HYDRAULICS 2015

HYDRAULICS
Introduction

The Science of Hydraulics. Hydraulics is defined as that branch of science which treats of water or other fluid in
motion. A prerequisite to the understanding of the motion of fluids, however, is knowledge to the pressure exerted by
fluids at rest. The field of hydraulics also includes hydrodynamics, which relates to the forces exerted by or upon fluids in
motion.

The principles relating to the behavior of water or other fluids at rest are based upon certain definite laws which
hold rigidly in practice. In solving problems involving these principles it is possible to proceed by purely rational
methods, the results obtained being free from doubt or ambiguity. Calculations are based upon a few natural principles
which are universally true and simple enough to permit of easy application. In problems ordinarily encountered in
hydrostatics, after the unit weight of the fluid has been determined, no other experimental data are required.

A fluid in motion, however, presents an entirely different condition. Though the motion undoubtedly takes place
in accordance with fixed laws, the nature of these laws and the influence of the surrounding conditions upon them are very
complex and have thus far defied complete expression in mathematical form. However, a great number of engineering
problems involving fluid flow have been solved by combining mathematical theory with experimental data.

Although many of the laws governing the flow of fluids have been well known for centuries, it has been, as in
other branches of science, only within comparatively recent times that applications of these laws have been widely
extended. Most of the early knowledge of hydraulics applied only to water, as the name indicates. With modern use and
transportation of oils, gasoline, chemicals, steam, and gases, it has been necessary to extend the laws of hydraulics both
mathematically and experimentally to include these fluids. A great step in advance was made when it was discovered,
largely through the research of Osborne Reynolds, that, from experiments on any particular fluid, it is often possible to
predict, at least approximately, the characteristics of flow of any other fluid.

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

Discharge

The discharge, Q, often called the volume flow rate, is the volume of fluid that passes through an area per unit time. For
example, when filling the gas tank of an automobile, the discharge or volume flow rate would be the gallons per minute
flowing through the nozzle. Typical units for discharge are ft3/s (cfs), ft3/min (cfm), gpm, m3/s, and L/s.

Volume Flow Rate, Q =A V

Flow rate in terms of Mass or Weight:

Mass Flow Rate, M = ρ Q

Weight Flow Rate, W = γ Q

Where:

Q = discharge
A = cross-sectional area
V = velocity or mean velocity of flow

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ρ = mass density
ϒ = weight density/unit weight

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Streamlines/Path lines

A fluid in motion can be considered to consist of a great number of individual particles all of which move in the
general direction of flow but usually not in parallel lines or even with continuous motion. Streamlines are imaginary
curves drawn through a fluid to indicate the direction of motion in various sections of the flow of the fluid system.

Stream Tubes

A stream tube is a small bundle of path lines. These represent elementary portions of a flowing fluid bounded by a
group of streamlines which confine the flow.

Laminar Flow

Flow is said to be laminar when the paths of the individual particles do not cross or intersect. With this type of
flow in conduits having parallel sides the path lines are parallel. The flow is always laminar when the Reynolds number
Re is less than 2000.

Turbulent Flow

Flow is said to be turbulent when its path lines are irregular curves which continually cross each other and form a
complicated network which in the aggregate represents the forward motion of the entire stream. Turbulent flow normally
occurs when the Reynolds number exceeds 2000.

Steady Flow

If the discharge Q passing a given cross section of a stream is constant with time, the flow is steady at that cross
section. If Q at the cross section varies with time the flow is unsteady. Steady flow involves permanency of conditions at
any particular cross section.

Uniform Flow

If, with steady flow in any length, or “reach”, of a stream, the average velocity at every cross section is the same,
the flow is said to be uniform in that reach. For fluids considered incompressible this condition requires a stream of
uniform cross section. In streams where changes of cross section and velocity occur, the flow is said to be non-uniform.
Uniform flow implies simultaneous uniformity of conditions at successive cross sections.

Continuous Flow

When, at any instant, the number of particles passing every cross section of the stream is the same, the flow is
said to be continuous, or there is continuity of flow. Letting Q, A and V represent, respectively, discharge, area, and mean
velocity, with similar applying to the same cross section, continuity of flow with non-compressible fluids exists when

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Q1 =Q2 =Q3 . ..
A1 υ 1 =A 2 υ 2 =A 3 υ 3 . . .

Q Q1 Q2 Q

With gas flow, the number of particles passing the given point depends not only on their mean velocity and the area of
cross section but also on the density of the gas. The equation of continuity for compressible fluids thus becomes

ρ1 Q1 =ρ2 Q2 .. .

This occurs when in an incompressible fluid, the direction and magnitude of the velocity at all points are identical.

Two-Dimensional Flow

This occurs when the fluid particles move in planes or parallel planes and the streamline patterns are identical in each
plane.

Flow Nets

These are drawn to indicate flow patterns in case of two-dimensional flow, or even three-dimensional flow.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. Compute the discharge of water through a 3-in. pipe if the mean velocity is 8.5 ft per sec.

2. Air that has a mass density of 1.24 kg/m3 (0.00241 slugs/ft3) flows in a pipe with a diameter of 30 cm (0.984 ft) at a
mass rate of flow of 3 kg/s (0.206 slugs/s). What are the mean velocity and discharge in this pipe for both systems of
units?

3. A pipe line consists of successive lengths of 15-in, 12-in, and 10-in diameter pipe. With a continuous flow through the
line of 9 cfs of water compute the mean velocity in each size of pipe.

4. Water flows through a 75 mm diameter pipe at a velocity of 3 m/s. Find (a) the volume flow rate in cu.m/sec and lit/sec,
(b) the mass flow rate in kg/sec, (c) weight flow rate in N/sec.

5. The hypodermic needle in the figure below contains liquid serum (SG=1.05). If the serum is to be injected steadily at 6
cm3/s, how fast in in/s should the plunger be advanced (a) if leakage in the plunger clearance is neglected an (b) if leakage
is 10 percent of the needle flow?

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6. Water flows steadily through a closed tank, as in the figure. At section 1, D 1 = 6 cm and
the volume flow is 100 m3/h. At section 2, D2 = 5 cm and the average velocity is 8 m/s. If
D3 = 4 cm, what is (a) Q3 in m3/h and (b) average V3 in m/s?

ENERGY AND HEAD

Since the principles of energy are applied in the derivation of the fundamental
hydraulic formulas, an explanation of such principle as will be used is here introduced.
Energy is defined as ability to do work. The three forms of energy which must be considered in connection with
the flow of fluids are therefore usually stated as: 1. Kinetic energy. 2. Elevation energy. 3. Pressure energy. Other forms
of such as heat energy and electrical energy have little bearing on the laws governing flowing liquids, although
thermodynamic effects are important in the flow of gases.

1. Kinetic energy is the ability of a mass to do work by virtue of its velocity. If in any mass M, every individual particle
has the same velocity v, in feet per second, the kinetic energy of the mass is ½ Mv2, and, since M = W/g,
2
v
K . E=W
2g

which reduces to v2/2g for a weight of unity. The expression v2/2g is of the form
2
ft
( )
sec
2
=ft
ft / sec
and it therefore represents a linear quantity expressed in feet. It is the height through which a body must fall in a vacuum
to acquire the velocity v. When applied to a moving mass it is called the velocity head.
2
v
Kinetic∨velocity head=
2g

2. Elevation energy is manifested in a fluid by virtue of its position or elevation with respect to some arbitrarily selected
horizontal datum plane, considered in connection with the action of gravity. Elevation energy may be explained by
considering a mass having a weight of W pounds the elevation of which above any horizontal datum plane is z feet. With
respect to this plane the mass has Wz foot-pounds of energy. Here again the expression for energy, in this case z,
represents a linear quantity called the elevation head of the mass, but it should be kept clearly in the mind that z is also the
energy expressed in foot-pounds contained in 1 lb of fluid by virtue of its position with respect to the datum plane.

Elevation Energy=Wz=Mgz

Elevation Head=z

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3. Pressure energy differs fundamentally from kinetic and elevation energy, to the extent that no mass per se can have
such energy. Any mass having pressure energy acquires that energy only by virtue of contact with other masses having
some form of energy. Consider a closed tank filled with a fluid which has a small opening at the top. Without pressure at
the top, the fluid practically will not flow. In the previous subject (fluid mechanics), the equivalent head (pressure head)
for a pressure of p is p/ϒ. Hence pressure energy is equal to:

p
Pressure energy=W
ϒ

p
Pressure Head=
ϒ

Total Flow Energy, E

The total energy or head in a fluid flow is the sum of the kinetic and the potential energies.

ENERGY EQUATION Total Energy of Flow:

E = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energies

υ2 ρ
E= + +Z
2g γ

υ2
2g = velocity head (K.E.)

ρ
γ = pressure head (P.E.)

z = elevation head (P.E.)

Power and Efficiency

Power is the rate at which work is done. For a fluid of unit weight ϒ (N/cu.m.) and moving at a rate of Q(cu.m/s)
with a total energy of E (m), the power in N-m/s (joule/s) or watt is:

Power=Q ϒ E

Output
Efficiency ,η= (100 %)
Input

Note:

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1 horsepower (hp) = 746 watt

1 horsepower (hp) = 550 ft-lb/s
1 watt = 1 N-m/s = 1 joule/s

BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM

In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli, an eminent European mathematician and philosopher, demonstrated that in any stream
flowing steadily without friction the total energy contained in a given mass is the same at every point and its path of flow.
In other words, kinetic energy, pressure energy, and energy of position may each be converted into either of the other two
forms, theoretically without loss. Thus if there is a reduction in the amount of energy contained in any one form there
must be an equal gain in the sum of the other two.

v hL
12 EGL
2g
v
22
p1 HGL
2g
γ
p2
1 γ
Q
2
z1
z2
datum

PIPE FLOW

Between any two points (1 and 2) along the stream:

E1 + H A −H E −H L=E 2

where: E1 = Total energy (head) at section 1

HA = head added (by the pump)

HE = head extracted (by turbine or any other device)

HL = total head lost

Energy Equation without Head Loss

E1=E 2

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2 2
v1 P 1 v2 P 2
+ + z 1= + + z 2
2g γ 2g γ

Energy Equation with Head Loss

2 2
v1 P 1 v2 P 2
+ + z 1= + + z 2+ H L1−2
2g γ 2g γ

Energy Equation with Pump

2 2
v1 P 1 v2 P 2
+ + z 1+ HA= + + z 2 + H L1−2
2g γ 2g γ

Output Power of Pump=QγHA

Energy Equation with Turbine or Motor

2 2
v1 P 1 v2 P 2
+ + z 1= + + z 2+ H L1−2 + HE
2g γ 2g γ

Input Power of Turbine=QγHE

Hydraulic Gradient and Energy Gradient

Loss of head in pipe flow is illustrated graphically in the figure, in which are shown two lines designated
respectively the hydraulic gradient and the energy gradient. The former is defined by the locus of elevations to which
liquid rises in successive piezometer tubes, and is thus a graphical representation, with respect to any selected datum, of
the potential (pressure + elevation) head or energy which the liquid possesses at all sections of the pipe.

The energy gradient is above the hydraulic gradient a distance equal to the velocity head at each section, and is
thus a graphical representation, with respect to the selected datum, of the total head or energy possessed by the liquid.

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ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. A fluid is flowing in a horizontal pipe 8 in. in diameter with a mean velocity of 10 ft/s. The pressure at
the center of the pipe is 5 psi, and the elevation of the pipe above the assumed datum is 15 ft. Compute
the total head in feet if the fluid is (a) water, (b) oil (SG=0.8), and (c) molasses (SG=1.5).
2. The jet of water from a nozzle discharging into air has a diameter of 6 in. and a mean velocity of 120
ft/s. Compute the velocity head and the horsepower in the jet.
3. The pump-turbine system in the figure below draws water from the upper reservoir in the daytime to
produce power for a city. At night, it pumps water from lower to upper reservoirs to restore the situation.
For a design flow rate of 15,000 gal/min in either direction, the friction head loss is 17 ft. Estimate the
power in kW (a) extracted by the turbine and (b) delivered by the pump.

4. The Horizontal pump in the figure below discharges water at 57 m3/h. Neglecting losses, what power in
kW is delivered to the water by the pump?

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5. A fireboat draws seawater (SG=1.025) from submerged pipe

and discharges it through a nozzle. The total head loss is 6.5 ft.
If the pump efficiency is 75 percent, what horsepower motor is
required to drive it?

6. Kerosene (SG=0.804) flows through the pump at 2.3 ft3/s. Head losses
between 1 and 2 are 8 ft, and the pump delivers 8 hp to the flow. What should
the mercury manometer reading h ft be?

7. The liquid in the figure is kerosene. Estimate the flow

rate from the tank for (a) no losses and (b) pipe losses
hf = 4.5V2/2g.

FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENT

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ORIFICES

An orifice is an opening with a closed perimeter through which a fluid flows. The usual purpose of an orifice is
the measurement or control of the flow.

The upstream edge of an orifice may be rounded or sharp. An orifice with prolonged sides, such as a piece of pipe
two or three diameters in length, is called tube. An orifice in a thick wall has the hydraulic properties of a tube.

Orifices used for measuring flow are usually circular, square, or rectangular in cross section. Because of
simplicity of design and construction, sharp-edged circular orifices are most common for fluid measurement and have
been most thoroughly investigated by experiment, although much remains to be learned about the laws governing their
discharge, particularly for fluids other than water.

Velocity of Discharge

Figure below represents the general case of a liquid discharging through a vertical rounded orifice. In the derivation of the

fundamental formula it will be assumed that the water flows without friction and also that there is no contraction of the jet
and therefore no pressure within the jet in the plane of the orifice. In order to write a general expression applicable to all
filaments, it will be necessary to make the further assumption that all of the water particles in a cross-section of the
channel of approach flow with the same velocity. Applying energy equation from point m at the tank to point n at the jet,
we arrive with the fundamental formula for the velocity of discharge (theoretical):

υ t =√ 2 gH
Thus, the theoretical discharge flowing from an orifice

Qt = A o √ 2 gH

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Coefficient of Velocity

The actual velocity in the jet is less than the theoretical velocity because of the frictional resistance that occurs as
the fluid enters and passes through the orifice. The ratio of the actual mean velocity Va to the theoretical velocity Vt which
would exist without friction is called the coefficient of velocity and is designated Cv. Thus Cv = Va/Vt, and

V a =C v V t =C v √ 2 gH

Coefficient of Contraction

The figure below represents a cross section of a vertical sharp-edged orifice discharging a liquid from a reservoir
into the atmosphere. The particles of the liquid approach the orifice in converging paths from all directions. Because of
the inertia of those particles with velocity components parallel to the plane of the
orifice, they cannot make abrupt changes in their directions the instant they reach
the orifice, and therefore follow curvilinear paths, thus causing the jet to contract for
a short distance beyond the orifice. This phenomenon is referred to as the
contraction of the jet. The section at a where contraction ceases is called the vena
contracta. The vena contracta for a sharp-edged circular orifice of diameter D has
been found to be at a distance of about 0.5D from the plane of the orifice.

The ratio of the cross sectional area of the jet at the vena contracta to the area of
the orifice is called the coefficient of contraction, Cc. Thus, if a and A are,
respectively, the cross sectional area of the jet at the vena contracta and the area of
the orifice, and Cc is the coefficient of contraction,

a
C c= ∨a=Cc A
A
If Va is the actual mean velocity in the vena contracta the discharge through the orifice is

Q=a V a=C c C v A √ 2 gH

Coefficient of Discharge

It is usual to replace the product of CcCv in the equation above with a single coefficient Cd, called the coefficient
of discharge. The equation for the discharge of a fluid through an orifice thus becomes

Q=C d A √ 2 gH

Experimental Determination of Orifice Coefficients (Coordinate Method)

Since in practice it is usually the discharge from orifices that is required, it is the coefficient of discharge that is of
greatest value to engineers.

Let the figure below represent a side view of a jet from a vertical orifice. The jet at the vena contracta is travelling
horizontally with velocity Va. The force of gravity causes the jet to curve downward. Let x and y represent the

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coordinates of any other point in the jet. Neglecting air resistance, the horizontal component of the jet velocity is constant
with time t, from which

x=Vt

The jet has a downward acceleration which conforms to the law of falling
bodies, and therefore

1 2
y= g t
2

Eliminating t between the two equations

2
2 2V
x= y
g

which is the equation of a parabola with its vertex at the vena contracta.

STANDARD SHORT TUBES

A tube with square-cornered entrance and a length about 2.5

times its diameter is termed a standard short tube. If flow from such
a tube is started suddenly at a relatively high head, the jet may
spring clear of the walls, as in the figure at the right, and the
coefficients will then be the same as for a sharp-edge orifice in a
thin plate. Thus, the velocity of the discharge

V a =C v V t =C v √ 2 gH

It follows that the discharge

Q=C d A √ 2 gH

NOZZLE

A nozzle is a converging tube attached to the end of

a pipe or hose which serves to increase the velocity of the

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issuing jet. Figures at the right illustrate two types of nozzles in common use. The converging part of the tube may be the
frustum of a cone as in the figure (a), or the inside may be convex as in figure (b). Each of these shapes gives an efficient
stream.

The energy equation for a horizontal nozzle written between points a point at entrance of the nozzle and a point in
the jet as follows
2 2
v1 P 1 v2
+ = +lost head
2g γ 2g

PITOT TUBE

A bent L-shaped tube with both ends open, similar

to the figure at the right, is called a Pitot tube, after the
French investigator who first used such a device for
measuring the velocity of liquids.

When the tube is first placed in a moving stream

in the position shown, the liquid enters the opening at e
until the surface in the tube rises a distance h above the
surface of the stream. A condition of equilibrium is then
established, and the quantity of liquid in the tube remains
unchanged as long as the flow remains steady.

Applying energy equation for path line de, the

elevation heads being equal and friction neglected, the
velocity of discharge is

υ=√ 2 gh

VENTURI METER

An illustration of the practical use of the energy equation is provided by the Venturi meter. This instrument,
which is used for measuring the discharge through pipes, was invented by an American engineer, Clemens Herschel, and
named by him in honor of the original discoverer of the principle involved.

A venturi meter set in an inclined position is illustrated below. It consists of a short converging tube BC,
connected to the approach pipe at the inlet end B, and ending in a cylindrical section CD, called the throat. Usually built
as an integral part of a venturi meter is the diverging section DE, connected to the pipe at the outlet end E. The angle of
divergence is kept small to reduce the loss of head caused by turbulence as the velocity is reduced.

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In practical use of the venturi

meter, head loss, though small, should
not be neglected. It causes the actual
flow, Qa, to be less than the theoretical
flow, Qt. The correction is usually made
by applying a factor less than 1 to the
theoretical flow. This factor is called the
meter coefficient. Thus, if C denotes the
meter coefficient,

Q = CQt

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. Compute the theoretical discharge of

water through a 2-in. circular sharp-
edged orifice under heads of 0.8, 1.6,
and 3.2 ft. Determine also the actual
velocity and discharge at a constant head of 3.2 ft if Cc=0.62 and Cv=0.98.

2. Theoretically, what diameter of standard, sharp-edged orifice will be required to produce a discharge of 1.25 cfs of
water under a head of 11.5 ft?

3. A 50-mm diameter circular sharp-edged orifice at the side of a tank discharges water under a head of 3 m. If the
coefficient of contraction Cc=0.63 and the head lost is 240 mm, compute the discharge and the coefficients of velocity Cv
and discharge Cd.

4. A sharp-edged orifice, 4 in. in diameter, in the vertical wall of a tank, discharges under a constant head of 4 ft. The
volume discharged in 2 minutes weighs 6350 lb. At a point 2.57 ft below the center of the orifice the center of the jet is
6.28 ft distant horizontally from the vena contracta. Determine Cc, Cv, and Cd.

5. A standard short tube, 4 in. in diameter, discharges water under a head of 20 ft. What is the discharge in cubic feet per
second if Cd=0.829?

6. A nozzle similar to those tested by Freeman has a tip diameter of 7/8 in. and is attached to a hose having a diameter of
1.55 in. If the pressure I the hose at the base of the nozzle is 40 psi determine the discharge.

7. A Pitot tube in a pipe in which air (ρ = 1.24 kg/cu.m) is flowing is connected to a manometer containing water. If the
difference in water levels in the manometer is 3.5 in., what is the velocity of flow in the pipe, assuming a tube coefficient,
Cp, of 0.99?

8. A Venturi meter having a diameter of 6 in. at the throat is installed in a horizontal 18-in. water main. In a differential
gage partly filled with mercury (the remainder of the tube being filled with water) and connected with the meter at the
inlet and throat, the mercury column stands 15 in. higher in one leg than in the other. What is the discharge through the
meter in cubic feet per second: (a) neglecting friction; (b) if the loss of head between inlet and throat is 1 ft of water?
Compute the meter coefficient in (b).

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9. In a test to determine he discharge coefficient of a 2-in. by ½-in. venturi meter the total weight of water passing through
the meter in 5.0 min. was 768 lb. A mercury water differential gage connected to inlet and throat of the meter showed an
average mercury difference during that time of 1.18 ft. Determine the meter coefficient.

DISCHARGE UNDER FALLING HEAD (Unsteady Flow)

The vessel at the right is shown to be discharging a liquid through

an orifice under a head h1. If there is no compensating inflow, the depth
or head will gradually decrease. The time that will elapse while the head
is being reduced from h1 to h2 is required.

At the instant when he head is H the discharge is

Q=C d A √ 2 gH

Cd being the coefficient of discharge and A the area of the orifice. In the
infinitesimal time dt, the corresponding volume which flows out is

dV =C d A √ 2 gh dt

In the same infinitesimal time the head will drop dh and the volume
discharged will be

dV =A s dh

where As is the area of the liquid surface when the head is h. Equating the
values of dV

A s dh=C d A √ 2 gh dt

Or

A s dh
dt=
C d A √ 2 gh

Or
h1
A s dh
t=∫
h2 Cd A √ 2 gh

By expressing As in terms of h and interchanging between the limits h1 and h2, the time required to draw the reservoir
down the desired amount can be determined. If the time required to empty the reservoir is desired, the lower lmit of
integration h2 = 0. The discharge coefficient is assumed constant.

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If the cross-sectional area As is constant and the flow is through an orifice, the formula becomes

2 As
t=
CA √ 2 g
( √ H 1−√ H 2 )
If water flows into a tank at the rate of Qi and at the same time leaves at Qo, the time for the level to change from h1 to h2
is:

h2
A s dh
t =∫
h1 Q i−Q o

If water flows through the pipe connecting two tanks, the time for the head to change from H1 to H2 is:

A s 1 A s2 2
t=
A s 1 + A s2 CA o √ 2 g
( √ H 1 −√ H 2 )

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. A cylindrical vessel 4 ft in diameter and 6 ft high has a round-edged circular orifice 2 in. in diameter in the
bottom. The coefficient of discharge is 0.95. If the vessel is filled with water how long will it take to lower the
surface 4 ft.
2. A tank, which is the frustum of a cone having its bases horizontal and axis vertical, is 1o ft high and filled with
water. It has a diameter of 8 ft at the top and 3 ft at the bottom. What is the time required to empty the tank
through a sharp-edged orifice 3 in. square with a Cd of 0.61?
3. Two vertical cylindrical tanks 1 and 2 having diameters 2 m and 3 m, respectively, are connected with a 200-m-
diameter tube at its lower portion, and having Cd=0.6. When the tube is closed, the water surface in tank 1 is 5
meters above tank 2. How long will it take after opening the tube, for the water surface in tank 2 to rise 1 meter?

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FLUID FLOW IN PIPES

A pipe may be defined as a closed conduit through which liquids or gases flow. In hydraulics, pipes are
commonly understood to be conduits of circular cross section which flow full. Conduits flowing partially full are
considered to be open channels.

City water and gas mains in which flow occurs under pressure are examples of pipes. Sewers and drainage tile,
which normally do not flow full, are classed as open channels. Since frictional losses in general are independent of
pressure, the same laws apply to flow in both pipes and open channels, and the formulas for each take the same
general form.

Fluid flow in pipes may be steady or unsteady. In steady flow, there are two types of flow that exist; they are
called laminar flow and turbulent flow.

Laminar Flow

The flow is said to be laminar when the path of individual particles do not cross or intersect. The flow is always
laminar when the Reynolds number, Re, is less than 2000.

Turbulent Flow

Flow is said to be turbulent when its path lines are irregular curves which continually cross each other and form a
complicated network which in the aggregate represents the forward motion of the entire stream. Turbulent flow
normally occurs when the Reynolds number exceeds 2000.

Critical Velocity

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The critical velocity in pipes is the velocity below which all turbulence are damped out by the viscosity of he
fluid. This is represented by a Reynolds number of 2000.

Reynolds Number

Reynolds number, which is dimensionless, is the ratio of the inertia force to viscous force.

VDρ VD
Re = =
μ v
where:
V = mean velocity of flow, m/s
D = pipe diameter, m
μ = (mu) dynamic viscosity (Pa-s)
ν = (nu) kinematic viscosity (m2/s) μ/ρ
ρ = density, kg/m3

For non-circular pipes, use D = 4R, where R is the hydraulic radius, R = A/P
For R <2000, the flow is laminar.

Laminar flow in circular pipes can be maintained up to values of R as high as 50,000. However, in such cases this
type of flow is inherently unstable, and the least disturbance will transform it instantly into turbulent flow. On the other
hand, it is partially impossible for turbulent flow in a straight pipe to persist at values of RE much below 2000, because
any turbulence that is set up will be damped out by viscous friction.

Analysis of Velocities

In laminar flow, although the fluid particles while moving forward occupy successively the same relative
transverse positions, the fluid near the axis advances a given distance in a shorter period than that nearer to the
conduit walls. In turbulent flow, however, notwithstanding the irregular paths traversed by the fluid particles, the
average longitudinal speed of each particle is approximately the same. This can be shown by suddenly injecting a
charge of colored liquid into a pipe in which water is flowing and observing the water at the outlet. The coloring
matter will be found to remain in a comparatively short prism having a length equal to about one-tenth of the distance
traveled. This principle is sometimes utilized in measuring the velocity of flow in the pipes.

The velocities in any longitudinal section when plotted as abscissas with the distance from the edge of the pipe as
ordinates approximately define an ellipse. Experiments indicate that the mean velocity is about 0.85 of the maximum
velocity. If “d” represents the diameter, the circle of mean velocity is approximately 0.13d from the surface of the
pipe.

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Any irregularity or obstruction in a pipe or any condition which causes the water to change its direction of flow
will change the regular distribution of velocities. A bend in pipe, for example, causes the line of maximum velocity to
move from the axis of the pipe towards its concave side. The figure below shows the actual distribution of velocities
in a curved pipe from measurements by Saph and Schoder.

HEAD LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW

Loss of head in feet (or in meter) of fluid meaning loss of energy expressed in foot-pounds per pound (newton-
meter per newton) of fluid, occurs in any flow of fluid through a pipe. The loss is caused by: (1) “pipe friction” along
the straight sections of the pipe of uniform diameter and uniform roughness; and (2) changes in velocity or direction
of flow. Losses of these two types are ordinarily referred to respectively as major losses and minor losses.

Major Loss. This is the continuous loss of head, hf, assumed to occur at a uniform rate along the pipe as long as
the size and quality of pipe remain constant, and is commonly referred as the loss of head due to friction.

In the study to determine the laws governing the loss of head due to pipe friction, it has been observed that the
resistance to flow is

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1. directly proportional to the length of the pipe, L,

2. varying to a certain power of the mean velocity, V,
3. dependent on the pipe wall’s roughness, only under turbulent conditions,
4. inversely proportional to some power of the diameter, D,
5. independent of the pressure which affects fluid motion.

Minor Losses. These consist of:

1. A loss of head, hc, due to contraction of cross section. This loss is caused by a reduction in the cross-sectional
area of the stream and the resulting increase in velocity. The contraction may be sudden or it may be tapered.
The loss of head at the entrance to a pipe from a reservoir is a special case of loss due to contraction.
2. A loss of head, he, due to enlargement of the cross-section. This loss is caused by an increase in the cross-
sectional area of the stream with resulting decrease in velocity. The enlargement may be either sudden or
gradual. The loss of head at the outlet end of a pipe where it discharges into a reservoir is a special case of
loss of head due to enlargement.
3. A loss of head, hg, caused by obstructions such as gates or valves which produce a change in cross-sectional
area in the pipe or n the direction of flow. The result is usually a sudden increase or decrease in the velocity
followed by a more gradual return to the original velocity.
4. A loss of head, hb, caused by bends or curves in pipes, I addition to the loss which occurs in an equal length of
straight pipe. Such bends may be of any total deflection angle as well as any radius of curvature.
Occasionally, as in a reducing elbow, the loss due to bend is superimposed on a loss due to change in
velocity.

If the symbol HL is used to designate all losses of head in a pipe line in which there is steady, continuous flow
HL = hf + hc + he + hg + hb

Shearing Stress in Pipe

The maximum shearing stress, τ, is at the pipe wall and is computed using the formula
γ hL
τ= r
2L

Or

γ hL D
τ=
4L

Shear Velocity or Friction Velocity

v s=
√ √
τ
ρ
=v
f
8

Wetted Perimeter and Hydraulic Radius

The wetted perimeter “P” of any conduit is the line of intersection of its wetted surface with a cross-sectional
plane. Thus for a circular pipe flowing full, “D” being the diameter, the wetted perimeter is equal to the circumference.

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The hydraulic radius “R” of a conduit is the area of cross section of the stream which it carries divided by the
wetted perimeter of the section. For a circular conduit flowing either full or half full the hydraulic radius is D/4.

f L V2
hf = in ft or meter
Darcy-Weisbach Formula D 2g
64
For Laminar flow, f = R

0 .316
R 0 . 25
For Turbulent (smooth pipes, Re between 3 000 and 100 000), f = e

For non-circular pipe, use D = 4R

For circular pipes (S.I.)

V 2 8Q 2
=
2 g π 2 gD 4
fL 8 Q 2
hf =
D π 2 gD 4

0 .0826 f L Q2
For S.I. units, hf = D5
2 1
1 3 2
V= R S
Manning’s Formula (S.I.) n

where R = hydraulic radius = A/P

S = slope of EGL = hf /L

6 .35 n2 L υ 2
hf =
D4 /3

Use D = 4R for non-circular pipes

For circular pipes (S.I.)

10 .29 n2 L Q2
hf =
D16 /3

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Q=0. 2785 C 1 D 2. 63 S 0. 54
Hazen-William’s

Formula (S.I.) where C1 = Hazen-William’s coefficient

S = slope of EGL = hf / L

10 .67 L Q 1 . 85
hf =
C 1. 85 D 4 . 87
1

Minor Head Loss Minor losses are due to changes in direction and velocity of flow, and is
expressed in terms of the velocity head at the smaller section of the pipe
in case of constrictions.

υ2
h m=K
2g
where K = coefficient of minor loss

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. Mercury flows in the 100 mm diameter pipe at 20 degrees Celsius, with v=1.15 x 10 -7 m2/s with a flow of 0.8
liters/second. Determine the type of flow.
2. What is the Reynolds number for a flow of oil ([Link].=0.8, absolute viscosity µ=0.002 lb.s/ft 2) in a 6 in. diameter
pipe at flow rate of 10 ft3/s?
3. The head loss in 50 m of 12 cm diameter pipe is known to be 6 m when liquid specific gravity = 0.9 of absolute
viscosity= 0.04 Pa.s flows at 0.06 m3/s. Find the shear stress at the wall of the pipe.
4. A city supply pipeline consists of a new 60 cm cast-iron pipe. Compute the frictional loss of head per kilometer of
pipe when the discharge is 0.35 cu.m/s. (f=0.018)
5. A 1 m. diameter new cast iron pipe is 845 m. long and has a head loss of 1.11 m. Find the discharge capacity of
water for this pipe using (a.)Manning’s formula with n=0.013, (b.) Darcy-Weisbach formula with f=0.018, and
(c.) Hazen-William’s formula at C=120.
6. A new cast-iron pipe 12 in. in diameter and 1 mile long carries water from a reservoir and discharges into the air.
If the entrance to the pipe is 10 ft below the water level in the reservoir and the pipe is laid on a downgrade of 2 ft
per 1000 ft, determine the discharge. (f=0.018)
7. Water is pumped through a vertical 5 cm new galvanized iron pipe to an elevated tank on the roof of building.
The pressure on the discharge side of the pump is 1380 kPa. What pressure can be expected at a point in the pipe
76 m above the pump when the flow is 9.5 liters/s?
8. A 10 cm new steel pipe carries 16 L/s of heavy fuel oil at a temperature of 27 degrees Celsius. Determine the pipe
friction loss for 1600 m long pipe. Kinematic viscosity of the oil at 27 degrees Celsius is equal to 1.06 x 10 -4 m2/s.
9. Determine the loss of head due to sudden enlargement in a pipe carrying 57 L/s of water which suddenly changes
from a diameter of 15 cm to 20 cm. Also find the pressure difference between points before and after the change
of section. Ke = 0.185

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PIPES CONNECTED IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

In most hydraulic problems the major head losses constitute most of the total head H, and the minor losses are
frequently so small as to be negligible. If the pipe length in any problem is about 500 diameters, the error resulting from
neglecting minor losses will ordinarily not exceed 5 percent, and if the pipe length is 1000 diameters or more the effect of
minor losses can usually be considered negligible. If, however, it is desired to include these losses, a solution may be
made first neglecting them and then correcting the results to include them.

The flow is assumed to be continuous and steady. Two common problems of this type arise.

1. Sizes and lengths of pipes, and Q, given; to find total loss of head.
The loss of head, hf1, hf2, and hf3 in each successive size of pipe can be determined by formula or
diagram. The total head lost is then H = hf1 + hf2 + hf3. The minor losses, at entrance, enlargement,
contraction, and discharge, can be computed and included if appreciable.

2. Allowable loss of head given, lengths and sizes of pipe given; to find Q.

PIPES CONNECTED IN SERIES

PIPES CONNECTED IN PARALLEL

EQUIVALENT PIPE

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If a pipe system is to be replaced with an equivalent single pipe, the equivalent pipe must have discharge and head
loss as the original pipe system.

QE = Q O
HLE = HLO

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. Pipes 1, 2 and 3 are 300 m., 150 m. and 250 m. long and of 25 cm., 12 cm. and 20 cm. in diameter with f1, f2 and f3
equal to 0.019, 0.021 and 0.02 respectively and are connected in series. If the total head loss is 10 m, what is the rate of
flow in cu.m./sec.?

2. Two pipes, each 300 m long, are connected in series. The flow of water through the pipes is 150 L/s with a total friction
loss of 15 m. If one pipe has a diameter of 300 mm, what is the diameter of the other pipe? Neglect minor losses and
assume f = 0.02 for both pipes.

3. Two pipes 1 and 2 having the same length and diameter are in parallel. If the flow in pipe 1 is 750 L/s, what is the flow
in pipe 2 if the friction factor f of the second pipe is twice that of the first pipe?

4. A pipe network consists of pipeline 1 from A to B, then at B it is connected to pipelines 2 and 3, where it merges again
at joint C to form a single pipeline 4 up to joint D. Pipelines 1, 2 and 4 are in series connection whereas pipelines 2 and 3
are parallel to each other. If the rate of flow from A to B is 10 L/s and assuming f = 0.02 for all pipes, determine the flow
in each pipe and the total head loss from a to D.

PIPE LENGTH (m) DIAMETER (mm)

1 3 000 200
2 2 200 300
3 3 200 200
4 2 800 400

5. The total head loss from A to E as shown in the figure is 20

meters. Find the discharge in each pipe in cu.m./sec. Use friction
factor, f=0.02 in all pipes.

6. Three pipes 1, 2 and 3 are connected in parallel. The difference

in head at the ends is 40 m. If a fourth pipe 25 cm. diameter and
length 1200 m. with f=0.018 was attached at the end of the three
pipes, what would be the velocity of water at the fourth pipe?

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PIPES DIAM.(cm) LENGTH(m f

)
1 15 600 0.02
2 10 480 0.03
3 20 900 0.025

7. A 250-mm diameter pipe (f=0.015), 150 m long, is connected in series with another 200-mm diameter pipe (f=0.02),
200 m long. Determine the diameter of an equivalent single pipe of length 350 m and f=0.025 that could replace the two
pipes.

8. A 150-mm diameter pipe (f=0.02), 600 m long, is in parallel with a 200-mm diameter pipe (f=0.025), 750 m long.
Determine the diameter of an equivalent single pipe of length 750 m and f=0.015 that could replace the two pipes.

9. The pipe system shown are all cast-iron with f=0.02. If the flow is 0.6 cu.m./sec., what would be the diameter of a
single pipe from B to C such that it replaces pipes 2, 3 and 4 without altering the capacity for the same head loss from A
to D.

PIPE LENGTH (m) DIAMETER (mm)

1 900 600
2 1050 350
3 750 300
4 900 400
5 1500 750

BRANCHING
PIPES (Three
reservoir problems)
Consider three reservoirs A, B,
and C on the figure below connected
to a common junction J by pipes 1, 2,
and 3 with friction losses hf1, hf2,
and hf3, respectively. Assume that

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the pipes are sufficiently long so the minor losses may be taken negligible. By reason of continuity the flows into and out
of the junction J are equal. And, as indicated by the piezometric tube at the junction, the pressure head is common to all
the three pipes.

If the flow direction in each pipe is as indicated in the figure, then

Q1 + Q2 = Q3 (Eq.1)

Under this flow condition, the liquid surface in the piezometer at the junction will be below the surfaces in the two
reservoirs A and B. With the head loss specified, the following relationships may be written

hf1 – hf2 = H1 (Eq.2)

hf1 + hf3 = H2 (Eq.3)

If H1 and H2 are known, Eqs. (1), (2), and (3) may be satisfied by a trial solution. One method is to assume hf1
and solve for hf2, hf3, Q1, Q2, and Q3. Then check the continuity of flow by (Eq.1). There are many possible problem
variations into which this trial solution may be applied. However, in case the pipe element f or n is given for each pipe in
the system, together with the length L and the diameter D, a direct solution is possible, that is, by simulation of the above-
mentioned equations.

 If the flow in the second pipe is directed towards reservoir B the surface elevation in the piezometer at J rises to a
point above that of reservoir B but below that of reservoir A. The continuity of flow equation now becomes
Q1 = Q2 + Q3 (1.1)
and the relations between the head losses are
hf1 + hf2 = H1 (2.1)

hf1 + hf3 = H2 (3.1)

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Note that the last equation is unchanged since the change of flow in pipe 2 will have no effect in the direction of
flow in 1 and 3.
 The “three-reservoir problem” is the particular case in which the direction of flow in pipe 2 of the figure above is
unspecified. This particular case is solved as follows:

a) Assume pipe 2 is closed, or hf2 = 0. This condition makes hf1 = H1 and hf3 = H2, which actually is not
true.
Under this consideration, Q1 and Q2 may be obtained from either the Darcy-Weisbach or Manning
equation by assuming trial values of f or n (if these are not given).

b) If Q1 < Q3, the flow in pipe 2 is directed away from the reservoir B.
Whatever the result may be, the piezometric surface is correspondingly corrected: above reservoir B if Q1
< Q3, or below reservoir B if Q1 > Q3.

c) Finally, the continuity of flow equation and the head loss relations are written based on the result obtained
from (a) and (b). The system of equation thus formed is solved through iteration or by quadratic equation.

Types of Reservoir Problems

 Given the discharge in one of the pipes, or given the pressure at the junction, and the required is the elevation one
of the reservoirs or the diameter or length of the pipes, and
 Given all the pipe properties and the elevation of all reservoirs, find the flow in each pipe, which can be solved by
trial and error.

In any of these types, the first thing to do is to locate the position (elevation) of the energy at the junction. The
position represents the water surface of an imaginary reservoir at the junction. The difference in elevation between
this surface and the surface of another reservoir is the head loss in the pipe leading to that reservoir.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM

1. A 1200-mm-diameter concrete pipe 1800 m long carries 1.35 cu.m./s from reservoir A, whose water surface is at
elevation 50 m, and discharges into two concrete pipes, each 1350 m long and 750 mm in diameter. One of the 750-mm-
diameter pipe discharges into reservoir B in which the water surface is at elevation 44 m. Determine the elevation of water
surface of reservoir C into which the other 750-mm-diameter pipe is flowing. Assume f = 0.02 for all pipes.

2. Three reservoirs A, B, and C are connected respectively with pipes 1, 2, and 3 joining at a common junction P whose
elevation is 366 m. Reservoir A is at elevation 933 m and reservoir B is at elevation 844 m. The properties of each pipe
are as follows: L1 = 1500 m, D1 = 600 mm, f1 = 0.02; L2 = 1000 m, D2 = 450 mm, f2 = 0.025; L3 = 900 m, D3 = 500
mm, f3 = 0.018. A pressure gage at the junction P reads 4950 kPa. What is the flow in pipe 3 in cu.m/s and the elevation
of reservoir C?

3. Three reservoirs have pipes that meet at a point. Their characteristics are as follows:

RESERVOIR PIPE DIAMETER PIPE LENGTH (m) ELEVATION (m) f

(mm)
A 400 1800 80 0.02
B 500 2000 50 0.025
C 800 4000 10 0.03

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Determine the flow in each pipe.

FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS

Introduction

In general, the term open channel is used to define all natural streams and artificial canals having surfaces
exposed to the pressure of the atmosphere. All forms of closed conduits which flow only partially full are also in the
category of open channels. Unlike in pipes flowing full and flowing under pressure, the flow in an open channel depends
upon the slope of the streambed as well as the slope of the water surface.

The three main types of open channels are (a) natural streams or rivers; (b) artificial canals or flumes; (c) sewers,
tunnels and pipelines not flowing full. Although there were experiments made on liquids other than water in open channel
investigation, the available data are very few that the empirical coefficients considered in this particular topic in
hydraulics apply only to water at ordinary temperatures.

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An open channel always has two sides and a bottom, where the flow satisfies the noslip condition. Therefore even
a straight channel has a three-dimensional velocity distribution. Some measurements of straight-channel velocity contours
are shown in figures below. The profiles are quite complex, with maximum velocity typically occurring in the midplane
about 20 percent below the surface. In very broad shallow channels the maximum velocity is near the surface, and the
velocity profile is nearly logarithmic from the bottom to the free surface. In noncircular channels there are also secondary
motions. If the channel curves or meanders, the secondary motion intensifies due to centrifugal effects, with high velocity
occurring near the outer radius of the bend. Curved natural channels are subject to strong bottom erosion and deposition
effects.

SPECIFIC ENERGY

As suggested by Bakhmeteff in 1911, the specific energy E is a useful parameter in channel flow
2
v
E= +d
2g

where d is the water depth. E is the height of the energy grade line (EGL) above the channel bottom. For a given flow
rate, there are usually two states possible for the same specific energy.

THE CHEZY FORMULA

The fundamental law of turbulent flow applies either to open channels or to pipes, though it was originally used
for open channels. It is derived mathematically by assuming: (1) that the prism of liquid in an open channel moves
downhill without change in shape, and (2) that each unit of area of the stream bed offers resistance to flow proportional to
the square of the velocity.
Chezy as early as 1775 is reported to have recommended an equation of this form

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V =C √ RS

Where,

V = Mean velocity in the channel

C = Chezy Coefficient
R = Hydraulic Radius
S = Slope of the Channel bed

which is known as the Chezy formula.

The value of C varies with the characteristics of the channel. The formula is not dimensionally correct since, for a
given channel, C and S having numerical values, V varies as √ R, and the dimensional equation is ft/sec = √ ft . To make
the equation dimensionally correct, therefore, C must be a function of length and time as well as roughness of the channel
bed.

Many years of effort have been devoted to obtain a simple, comprehensive expression for C in the Chezy formula.
Out of the variety of results only three equations are used to any great extent in modern hydraulics. These three methods
of determining the Chezy coefficient (C) will now be discussed.

FORMULAS FOR DETERMINING THE CHEZY C

Kutter formula

For SI Units

1 0.00155
+23+
n S
C=
n 0.00155
1+ (23+ )
√R S

For English Units

1.811 0.00281
+ 41.65+
n S
C=
n 0.00281
1+ (41.65+ )
√R S

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Manning Formula

For SI Units
1
1
C= R 6
n
For English Units
1
1.486 6
C= R
n
Bazin Formula

For SI Units

87
C=
m
1+
√R

For English Units

87
C=
m
0.552+
√R

where

n = roughness coefficient
m = Bazin coefficient
R = hydraulic radius
S = slope of energy grade line

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Typical Bazin Coefficient

Nature of Surface m

Smooth Cement 0.06

Planed wood 0.06
Brickwork 0.16
Rough Planks 0.16
Rubble masonry 0.46
Smooth earth 0.85
Ordinary eath 1.30
Rough Channels 1.75

THE MANNING FORMULA

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For SI Units
2 1
1
V = R 3 S2
n
2 1
1 3 2
Q= A R S
n

N.B.
If the situation or problem does not require any specific formula to be used, use Manning’s Formula.

UNIFORM FLOW

The simplest of all open channel problem is the uniform flow condition. For the flow to be uniform, the velocity,
depth of flow, and the cross-sectional area of flow at any point of the stream must be constant (i.e. v1=v2, d1=d2,
A1=A2). For this condition, the stream surface is parallel to the channel bed and the energy grade line is parallel to the
stream surface, and therefore the slope of the energy grade line S is equal to the slope of the channel bed So.

BOUNDARY SHEAR STRESS

The average boundary shear stress, τ, acting over the wetted surface of the channel is given by

τ = γRS
where γ is the unit weight of the liquid, R is the hydraulic radius, and S is the slope of the EGL, and for uniform flow or
for S < 1/10 (θ<5.7°), S = So.

NORMAL DEPTH
The normal depth, d, is the depth at which uniform flow will occur in an open channel. Normal depth may be
determined from Chezy formula with S=So. The resulting equation usually requires a trial and error solution.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. The trapezoidal channel of figure below is made of brickwork and slopes at 1:500. Determine the flow rate if the
normal depth is 80 cm.

2. A drainage canal in the shape of trapezoid has a bottom width of 2.5 m and side slopes of 1 horizontal to 1.5 vertical,
carries water at a depth of 3 m. Find the discharge in cu.m/sec. using the chezy’s formula. Use Kutter formula in
determining the value of C. Determine also the value of discharge if C is to be computed using Manning’s formula.
S=0.0009, n=0.615.

3. A circular concrete sewer 5 ft in diameter and flowing half full has a slope of 4 ft per mile. Determine the discharge.

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4. An earth canal carries a depth of water of 6 ft. The canal is 20 ft wide on the bottom and has side slopes of 1.5
horizontal to 1 vertical. S = 0.0002. Using a value of n of 0.025, compute the discharge by the Manning formula.

CROSS SECTION OF GREATEST EFFICIENCY

The most efficient cross section of an open channel, from a hydraulic standpoint, is the one which, with
a given slope, area, and roughness factor, will have the maximum capacity. This cross section is the one having
the smallest wetted perimeter, as can be seen from an examination of one of the open-channel formulas. There
are usually practical objections to using cross sections of greatest hydraulic efficiency, but the dimensions of
such cross sections should be known and adhered to as closely as conditions appear to justify. From the analysis
of the discharge formula and the Manning equation, it becomes evident that for a constant area A, maximum
discharge Q means maximum velocity V or maximum hydraulic radius R. Moreover, maximum R implies
minimum wetted perimeter P (minimum resistance between the channel’s surface and the flowing liquid). Such
a section is known as the most efficient for the given area.

Of all open-channel cross sections having a given area, the semi-circle has the smallest wetted
perimeter, and it is therefore the cross section of highest hydraulic efficiency. Only a few engineering materials
of construction however, are adapted to a semicircular cross section, sheet metal or steel plates which take
tensile stress readily and can be supported along the sides of the flume being best adapted to it.

CROSS SECTION OF GREATEST EFFICIENCY

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ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. If the most efficient of all cross sections will be used, what shape and size of open channel would you
recommend to carry 300 cfs with a velocity of 7 ft per sec.?

2. If the most efficient of all trapezoidal sections can be used, what shape and size of open channel would you
recommend to carry 300 cfs of water with a velocity of 7 ft per sec.? Compare resulting wetted perimeter with
that of problem 1.

3. A triangular channel with most efficient proportion discharges water at the rate of 1 cum./s. Assuming n =
0.018 and S = 0.0021 calculate the normal depth of flow in meters.

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4. A trapezoidal canal has the following flow and channel properties: Discharge = 17 cu.m./sec; mean velocity
of flow = 80 cm/sec; roughness coefficient = 0.018; side slope = 4H:3V. Using the most efficient trapezoidal
canal, what slope of channel is required?

5. Determine the maximum flow through a 1.2-m-diameter concrete culvert which is laid on a slope of 0.009.
Use n = 0.013.

ALTERNATE STAGES OF FLOW

For a given total specific energy H, for an open channel flow, there exist two stages or depths of flow that will
give the same discharge. These are the upper stage and the lower stage.

Upper Stage

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 Flow is tranquil
 Depth is called subcritical depth
 Froude Number, F<1

Lower Stage

 Flow is rapid or shooting

 Depth is called supercritical depth
 Froude Number, F>1

It was stated that the specific energy E at any given channel section is sum of the pressure head or depth of flow and the
velocity head, or
2
v
E= + d
2g

the mean velocity can be obtained as

V = √ 2 g(E−d )

it follows that the discharge is

Q= A √ 2 g(E−d )

For a constant or given specific energy E, the above equation may be graphed showing the variation of Q with d
as shown in the figure below. The points in the figure are obtained by assigning values to d from 0 to the given value of E
and solving for the corresponding values of Q.

In the graph above, two points are evident: (0,0) and (0,E). The first point describes the condition of flow when the depth
is zero and the flow is accordingly zero. The second point defines the case when the depth of flow is the same as the
specific energy, d=E, and the flow is zero. This second condition is quite obvious since d=E means V=0 and so a flow is
not possible.

From the graph, the following important characteristics of channel flow may be observed:

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a. There is a depth of flow dc which maximizes the flow Q. This is called the critical depth or critical
stage of flow.
b. For any value of flow Q between 0 and Qmax, there are two possible depths of flow, d1 and d2,
occurring with the same specific energy E. These are the upper stage and lower stage of flow,
respectively. Collectively, these two stages of flow are known as the alternate stages.

Critical Depth, dc

Critical depth is the depth at which for a given total specific energy H, the discharge is maximum, or it is the depth at
which for a given discharge Q, the total specific energy is minimum.

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CRITICAL DEPTH ON ANY SECTION

For any section, the critical depth can be computed by following derived formula:
2 3
Q A
=
g B

Where A and/B, if variable, must be expressed in terms of d.

Critical Velocity

Since E = d + V2/2g, then for d=dc,

Vc=√ g d c

which is known as the critical velocity.

a. If V = √gd, the flow is at the critical stage.

b. If V < √gd, the flow is at the upper stage.
c. If V > √gd, the flow is at the lower stage.

If the discharge is fixed and the specific energy is plotted against the depth of flow d, the graph of the equation is
represented below

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The graph shows that the upper stage portion of the equation with fixed discharge is asymptotic to the line E=d, while the
lower part is asymptotic to E axis. Here the critical depth is the depth at minimum specific energy E,

2
d c= E
3

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. A channel having a rectangular section and base width 3 m carries a flow of 5.7 cu.m/s. Find the critical
depth, the critical velocity and the critical slope if n=0.011.
2. Water is released from a sluice gate in a rectangular channel 1.5 m wide such that the depth is 60 cm and
the velocity is 5 m/s. Find the critical depth dc for (a) this specific energy, (b) this discharge.
3. Water is flowing in a rectangular flume with a velocity of 4 m/s, and a depth of 1m. Is the flow at upper
or lower stage? What is the alternate stage of flow?
4. Water flows at the rate of 25 cu.m/s in a trapezoidal channel having a base width of 3 m and side slope
of 4H:3V. If the canal is lined with concrete (n=0.013), determine the (a) critical depth, (b) critical
velocity, and (c) the critical slope.

NON-UNIFORM FLOW

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Uniform flow is approached closely in long flumes and conduits of uniform cross section and straight grade but is
difficult and sometimes impossible to secure in short flumes. Moreover, non-uniform flow occurs where the stream enters
and leaves the channel; at obstructions such as dams, weirs, or bridge piers; and at changes in the form of cross section
which may be necessitated by natural conditions of soil and topography.

Changes in cross section in open channel flow may be either gradual or abrupt. Gradual changes in which the
flow is either accelerated or retarded may be analysed by means of the energy theorem in conjunction with a formula for
open channel flow. Abrupt changes, with the accompanying secondary effects of vertical curvature of the stream lines
when the flow is accelerated and excessive turbulence, waves, and surface rollers when the flow is retarded are sometimes
more difficult to analyse.

The variety of conditions encountered in open channel flow is greater than in pipe flow both because of the
existence of the free surface and also because of the two alternate stages of flow with equal energy. Only a few of the
most frequently occurring cases will be discussed.

BACKWATER

A common problem in non-uniform flow occurs where is backed up by a dam, weir or other obstruction. Usually
it is required to determine the amount that water surface will be raised at a certain specified distances upstream from the
obstruction.

( )( )
2 2
v2 v1
+ d2 − +d
2g 2g 1
L=
S o−S

E2−E 1
L=
S o−S

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S1 + S2
S=
2
2 2
n v1
S1 = 4
R13
2 2
n v2
S2 = 4
3
R 2

Where:

H = specific energy
L = length of reach
So = slope of channel bed
S1 and S2 = slope of the energy grade line at sections 1 and 2, respectively, computed using Manning’s formula

HYDRAULIC JUMP

Hydraulic jump is an abrupt increase in depth of rapidly flowing water. Flow at the jump changes from a
supercritical to a subcritical stage with an accompanying loss of kinetic energy.

A hydraulic jump is the only means by which the depth of flow can change from less than critical to greater than
critical to a uniform channel.

The change in stage from a depth less than the critical depth to one greater than the critical depth, but due to loss of head
in the jump, the total energy after the jump is less than the alternate stage before the jump.

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To calculate the depth of flow before and after the jump, d1 and d2, the following expression is derived for rectangular
sections:

IILUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. Uniform flow occurs in a 12-m-wide rectangular channel having a bed slope of 0.0021 and n=0.019 at a depth of 1 m. If
a partial closure of the gate near the exit raises the level at that by 0.5 m, how far upstream is the point where the depth of
flow is 1.25 m?

2. If the depth and velocity before the hydraulic jump is 1.8m and 6 m/sec what is the depth after the jump?

3. Water is moving in a 5-m-wide rectangular channel at a depth of 1.0 m and a Froude number equal to √10. If the water
undergoes a jump, what is the (a) depth of flow after the jump and (b) Froude number after the jump?

CHANNEL FLOW MEASUREMENT

WEIR
Weirs are overflow structures which are built across an open channel for the purpose of measuring, or controlling,
the flow of liquids.

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Definition of terms

Nappe – the overflowing stream in a weir

Crest of weir – the edge or top surface of a weir with which the flowing liquid comes in contact

Contracted weir – weirs having sides sharp-edged, so that the nappe is contracted in width or having end contractions,
either one end or two ends.

Suppressed weir or full-width weir – weirs having its length L being equal to the width of the cahnnel so that the
nappe suffers no end contractions.

Drop-down curve – the downward curvature of the liquid surface before the weir.

Head, H – the distance between the liquid surface and the crest of the weir measured before the drop-down curve

Rectangular Weir (Suppressed)

2
General Formula 3 [
Q= C √2 g L ( H+ hυ ) 3/2−h 3/2
υ ]
or [
Q=C ω L ( H +h υ )
3/ 2
−h
υ
3/ 2 ]
where

V
a2
hυ =
2 g velocity head of approach

C = coefficient discharge

Cω = weir factor

Neglecting va:

2
Q= C √2 g L H 3/2
3
3/2
or Q=C ω L H

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Francis Formula Considering Va:

(Cw = 1.84) S.I.
Q=1 . 84 L [ ( H +h )
υ
3/ 2
−h
υ
3 /2 ]
Neglecting Va:

Q=1 . 84 L H 3/2
Cipolletti Weir

Q=1 . 859 L H 3/2

' ''
θ=75. 9637 °=75 ° 5 7 50
' ''
β=14 . 0363 °=14 ° 2 1 0

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Triangular V-notch weir

8 θ
Q= C √2 g tan H 5 /2
15 2
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. A constructed rectangular sharp crested weir 2 m long discharges water under a head of 0.5 m. Compute the discharge
using Francis formula, neglecting velocity of approach in liters per second.

2. A sharp crested weir 0.9 m high extends across a rectangular channel 6 m wide where the depth of water upstream from
the weir is 1.2 m deep. Find the discharge through the weir considering the velocity of approach.

3. Compute the length of Cipolleti weir having a discharge of 0.349 cu.m/s and under a head of 250 mm.

HYDRODYNAMICS
Hydrodynamics deals with the study of the motion of a fluid and
of the interactions of the fluid with its boundaries. The basic principles
used in hydrodynamics are Newton’s laws of motion. The three laws of
Newton are frequently referred to as the laws of inertia, force, and stress,
respectively. On account of the fundamental importance of these laws it is
essential that a clear conception be had of their full significance.

Newton’s first law of motion is merely a statement that matter

possesses no ability, per se, to change its condition of rest, or motion, and
that any such change must be brought about through the action of some
external force.

Newton’s second law states the fundamental principle of

mechanics that when an unbalanced force is applied to a body, the
resulting acceleration is proportional to the force. With proper
consideration for units, this principle is stated as

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F = Ma

Since the average rate of acceleration a = (v2 – v1)/t

M
F=
t
( υ 2−υ 1 )

If a continuous stream of fluid is having its velocity changed from v 1 to v2 by a vane or other object, by letting t=1, the
quantity M/t becomes the mass per unit of time, M1. The continuous force exerted by the vane on the fluid is then

F = M1 (v2 – v1)

From Newton’s third law, the force exerted by the fluid against the vane is equal but opposite in direction, and can
therefore be written

F = M1 (v1 – v2)

Force Exerted by a Jet

Since force and velocity are vector quantities, it follows that, if a jet of fluid impinges against a vane which is either
moving or at rest and thereby has its velocity in any direction changed, a force F is exerted upon the vane the magnitude
of which in any direction is equal to the change in momentum per second that the jet undergoes in the same direction. In
other words, the force F is equal to the mass impinging per second times the change in velocity in the direction of the
force. X and Y components of the force exerted by a jet the path of which lies in the XY plane will therefore be

Fx = (Mass impinging per second) X (Change in velocity along the x-axis)

Fy = (Mass impinging per second) X (Change in velocity along the y-axis)

The change in velocity may be either positive or negative. In the case of a decrease in velocity the dynamic force exerted
by the fluid on the vane is in the same direction as flow, whereas in the case of an increase in the velocity the dynamic
force exerted on the vane is opposed to the direction of flow. In general, the direction of the force exerted by the jet on the
vane is opposite to the direction of acceleration of the jet.

Force against a fixed flat plane held normal to the jet

Qγ
F= υ=ρ Q υ
g

Force against a fixed curved vane

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Qγ
g ( 1x 2x)
Fx= υ −υ
Qγ
F y = ( υ 1 y −υ 2 y )
g
√
F= F 2 +F 2
x y

where

υ1 = velocity of the jet before hitting the vane

υ2 = velocity of the jet as it leaves the vane

Force against a moving vane

Q'γ Q' γ
Fx=
g
( υ1 x −υ 2 x ) ; F y =
g
( υ 1 y −υ2 y )
'
Q'= A u u=υ 1−υ

u = relative velocity of the jet as it moves along the vane

Q΄ = amount of the fluid defected by the vane

Force needed to keep horizontal plate stationary

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Work Done on Moving Vanes

The work done on moving vanes (in N-m/s) moving parallel with the direction of the jet is given by the following
formulas:

Q'γ
Work = u ( 1−cos θ ) v '
g
For single vane, the maximum work occurs when v’ = v1/3. When v’=v1, no work is done since the force exerted is then
zero and this value represents a condition of minimum power.

In a series of vanes so arranged that the entire jet strikes either one vane or another successively, the force exerted by the
jet in the direction of motion is given by:

Q' γ
Fx= u ( 1−cos θ )
g
and the work done is

Qγ
Work = u ( 1−cos θ ) v '
g
and for maximum power with a series of vanes v’=v1/2 then
2
Work =
1 Qγ
2 g
v 1
1−cos θ
2

Notice that the expression Qγ/g is equal to the mass M. Thus the power developed is (1-cosθ)/2 times the kinetic energy
available in the jet.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. A jet of water was issued horizontally in a 50-mm diameter orifice, with C = 0.6 and Cv = 0.9, under a
head of 5 m. What is the force available in the jet?
2. A hose and nozzle discharge a horizontal water against a nearby vertical plate shown. The flow rate of
water is 0.025 cu.m/s, and the diameter of the nozzle tip is 30 mm. Find the horizonyal force necessary
to hold the plate in place.

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3. A jet of water 25 mm in diameter and having a velocity of 7.5 m/s strikes against a plate at right angles.
Determine the force on the plate if the plate is moving in the same direction as the jet with a velocity of
3 m/s.
4. A jet having a diameter of 50 mm and a velocity of 12 m/s is deflected through an angle of 60 degrees
by a fixed curved vane. Calculate the total force exerted on the vane.
5. A jet having a diameter of 50 mm and a velocity of 15 m/s is deflected by a vane which is curved
through an angle of 60 degrees and which is moving with a velocity of 6 m/s in the same direction as the
jet. Determine the X and Y components of the force exerted by the jet and its direction and velocity as it
leaves the vane.
6. A jet of water 2 inches in diameter moving with a velocity of 50 ft/s strikes a stationary vane, the
deflection angle being 135 degrees. Find the X and Y components of the force exerted by the water on
the vane.
7. A jet of water 50 mm in diameter moving with a velocity of 25 m/s strikes a vane which is moving in the
same direction as the jet with a velocity of 15 m/s. The deflection angle of the vane is 120 degrees. Find
the components of the force exerted by the jet on the vane.
8. A jet issued at the rate of 155 L/s and a velocity of 35 m/s strikes a blade moving in the same direction
at 20 m/s. The deflection angle of the blade is 150°. Neglecting friction in the blade, determine the X
and Y components of the force exerted by the jet on the blade. Find also the work done on the vane.

Forces Developed on Closed Conduits

The force exerted on a closed conduit of either constant or varying diameter, is the resultant of the dynamic
force and total pressure exerted upon the end sections of the fluid contained in the conduit.

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Dynamic Force

Qγ
Fx=
g
( υ 1 x−υ 2 x )
Qγ
F y = ( υ 1 y −υ 2 y )
g

Total Force

Qγ
∑ F x= g (υ2 y −υ1 y )=F 1 x−R x −F 2 x
∑ F y =Qγ
g ( 2 y 1 y) 1 y y 2 y
υ −υ =F +R −F

Water Hammer

Water hammer is the term used to express the resulting shock (pressure rise) in a pipeline caused by the sudden
decrease or stoppage of motion (rate of flow or velocity) of the fluid.

The cessation of flow and the resulting pressure increase move along the pipe as a wave with the velocity c
which is given by the following equations:

For rigid pipes:

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For non-rigid pipes:

The time for pressure wave to travel from A to B and back again is:

Instantaneous Closure (tc = 0)

Ph = ρcv

For instantaneous closure, the pressure increase reaches up to the pipe entrance at A where it drops instantly to
the value it would have for zero flow.

Rapid Closure (tc < 2L/c)

It is physically impossible for a valve to be closed instantaneously (tc=0). For a rapid closure (tc < 2L/c) the
maximum pressure near the valve would still be

Ph = ρcv

No matter how rapid the valve closure may be, so long as it is not the idealized instantaneous case, there will be
some distance x0 from the intake within which the pressure rise cannot extend all the way to the reservoir intake.

Slow Closure (tc>2L/c)

For slow closure, the excess pressure produced decreases uniformly from the value at the valve to zero at the
intake. The maximum water-hammer pressure Ph developed is given approximately by

Ph = (2Lvρ)/tc

Where:

C = celerity of pressure wave in m/s

EB = bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid in Pa (for water at 30°C, EB = 2.25 x 106 Pa)
E = modulus of elasticity of the pipe wall in Pa
t = pipe thickness in mm

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tc = time of closure in seconds

L = length of pipe in m
v = velocity of flow in m/s
Ph = pressure change due to water hammer in Pa
Ρ = density of the fluid in kg/m3

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. A 45°, 300 mm x 200 mm reducing bend in a level pipeline carries water at the rate of 280 L/s.
Determine the components of the force necessary to hold the bend in position. The pressure at the
entrance is 345 kPa and the friction in the bend is negligible.
2. A 300-mm-diameter pipe is connected to a 600-mm-diameter water main by a reducer. The velocity at
the 300 mm pipe being 5 m/s and the pressure is 420 kPa. Neglecting losses, find the resultant force
exerted by the water on the reducer.
3. If the velocity of flow in a 600-mm-diameter cast-iron pipe (E = 8.29 x 10 9 Pa) be changed in 0.25
second from 0.6 m/s to 0 m/s by closing a valve 300 m from a reservoir, what probable increase in
pressure due to water hammer will be expected? The pipe wall is 20 mm thick and E B = 2.07 x 109 Pa
(for water)

FLOW OVER BODIES: Drag and Lift

In this chapter, we consider the flow of fluids over bodies that are immersed in a fluid, called external flow,
with emphasis on the resulting lift and drag forces. External flow is characterized by a freely growing boundary
layer surrounded by an outer flow region that involves small velocity and temperature gradients. In internal
flows, the entire flow field is dominated by viscous effects, while in external flow, the viscous effects are
confined to a portion of the flow field such as the boundary layers and wakes.

When a fluid moves over a solid body, it exerts pressure forces normal to the surface and shear forces parallel to
the surface along the outer surface of the body. We are usually interested in the resultant of the pressure and
shear forces acting on the body rather than the details of the distributions of these forces along the entire surface
of the body. The component of the resultant pressure and shear forces that acts in the flow direction is called the
drag force (or just drag), and the component that acts normal to the flow direction is called the lift force (or just
lift).

Sometimes a fluid moves over a stationary body (such as the wind blowing over a building), and other times a
body moves through a quiescent fluid (such as a car moving through air). These two seemingly different
processes are equivalent to each other; what matters is the relative motion between the fluid and the body. Such
motions are conveniently analyzed by fixing the coordinate system on the body and are referred to as flow over
bodies or external flow. The aerodynamic aspects of different airplane wing designs, for example, are studied
conveniently in a lab by placing the wings in a wind tunnel and blowing air over them by large fans. The
velocity of the fluid approaching a body is called the free-stream velocity.

It is a common experience that a body meets some resistance when it is

forced to move through a fluid, especially a liquid. As you may have noticed,
it is very difficult to walk in water because of the much greater resistance it
offers to motion compared to air. A fluid may exert forces and moments on a

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body in and about various directions. The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is called
drag.

A stationary fluid exerts only normal pressure forces on the surface of a

body immersed in it. A moving fluid, however, also exerts tangential shear
forces on the surface because of the no-slip condition caused by viscous
effects. Both of these forces, in general, have components in the direction
of flow, and thus the drag force is due to the combined effects of pressure
and wall shear forces in the flow direction. The components of the pressure
and wall shear forces in the direction normal to the flow tend to move the
body in that direction, and their sum is called lift.

Pressure Drag

The pressure drag (or form drag) depends largely on the form of the body. It is the resultant of all the pressure
forces exerted on the surface of the body.
2
v
F p=C p γA
2g

Friction Drag
The friction drag along a surface is the resultant of the shear stress along the surface of the body in the direction
of motion.
2
v
F f =C f γBL
2g
The total drag FD is then given as:
2
v
F D =C D γA
2g

Lift
Lift is the component of the resultant force exerted by a fluid on a body perpendicular to the relative motion of
the fluid. The equation is:
2
v
F L =C L γA
2g

Where:

CD = drag coefficient
CL = lift coefficient
ρ = density of fluid
γ = weight density of fluid
A = projected area of the body on plane perpendicular (for drag) or parallel (for lift) the relative motion of the
fluid

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B = length of surface parallel to flow

v = relative velocity of the fluid with respect to the body in m/s
FD = drag force
FL = lift force

Drag and Lift Coefficients

For laminar flow at low Reynolds numbers, the drag coefficient is given by:
24
C D=
Re

For thin flat plates not normal to the relative velocity of the fluid, the lift coefficient as given by Kutta is:

CL = 2πsinα

Where α is the angle of attack or the angle the plate makes with the relative velocity of the fluid. The angle
should not exceed 25°.

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Terminal Velocity

A body falling through a fluid is being acted upon by three vertical forces. These are: (1) its weight acting
downward, (2) the buoyant force acting upward, and (3) the drag force acting upward. If th body falls freely for
a sufficient length of time, its velocity increases so the drag force is increased until the total upward force equals
the weight of the body and the body has acquired a constant velocity called the terminal velocity.

For a solid body falling through a gas, the buoyant force is usually negligible such that the terminal velocity is
attained when the drag force equals the weight.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

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1. A submarine is running submerged in seawater (SG=1.03) at a speed of 24 kph. The projected area
normal to the direction of motion being 6 square meters. If the drag coefficient is 0.10, determine the
drag force.
2. During major windstorms, high vehicles such
as RVs and semis may be thrown off the road
and boxcars off their tracks, especially when
they are empty and in open areas. Consider a
5000-kg semi that is 8 m long, 2 m high, and 2
m wide. The distance between the bottom of
the truck and the road is 0.75 m. Now the
truck is exposed to winds from its side
surface. Determine the wind velocity that will
tip the truck over to its side. Take the air
density to be 1.1 kg/m3 and assume the weight
to be uniformly distributed.

3. A 2.2-cm-outer-diameter pipe is to span

across a river at a 30-m-wide section
while being completely immersed in
water. The average flow velocity of water
is 4 m/s and the water temperature is
15°C. Determine the drag force exerted
on the pipe by the river. Assume CD =
1.0

4. A steel ball (SG=7.85) having a

diameter of 100 mm is dropped into the ocean (SG=1.03). What is the terminal velocity
assuming a drag coefficient of 0.20.

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