also been thoroughly investigated by either
empirical methods or philosophical arguments since as far The Wave Equation Explained
back as Pythagoras (550 BCE), who applied his discoveries The wave equation enables the expression of motion in a
in mathematics to the harmonic ratios in music. He dis- wave, and it shows itself in every area of physics includ-
covered that stringed instruments could be tuned, using ing acoustics, electromagnetism, quantum mechanics,
small integer ratios of string length, so that they would and optics, to name a few. The equation provides the
consistently produce layered consonant musical intervals.
The interest and desire to study our acoustic environ- Figure 1. Venn diagram showing the concept relationship
ment continues to this day, but the methods we use have of computational acoustics, indicating how it connects
changed dramatically, and continue to change as new traditional acoustics with mathematics and computer science.
technologies emerge. Beginning in the seventeenth cen-
tury with Robert Boyle, empirical investigation showed
that sound is a vibration of conceptualized fluid particles
transmitting energy from one place to another. Theoreti-
cal and empirical investigations are essential but more
often require additional help to solve the problems at
hand. Indeed, applying sophisticated computational
methods, the basis of this article, provides a valuable tool
in understanding and analyzing acoustics phenomena.
The Need for Computational Acoustics
The need for computational acoustics shows itself in the
difficulty in most real-world physical investigations in
10 Acoustics Today • Spring 2021 | Volume 17, issue 1 [Link]
mathematical relationship between the variables of inter- performed simulations on ballistics and particle evo-
est in acoustics, often the acoustic pressure or particle lution for the development of the atomic bomb.
velocity and the speed of a wave. The equation relates the
temporal and spatial changes to these variables, including Monte Carlo Simulation
dependence on the wavelength and frequency of the wave. Several techniques and algorithms were developed at the
As a consequence, the equation is a second-order partial Los Alamos (NM) National Laboratory by Jon von Neu-
differential equation of pressure or particle velocity and mann as part of his work on the atomic bomb, leading to
is three-dimensional. The pressure or particle velocity is what we now know as Monte Carlo simulations. As one
dependent on three spatial directions and time. might expect, Monte Carlo applications involve any phe-
nomena that could be modeled as random or spontaneous,
In all areas of physics, solutions to problems involving the such as playing games of chance at a casino. Some phenom-
wave equation require specifying additional boundary ena that are modeled this way include radioactive decay
conditions that depend on the geometry of the problem. and the random nature of thermal motion (Landau and
Only in specific ideal cases with simple conditions and Price, 1997). Additionally, Monte Carlo simulations can
geometry are analytical solutions even possible. However, be used to model sound propagation in the atmosphere
the wave equation is a powerful and useful tool for inves- (Burkatovskaya et. al., 2016) where multiple scattering and
tigating the physics involved. the turbulent nature of the atmosphere (Blanc-Benon et
al., 2002) can be taken into consideration.
For most real problems of interest, the geometry involved
is much too complicated to solve by any other means than Continued work in computational physics led to the dis-
by computational methods. For example, if one wanted covery of chaotic behavior in nonlinear dynamics where
to simulate the propagation of sound through the ear deterministic mechanical systems exhibited seemingly
canal (Puria, 2020), the geometric structure would not random states of motion. The theoretical underpinnings
be simple and defining real boundary conditions would of mechanics had existed for nearly half a century before
make the problem too complicated to be solved any other computer technology made it possible to make the com-
way than by numerical solution of the wave equation. plicated computations needed to simulate the interactions.
Propagation of acoustic waves in a variety of environments isEarly Use of Computers in Acoustics
well understood and documented, but any real environment An early mention of using computers in acoustics is provided
is overly complex and prediction of sound fields becomes by a talk given at the 62nd meeting of the Acoustical Soci-
impossible to solve analytically. For example, one may wish to
ety of America by Schroeder (1961) on novel uses in room
determine the acoustic pressure field in a large area underwater
acoustics. In his abstract, Schroeder spoke of using digital
in the ocean (e.g., Duda et al., 2019) where the environment,computers to simulate complicated transmission of sound
boundary conditions and spatial distributions of fluid prop- in rooms and simulation of spatial and frequency responses
erties are complicated. To solve a wave equation with such in rooms using Monte Carlo techniques. Schroeder’s insight
complexity, the problem is reduced to numerical solutions. revolutionized architectural acoustics. Computational
methods have proven enormously powerful in predicting
There are a bevy of techniques discussed in this article for acoustic performance of interior spaces and have enhanced
solution of the wave equation in various situations. Several the ability of the specialist to design spaces acoustically, such
of these techniques are numerical methods applied to solve as in concert halls (Sviolja and Xiang, 2020).
the equations directly without approximations, whereas
others require a successive approximation of results. The decades of improvement in computer technology and
computational performance have allowed greater use of
The Emergence of Computational Methods such numerical methods for acoustic wave propagation,
Since its invention in the 1930s, the digital computer scattering, radiation, and other acoustically related phe-
has been used to solve difficult problems in physics. nomena. This, in turn, has enhanced discovery and problem
Early uses were in areas of nuclear physics where they solving. Simulations of different phenomena have provided
Spring 2021 • Acoustics Today 11
COMPUTATIONAL ACOUSTICS METHODS
Table 1. Some relevant articles published in Acoustics Today same techniques used in those areas can be applied in
other areas (see Table 1 for articles in Acoustics Today
Authors Topic that discuss the use of similar techniques).
Ahrens et. al., 2014 Sound field synthesis
In addition, applications of machine learning (ML) that
Bruce, 2017 Speech intelligibility, are being used in artificial intelligence research and
signal processing
areas of data science are also being exploited to advance
Bunting et. al., 2020 Computational acoustics research into areas including acoustic oceanography,
Burnett, 2015 Computer simulation of scattering engineering acoustics, and signal processing. This is by
Candy, 2008 Signal processing, model-based no means an exhaustive list, but it brings a familiarization
machine learning beginnings to the areas and applications of computational acoustics
Duda, et. al., 2019 Ocean acoustics and the methods found therein.
Greenberg, 2018 Deep learning, languages
Modern Computational Methods
Hambri and Structural acoustics,
Fahnline, 2007 modeling methods
The numerical methods of computational acoustics are
focused on taking the continuous equations and differ-
Hawley et. al., 2020 Musical acoustics
ential equations from calculus and turning them into
Puria, 2020 Bioacoustics, hearing
linear algebraic equations, which are amenable to solu-
Stone and Speech production, modeling, tion on digital computers. In the case of a concert hall
Shadle, 2016 computational fluid dynamics with complex geometries that are not open to an ana-
Treeby, 2019 Biomedical acoustics lytic solution, computational acoustics would enable an
Vorländer, 2020 Virtual reality and music acoustics engineer to compute a numerical solution to
Wage, 2018 Array signal processing the wave equation to help the engineering design process,
and localization as discussed recently by Savioja and Xiang (2020).
Wilson et. al., 2015 Atmospheric acoustic propagation
Two of the more popular methods are the finite-differ-
Zurk, 2018 Underwater acoustic sensing
ence method (FDM) and finite-element method (FEM).
These papers have either a computational focus or The FDM is a class of numerical techniques related to a
computational relationship. general class of numerical methods known as Galerkin
methods (Jensen et al., 2011; Wang et. al., 2019) that treat
derivatives as algebraic differences and the continuous
ways to investigate interactions that previously were unap- function in question, such as the sound field, is calculated
proachable due to the complex nature of acoustics. at various points of space (Botteldooren, 1994).
Computational acoustics, which is a combination of math- For example, Figure 2 shows how to break up the space
ematical modeling and numerical solution algorithms, has with a grid where the sound field is calculated t as an
recently emerged as a subdiscipline of acoustics. The use individual element in space. Each point is calculated
of approximation techniques to calculate acoustic fields through iteration via a computational algorithm. The
with computer-based models and simulations allows for calculations are often simple enough that they could be
previously unapproachable problems to be solved. performed with pencil and paper or a basic calculator.
However, if the procedure needs to be applied to many
The increasing computational nature of acoustics, points, there may need to be thousands to millions of
especially in all the traditional areas, has provided a computations, thereby requiring a digital computer.
cross-disciplinary opportunity. The purpose of this paper
is to show an overview of the various techniques used in In contrast to the FDM, the FEM is another numerical tech-
computational acoustics over several of the traditional nique used for calculating sound fields based on dividing up
areas. I am more familiar with applications in under- a space or structure into individual elements, each of which
water acoustics and physical acoustics, but many of the is assumed to be constant. The space/structure is broken
12 Acoustics Today • Spring 2021
performing simulations of systems where multiple kinds of
physics are involved, like a problem involving sound trans-
mission through living tissue where there could be heating,
density variations, and fluids in motion. Often what is
required is a very precise numerical resolution due to the
large changes in the length of the scales between acoustic
and flow variables due to fluids in motion. The use of direct
numerical simulation is often computationally challenging
and is unfitting for most applications without the use of
high-performance computing.
Figure 2. Finite-difference method (FDM), a computational
discrete grid concept to compute a sound field. The space is broken Although direct numerical simulation may be a limitation,
into a grid of boxes called elements where the sound is considered it is often the first approach to use on a variety of problems.
constant in each element and is summed over all space. One such application is calculating the compressional and
shear speeds of elastic waves in a material of interest utilizing
measured backscattered acoustic data from a sphere made
up into a mesh, which looks like a wire grid applied to the of the material. The compressional and shear speeds are
structure of various shapes, often triangles. The points of related to the scattered sound in a complicated way but can
the chosen mesh shape are called nodes, and these define be determined for spherical objects. I am not going into the
the shape of the mesh. The goal of the method is to sum the complex mathematics behind the calculations; however, the
contribution of each element to the sound field. Figure 3 method is to compute the theoretical backscattering func-
shows the conceptualization of dividing up a structure with tion (Faran, 1951; Chu and Eastland, 2014). This function
a simple grid using a triangular mesh instead of the square has discontinuities, called nulls, that are related to the com-
boxes in Figure 2 that divide up a structure. Although the pressional and shear speeds of sound in the material. The
method seems complicated, the main idea is simple. null locations and separations are dictated by these speeds.
For real-life problems, the FDM and FEM are not exclu- Beginning with an initial guess of the speeds, the backscat-
sive, and they are often applied at the same time on ter form function is determined. Backscattering data from
modern high-performance computing platforms. The the target are then matched to the form function by relating
FDM is simple in its application but requires some ini- the error in the null locations and separations. Based on the
tial knowledge of conditions. The FEM is more adaptable selection of arbitrary nulls in the data using any nonlin-
and accurate but often requires more input data to apply. ear least squares method (e.g., Levenberg-Marquardt), an
Direct Numerical Simulation
The complete mathematical treatment of complex Figure 3. Finite-element method (FEM), a computational
acoustic problems in fluids begins with a set of partial element mesh concept to compute a sound field. Each
differential equations known as the compressible Navier- triangular division is part of the structure where the sound
Stokes equations. These equations describe both the flow field can be computed assuming the triangular division is
of the fluid and the aerodynamically/hydrodynamically considered constant.
generated sound field. These equations are statements
of conservation of momentum and mass in the fluid,
describing all the dynamics.
Due to this coupling of fluid dynamics and acoustics, both
fluid variables and acoustic variables may be solved directly
by rewriting the equations into a form that can be fully sim-
ulated via a computer program or software package such as
COMSOL or ANSYS. These types of packages are good at
Spring 2021 • Acoustics Today 13
COMPUTATIONAL ACOUSTICS METHODS
field is calculated with small changes in the field based on
the nearest grid points in the space. The solution is found
by solving numerically using small steps in space and time.
This technique is used in multiple areas and works well for
wave propagation and scattering problems.
By way of an illustration (see Bunting et. al., 2020), the
application of the wave equation and discretization
shows the power of computational acoustics. Assuming
harmonic time dependence of pressure and applying the
wave equation, one obtains the Helmholtz equation. The
Helmholtz equation describes steady-state wave propaga-
Figure 4. Dashed black curve, theoretical target strength tion in physics and relates to acoustic wave propagation
determined from the form function; blue solid curve, through either the particle velocity or pressure in a fluid.
backscattered data-determined target strength of a 64-mm
copper sphere, comparing theory and experiment; red circles,There are multiple methods utilizing a known result of the
acoustic wave equation to compute the acoustic field of a
the three chosen nulls to be matched to the data, determining
the compressional and shear sound speeds in the material sound source. A general solution for wave propagation can
to within at least 6% accuracy. Work was done on sonar be written as an integral over all present sources, which are
calibration for biomass estimated acoustic surveys by the summarized as integral methods. The origin of the acous-
author at Northwest Fisheries Science Center (Seattle, WA). tic source must be determined a priori from some other
method (e.g., a FEM simulation of a mechanical structure).
The integral is taken over all sources relative to the time of
optimization process is selected. The goal is to minimize the source of the signal. The sound wave arrives later at a
the error in the fitting of the data by iteratively updat- given receiving position. Common to all integral methods
ing the form function. The initial guess of the speeds is is that changes in the speed of sound between the source
updated and used to recompute the form function until
the desired level of error in the cost function is achieved.
As one can imagine, this is a brute force method and can Figure 5. a: Array of acoustic point sources arranged as
be computationally demanding. However, it is effective. several hexagonal distribution where cross-range is the lateral
An example of the data output is shown in Figure 4. left/right dimension and elevation is the up/down vertical
dimension as a demonstration of the method. b: An acoustic
The simulation proved to be accurate in the predicted color plot of the simulated acoustic sound pressure level
values to within 6% on the shear speed and less than measured at a location 10 m from a source array of 31 point
5% on the compressional speed with only 22 iterations. sources being driven in unison at 10 kHz. Yellow is louder
The computational time using MATLAB on a personal than darker blue to a level in decibels relative to 1 μPa of
computer took nearly 10 minutes. If a higher precision is acoustic pressure.
desired, the minimum error can be adjusted to get more
iterations but will take much longer.
The first of these various numerical methods often used to
determine the sound pressure in a computational acous-
tics problem is the FDM. The method takes the continuous
differential equation that describes the phenomena and
breaks it in to a finite algebraic set of equations. The details
are left out in this article for brevity; however, the useful-
ness of this method is hard to deny. The method is used by
breaking up the space into a grid of points, and the sound
14 Acoustics Today • Spring 2021
and receiver positions cannot be justified by utilizing the
theoretical solution of the wave equation.
An example application of an integral method is to calculate
the acoustic field from a hexagonal array of sources treated
as point sources. Figure 5a shows an example of an array
of 31 sources arranged as a grouping of hexagons. The loca-
tions are determined computationally, with each node being
treated as an acoustic point source. The field is summed over
all sources, and the level is calculated at a given range. This
could be done over time to create a movie of the acoustic Figure 6. Possible spatial division, called discretization, of
field that can provide insight into how the acoustic wave a Helmholtz resonator in the form of a vase. Each rectangle
propagates. The simulation is assumed to be underwater is treated as an individual point where the sound field is
with a source frequency of 10 kHz. An example might be a considered constant.
source array, but the problem is easily simulated using inte-
gral methods. The array used in Figure 5a has the output
given as a color plot in Figure 5b, respectively. application of the FEM (Everstine and Henderson, 1990).
This is another example of integral methods, but it solves
Kirchhoff Integral the field by direct integration over the surface. The goal
Kirchhoff and Helmholtz were able to show that sound is to split the computational area into different regions
radiating from a localized source in a limited area can be so that the central acoustic equations can be solved with
described by enclosing this source area by an arbitrarily different sets of equations and numerical techniques.
envisioned surface. The sound field inside or outside the
chosen surface is calculated using the Helmholtz equa- For instance, simulating an idealized Helmholtz resona-
tion. The solution can be determined by the sum of a set tor (such as a violin or guitar) as a flower vase and solving
of “basis” functions related to the geometry of the problem the wave equation with boundary conditions becomes
that can be used. The difficulty in the problem is determin- difficult due to the odd shape of the boundary. To solve
ing the functions that work and is not described here due this, therefore, the boundary is broken up into smaller
to being out of scope of this article. The calculated field on pieces, and the acoustic field is calculated for each indi-
the surface directly follows from the wave equation. vidual piece of the boundary. A concept figure showing
what the boundary would look like is shown in Figure 6.
A variation of the scheme allows one to calculate the pres-
sure on the arbitrary surface using the normal particle The method would then employ breaking up the vase into
velocity, which is the mechanism involved in acoustic trans- physical elements, as in Figure 3, where all the corners of
mission. The particle velocity perpendicular to the surface the element are broken into nodes. The method just sums
could be given by a FEM simulation of a moving structure. the acoustic field from each individual element for each
However, the modification of the method to avoid utilizing node in space, assuming some constant coefficient given as
the acoustic pressure directly on the surface leads to snags, for each element, approximated from the boundary and
with enclosed volumes being driven at their resonant fre- field equations. Each element would be given as some shape
quencies. This is a major issue in the implementation of the function given as , which was a triangle in Figure 3. The
technique. To get around this limitation, the sound pressure total acoustic field is determined as a sum of each individual
is determined on the surface of the object first and then contribution such as p(x,y,z)≈ =1 , , where x, y, and z
imaginary sources are added on its surface to cancel the are the obligatory spatial variables.
normal particle velocity on the surface of the object.
Machine Learning and Other Contributions
An instance of the use of the Kirchhoff integral is to Several significant contributions have been made in dif-
divide the physical domain into a smaller simpler set of ferent areas of investigation with the applications of
parts for a more complex problem, which introduces the computational acoustics. One of these is the incorporation
Spring 2021 • Acoustics Today 15
COMPUTATIONAL ACOUSTICS METHODS
of acoustic simulation methods into virtual reality systems model where the model can be improved based on additional
(Vorlander, 2013, 2020). These types of systems can have inputs of data. The computer algorithm from the system
real-time performance due to the advances in technology using it essentially “learns” and incorporates that knowledge
and have become paramount in the entertainment industry. into its dataset. Although much of the research into ML and
techniques are done in areas of computer science, the appli-
Additionally, virtual and augmented realities have been cations of the methods into acoustics have driven some of
employed in training and as a diagnostic tool. In the past, the more recent advances. A major method of ML, called
there used to be latency or slowing down of simulations deep learning, based on artificial neural networks that work
due to the huge amounts of data being generated. However, through several layers, train systems to do everything from
this is not as significant problem anymore given advances synthesizing music to being able to perform better than the
in computer technology. As a result, sound synthesis and human ear for recognition (Hawley et al., 2020).
production of indoor/outdoor surroundings can be com-
bined with three-dimensional stereoscopic display systems Summary and Conclusions
through data fusion (e.g., Vorlander, 2020). The research The large variety of methods and applications outlined here
and design applications have led to improved reality for is hardly an exhaustive depiction of computational acoustics.
video games and similar systems. The user experience is Due to limitations in my knowledge and the space and time
enhanced by adding accurately synthesized sound and to do so, only a brief introduction to the field could be given.
allowing the listener to be able to move unrestrictedly, e.g., However, hopefully, I was able to make the case for the need
turn the head, to be able to perceive a more natural situation. for the field of computational acoustics and the variety of
areas of application. The uses of computational methods
Moreover, the improved synthesis algorithms (e.g., Gao et have driven discovery and improved understanding in a
al., 2020) can be used to provide more realistic conditions variety of areas of acoustics including sound synthesis, voice
for psychoacoustic tests. Sound synthesis algorithms based recognition, modeling of acoustic propagation, and source
on deterministic-stochastic signal decomposition have identification. Several techniques have been used to aid in
been applied to synthesize pitch and time scale modifica- the design of new automotive technologies by modeling the
tions of the stochastic or random component of internal mechanical interactions of structures with different moving
combustion engine noise (Jagla et al., 2012). The method parts and the fluids involved.
uses a pitch-synchronous overlap-and-add algorithm,
used in speech synthesis, that exploits the use of recorded Several of these methods are not only being used in engi-
engine noise data and the fact that the method does not neering acoustics, but they are also being employed for
require specific knowledge of the engine frequency. The space design for concert halls and classrooms. This type
data-based method used for speech synthesis, noise analy- of modeling has improved noise suppression in a variety
sis, and synthesis of engine noise just mentioned is similar of mechanical systems. Computational techniques are
to what is used in ML. Applications of ML seem to have being used in modeling and simulation in signal process-
no limits in the data-driven world of today. ing to utilize ML methods in the investigation of acoustic
source identification and classification. The methods are
ML methods are based on statistics and are excellent at detect- being applied to areas of animal bioacoustics to aid in
ing patterns in large datasets. Applications in acoustics are species identification for population monitoring, avoid-
fertile ground for research into ML for things such as voice ing direct interaction with the animals. The methods and
recognition, source identification, and bioacoustics (e.g., applications of computational acoustics are only going to
Bianco et al, 2019). With technologies like Alexa or Google grow over years to come and have become a fruitful and
Home, voice recognition investigations are needed to allow rewarding area of research.
the technology to work with people having different accents
or pronunciations or speaking different languages. The algo- Disclaimer
rithms must utilize huge datasets of recorded voices to teach The opinions and assertions contained herein are my private
the computer system to “learn” based on input. Models are opinions and are not to be construed as official or reflecting
developed of voices pronouncing certain common words the views of the United States Department of Defense, spe-
used for searching. Variations are compared statistically to the cifically, the US Navy or any of its component commands.
16 Acoustics Today • Spring 2021
Acknowledgments Hawley, S. H., Chatziioannou, V., and Morrison, A. (2020). Synthesis of
I thank Arthur N. Popper for all his insight and feedback in musical instrument sounds: physics-based modeling or machine learning?
Acoustics Today, 16(1), 20-28. [Link]
developing the manuscript. I also thank my loving wife Janelle Jagla, J., Maillard, J., and Martin, N. (2012). Sample-based engine noise
for all her support, which I would not be able to do without. synthesis using an enhanced pitch-synchronous overlap-and-add method.
Moreover, I acknowledge the love and support of my family The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 132(5), 3098-3108.
Jensen, F. B., Kuperman, W. A., Porter, M. B., and Schmidt, H. (2011). Com-
and friends, Sabina Macy for helping me with editing, and
putational Ocean Acoustics, 2nd ed. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY.
Venus Larson, both keeping me from losing my mind. Kolar, M. A., (2018). Archaeoacoustics: Re-sounding material culture.
Acoustics Today 14(4), 28-37.
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acoustic transducer with a standard spherical target in nearfield.
The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 137, 2148-2157.
Declercq, N. F., Degrieck, J., Briers, R., and Leroy, O. (2004). A theo- Grant C. Eastland
retical study of special acoustic effects caused by the staircase of the [Link]@[Link]
El Castillo pyramid at the Maya ruins of Chichen-Itza in Mexico.
The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 116, 3328-3335. Naval Undersea Warfare Center
[Link] Division, Keyport
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in oceanography: The research roles of sound field simulations. Acous- Keyport, Washington 98345, USA
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Grant C. Eastland received his PhD in
Everstine, G. C., and Henderson, F. M. (1990). Coupled finite element/
physics from Washington State University (Pullman) in 2012
boundary element approach for fluid-structure interaction. The Jour-
under the direction of Philip L. Marston, studying scattering
nal of the Acoustical Society of America 87, 1938-1947.
boundary effects in acoustic imaging. He did postdoctoral
[Link]
Faran, J. J., Jr. (1951). Sound scattering by solid cylinders and spheres. research at the NOAA Northwest Fisheries Science Center
The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 23, 405-418. in Seattle from 2012 to 2015, working on acoustic target
Gao, H., Shen, Yuchen, Feng, X. and Shen, Yong (2020). Sound field calibration techniques. Currently, he is a physicist in test and
synthesis of arbitrary moving sources using spectral division method. evaluation at the Naval Undersea Warfare Center Division, Key-
The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 148, EL247-EL252. port (WA). His primary fields of interest are ocean acoustic
[Link] propagation, scattering, and acoustic imaging. His research
Greenberg, S. (2018). Deep language learning. Acoustics Today 14(4), 19-27. can be considered phenomenological, including theoretical,
Hambric, S. A., and Fahnline, J. B. (2007). Structural acoustics tuto- computational acoustic modeling, and empirical investigations.
rial — part 2: Sound — structure interaction. Acoustics Today 3(2), 9-27.
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