See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: [Link]

net/publication/350078837

Two Decades of Condition Monitoring Methods for Power Devices

Article in Electronics · March 2021

DOI: 10.3390/electronics10060683

CITATIONS READS

24 365

3 authors:

Giovanni Susinni Santi Agatino Rizzo

University of Catania University of Catania
33 PUBLICATIONS 251 CITATIONS 132 PUBLICATIONS 1,497 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Francesco Iannuzzo
Aalborg University
287 PUBLICATIONS 4,272 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Santi Agatino Rizzo on 23 March 2021.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 electronics
Review
Two Decades of Condition Monitoring Methods for
Power Devices
Giovanni Susinni 1 , Santi Agatino Rizzo 1, * and Francesco Iannuzzo 2

1 Department of Electrical Electronic and Computer Engineering (DIEEI), University of Catania, Viale Andrea
Doria, 6, 95125 Catania, Italy; [Link]@[Link]
2 Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, 9220 Aalborg, Denmark; fia@[Link]
* Correspondence: [Link]@[Link]; Tel.: +39-095-738-2308

Abstract: Condition monitoring (CM) of power semiconductor devices enhances converter reliability
and customer service. Many studies have investigated the semiconductor devices failure modes,
the sensor technologies, and the signal processing techniques to optimize the CM. Furthermore,
the improvement of power devices’ CM thanks to the use of the Internet of Things and artificial
intelligence technologies is rising in smart grids, transportation electrification, and so on. These
technologies will be widespread in the future, where more and more smart techniques and smart
sensors will enable a better estimation of the state of the health (SOH) of the devices. Considering
the increasing use of power converters, CM is essential as the analysis of the data obtained from
multiple sensors enables the prediction of the SOH, which, in turn, enables to properly schedule the
maintenance, i.e., accounting for the trade-off between the maintenance cost and the cost and issues
due to the device failure. From this perspective, this review paper summarizes past developments
and recent advances of the various methods with the aim of describing the current state-of-the-art in



CM research.



Citation: Susinni, G.; Rizzo, S.A.; Keywords: condition monitoring; junction temperature; power device; reliability; power electronics
Iannuzzo, F. Two Decades of
Condition Monitoring Methods for
Power Devices. Electronics 2021, 10,
683. [Link] 1. Introduction
electronics10060683
Nowadays, power electronics is widespread in a huge number of daily applications
that improve services for the collective [1]. Furthermore, power electronics has a key role
Academic Editor: Ahmed Abu-Siada
in renewable energy systems [2,3], lighting [4,5], electric mobility [6,7], and other systems
that enable sustainable development [8].
Received: 1 January 2021
Accepted: 24 February 2021
A crucial aspect is the reliability and lifetime prediction of the whole power conversion
Published: 15 March 2021
system. The warrant of the highest robustness level while minimizing the product and
maintenance cost is extremely mandatory. For example, the devices used in avionic
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
and automotive applications must have a fault rate close to zero that imposes stringent
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
requirements during the system design. In the same way, wind farms must guarantee
published maps and institutional affil- normal operations without interruption, but this is extremely difficult because of the
iations. expensive access to farms for easier maintenance. In this context, many approaches to
forecasting the lifetime of power electronic systems and the single power device have been
intensively studied.
To guarantee a high level of reliability, it is important to comply with several stan-
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
dards [9–11], and different strategies are usually performed such as the use of the fault-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
tolerant topologies with redundant components [12,13], and the advanced reliable design
This article is an open access article
of power electronic devices using innovative materials [14,15].
distributed under the terms and Unfortunately, the enhanced system’s robustness does not prevent failure and, indeed,
conditions of the Creative Commons it is never completely foreseeable. Therefore, a maintenance operation before a failure is
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// necessary. Considering the costs of maintenance operations, lifetime prediction combined
[Link]/licenses/by/ with condition monitoring approaches [16,17] are very useful tools to choose when a
4.0/). maintenance operation has to be carried out.

Electronics 2021, 10, 683. [Link] [Link]

Electronics 2021, 10, 683 2 of 28

Some studies have shown that capacitors are fragile with a failure of 30%, whereas
the failure of the PCB and connectors is around 36% [18–20]. The remaining part is related
to the semiconductor and soldering failures in device modules that consist of the most
important area of concern for converter system failures. In this context, countless condition
monitoring (CM) methods for the evaluation of the semiconductor state of health have
been widely explored in the literature.
The target of this work is to provide an overview of various CM methods that have
been used to evaluate the state of the health of power devices. More specifically, the first
part of the proposed review was focused on the impact of the Internet of Things (IoT) and
artificial intelligence (AI) technologies used for CM of power devices, with a chronological
overview of the main CM methods over the last two decades. Then, it a first CM method
based on acoustic emission was presented and used to detect any physical damage in a
power module packaging. It is worth underlining that it enables one to estimate the state
of aging of a power module.
Then, CM methods based on the optical properties of the semiconductor power
devices were presented, including temperature estimation. These methods are usually
based on an optical beam that is reflected or scattered back from the semiconductor lattice.
There is an inherent dependence between the temperature and the energy related to the
photoemission. More specifically, such energy is a function of the junction temperature (JT);
hence, in turn, the energy variation can be used to estimate the temperature of the chip.
After that, a depth-analysis of the several approaches to extract the junction temperature in
the semiconductor devices based on the physical or electrical properties was performed.
The early works using a physical CM method for the JT measurement were done by directly
contacting the chip surface with a thermo-sensitive material such as a point contact system
(such as thermocouples and liquid crystal). On the other hand, electrical methods for
the junction temperature measurement are often the preferred choice for CM of power
devices because the temperature estimation can be carried out through the measurement
of electrical quantities. Among various electrical CM methods, thermal test chips (TTCs)
are directly fabricated on the die surface of the device, and the voltage drop can be used to
estimate the temperature variations. On the other hand, the temperature sensitive electrical
parameters (TSEPs) are based on the measurement of the voltage drop during the converter
operations. Generally, the measurement of the voltage drop can be carried out using some
voltage probes connected to the device terminals.
Although the measurement of the power devices’ junction temperature was widely
treated in many ways, it is still an active relevant topic owing to the current trade-off
between the advantages and limitations of the methods proposed so far. Therefore, all
these methods have been compared in terms of their main aspects such as sensitivity,
linearity, cost, and online monitoring operations.

2. Conditioning Monitoring Methods and Their Future Application

In the literature, the research topic based on CM methods has been gaining interest
as the various maintenance strategies allow to increase the lifetime of the overall power
conversion system. In many applications, it is becoming crucial to monitor the state of the
health (SOH) of power devices to prevent a failure, that is, the possibility for the operators
to obtain a lifetime estimation, thus properly scheduling any maintenance operations.
Figure 1 depicts a timeline of the various CM methods for power devices that have
been widely studied in the literature and used by the industry in the last two decades. The
first use of CM methods for power devices dates back to the 2000s, where the measure
of on-state voltage of the devices was used as a well-known parameter to monitor the
device condition. Later, the measure of the threshold voltage or the gate turn-off voltage
of a device was used to estimate the temperature dependence of the power devices by
measuring a low voltage; then, the acquisition system was developed to be more simple
and less bulky. In the last 5 years, the estimation of the SOH has been carried out using
contactless approach such as the acoustic method or the photodiode approach, where the
Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 29

Electronics 2021, 10, 683 3 of 28

less bulky. In the last 5 years, the estimation of the SOH has been carried out using con-
tactless approach such as the acoustic method or the photodiode approach, where the
acoustic emission or the light emission, respectively, of a particular device have been
acoustic emission or the light emission, respectively, of a particular device have been taken
taken into account.
into account.

Figure
Figure 1. Timeline of the main condition monitoring (CM) methods
methods in the last two decades. IR, infrared; NTC, negative
negative
temperature coefficient.
temperature coefficient.
The thermal stresses such as the increasing of the mean temperature and abrupt tem-
The thermal stresses such as the increasing of the mean temperature and abrupt tem-
perature fluctuations are the main failure mechanisms. Consequentially, the temperature is
perature fluctuations are the main failure mechanisms. Consequentially, the temperature
an index of the power device SOH. Other CM methods focus on other quantities. Table 1
is an index of the power device SOH. Other CM methods focus on other quantities. Table
summarizes the physical or electrical quantities measured for each CM method and, in
1 summarizes the physical or electrical quantities measured for each CM method and, in
the following subsections, a brief overview is presented. It is worth noting that, among
the following subsections, a brief overview is presented. It is worth noting that, among
the various CM methods in the literature, the acoustic one is used to detect the state of the
the various CM methods in the literature, the acoustic one is used to detect the state of the
aging of the power device without any estimation of the working temperature, while all the
aging of the power device without any estimation of the working temperature, while all
other strategies are focused on the estimation of the junction temperature (JT). More specif-
the other strategies are focused on the estimation of the junction temperature (JT). More
ically, some CM methods perform such estimation by directly measuring the temperature,
specifically, some CM methods perform such estimation by directly measuring the tem-
such as the infrared (IR) camera, a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) resistor, fiber
perature,
optic cable,such
andas photodiodes
the infrared (IR) camera,
sensors. a negative
Other methods temperature
provide ancoefficient (NTC) resis-
indirect estimation by
tor, fiber optic cable, and photodiodes sensors. Other methods provide an
mapping electrical quantities in a temperature value, such as the thermo-sensitive electrical indirect estima-
tion by mapping
parameters electrical quantities in a temperature value, such as the thermo-sensitive
(TSEPs).
electrical parameters (TSEPs).
1. Measuredtoquantities
TableAccording for the different
recent research, condition
the emerging monitoring
trend of IoT (CM)
and AImethods. IR, infrared;
technologies NTC,
are gain-
negative temperature coefficient; TTC, thermal test chip; TSEP, thermo-sensitive
ing more and more interest and they are expanding rapidly in the field of CM methods electrical parameter.
[21].
Method Measured Quantity
AI aims to assist electronic systems with intelligence that is capable of human-like
learning and reasoning. AcousticThis technology possesses countless Acoustic waves and has been
advantages
OPTICAL—Fiber optic Light wavelength
widely applied in numerous industrial and research areas such
OPTICAL—Photodiode sensor—internal
as maximum power point
Light intensity
tracking (MPPT) control for Photovoltaic
OPTICAL—Photodiode sensor—external (PV) plants, anomaly Light intensitydetection for in-
operation
verter, andOPTICAL—IR
prediction ofcamera
the SOH of a power converter.
print Light wavelength
The useOPTICAL—IR
of enabling AI technologies allows the powerLight
camera converter
wavelengthsystems to be em-
Physical Resistance
bedded with capabilities of self-awareness and self-adaptability, thus system autonomy
can be [Link]—NTC
Similarly, the development of data science, including Resistance sensor technology,
TTCs—Diode Voltage
IoT, and big data analytics, provides
TSEP—On-state voltage, low current
a wide variety of data for power
Vce , Vds
electronic systems
throughout different stages of its
TSEP—On-state voltage, high currentlife-cycle. Furthermore, Device current, Vcecan
AI technology , Vdsexploit data
to estimateTSEP—Saturation
the system health status
current with high sensitivity in condition
Vce –Vds monitoring for ag-
TSEP—Gate threshold voltage
ing detection of power devices. Only in a few works [22–25] has the V V
ge—condition
gs monitoring
and fault TSEP—Gate
detection inturn OFF electronics
power voltage AI-based faultVgedetection
–Vce , Vgs –Vbeen
ds , Gate resistance
presented.
TSEP—Turn on-off delay time Device current, Vce –Vds
Figure 2 shows a proof-of-concept of the integration between IA and IoT technologies
TSEP—Voltage–current change rate di/dt Device current, Vce –Vds
for CM of power devices. More
TSEP—Peak gate current specifically, Figure 2a depicts an
Vgeexample
–Vgs of a user (red
box), which consists of a specific power converter and its power devices that have to be

According to recent research, the emerging trend of IoT and AI technologies are gain-
ing more and more interest and they are expanding rapidly in the field of CM methods [21].
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 4 of 28

AI aims to assist electronic systems with intelligence that is capable of human-like

learning and reasoning. This technology possesses countless advantages and has been
widely applied in numerous industrial and research areas such as maximum power point
tracking (MPPT) control for Photovoltaic (PV) plants, anomaly operation detection for
inverter, and prediction of the SOH of a power converter.
The use of enabling AI technologies allows the power converter systems to be em-
bedded with capabilities of self-awareness and self-adaptability, thus system autonomy
can be enhanced. Similarly, the development of data science, including sensor technology,
IoT, and big data analytics, provides a wide variety of data for power electronic systems
throughout different stages of its life-cycle. Furthermore, AI technology can exploit data to
estimate the system health status with high sensitivity in condition monitoring for aging
detection of power devices. Only in a few works [22–25] has the condition monitoring and
fault detection in power electronics AI-based fault detection been presented.
Figure 2 shows a proof-of-concept of the integration between IA and IoT technologies
for CM of power devices. More specifically, Figure 2a depicts an example of a user (red
box), which consists of a specific power converter and its power devices that have to
be monitored, and an example of a provider of CM services (PS) (yellow block). More
specifically, the devices of a single-user power application are connected with several
sensors that enable the monitoring of the SOH of each device (such as the measurement of
the TJ or the state of aging of a device). Then, the controller system interface (CSI) manages
the sensors and collects all the measured data. The CSI block plays an important role for the
CM of the power system because it is able to provide control signals and it may exchange
data with different users in the IoT framework (see Figure 2b).
The PS (sometimes also the CSI) uses AI technologies that act as “intelligent agents”,
exploiting sensors able at perceiving the environment of the power converter. Indeed,
during some power converter operations, the JT can be dangerously increased over a
threshold maximum value, hence the AI is able to suddenly shut down the power system.
Moreover, the AI-integrated system may enable a power derating in order to avoid any
failure of the converter and, hence, the power devices. On the other hand, AI should
perform more complex tasks, such as detecting any change in the device behavior that
could lead to future malfunctioning; interacting with the CSI “to propose” solutions,
i.e., fault preventing strategies, to current anomalies or potential future ones; and so on.
Regardless of whether AI is located in the PS, in the CSI, or both, a local backup control
system is necessary. The local controller should be simple (without complex hardware
and control strategies) and highly reliable. The local controller should have less stringent
limits than the AI, thus the local controller intervenes only when the system is close to
a dangerous situation. For example, the local converter shuts down the converter when
the JT passes over a preset limit and this situation occurs owing to the lack of a smarter
command (load reduction, switching frequency variation, and so on) from the AI of the
PS because of different causes (e.g., temporary lack of connection, unexpected AI actions
or reasoning).
It is worth noting that the PSs are able to contribute to the decision making in both
offline and real-time analysis using data acquired in the past and saved into a dedicated
database (green silos). From this perspective, all the collected data can be used to enhance
the predictive model of the SOH of the power devices.
Moreover, the PS may interact with enterprises, authorities, public companies, and so
on. For example, real-time use of CM occurs when a PS notices a critical functioning of the
converters of a large PV system. The PS informs the PV owner as well as interacts with the
PV management system to enable them to promptly and properly operate. On the other
hand, the PS also informs the electric network operator (ENO) of the smart grid where the
PV is installed about a potential disconnection of the PV system. This information enables
the ENO to adopt countermeasures that mitigate the impact of such a disconnection. In
turn, the ENO informs sensitive customers, e.g., hospitals, of a potential lack of service or
asks them to turn on a backup system in order to reduce the absorbed power.
Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 29
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 5 of 28

(a)

(b)

Figure 2. (a)
Figure 2. (a) User
User and
andprovider
providerofofCM
CMservices (PS).
services (b)(b)
(PS). Proof of concept
Proof of Internet
of concept of Things
of Internet (IoT)(IoT)
of Things and and
artificial intelligence
artificial intelli-
(AI)
gencetechnologies for CMfor
(AI) technologies of CM
power devices.
of power devices.

Furthermore, the measurements of the JT and other parameters of the power devices
can be used by some public institutions such as universities or research centers (blue pale
and red dashed lines) for an off-line analysis of the data to carry out some models of the
SOH of the power devices. Moreover, the PS may be connected to a security organization
(grey dashed lines) that may collect data and it should be able to interrupt an electrical
service in the case of failure.
It is worth underlining that the PSs could provide data to the power device manufac-
turers with the aim to share information related to the state of aging of the power devices.
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 6 of 28

The manufacturers can use the data to improve their power devices as well as to obtain
more accurate power device models. Indeed, manufacturers can act as PSs.

3. Acoustic Methods
Acoustic emission has been widely investigated in the literature as a CM quantity
useful in different application fields such as pumps, industrial electrical machines, and so
on. Moreover, in the field of power electronics, acoustic monitoring has been extensively
used to detect any defects or damage in transformers and capacitors [25–27]. Only in
the last decade, a few works have been focused on the acoustic phenomenon such as a
measurement method for monitoring the SOH of the power semiconductor devices [28–33].
Acoustic emission has been used to detect any physical damage in a power module
packaging using an acoustic microscope. Furthermore, from the experimental evidence, it
has been proven that acoustic emissions are related to the switching operations of power
devices. In the case of fast switching operation (tens of nanoseconds), a certain amount
of current is switched, which causes a large di/dt, which involves magnetic interaction
within the module packaging. This means that the magnetic force could be the source
of the acoustic emission, such as the mechanical breaking of the structure inside the
component package. However, the physical phenomena causing the acoustic emission are
not definitively understood.
Thereby, the device under test (DUT) is monitored contactless with an acoustic sensor
that is usually placed in the proximity of the package. It intrinsically eliminates the issues
related to contact directly with the voltage probes.
A correlation between the SOH of the power module and the analysis of its acoustic
emission during the switching process has been analyzed [28–30]. It has been demonstrated
that the acoustic peak in an aged device is smaller in comparison with a new one. However,
in these works, only the acoustic emission of an Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)
connected into short-circuit has been investigated. Meanwhile, the authors of [32] present
an early experimental setup used to prove that acoustic emission is related to the switching
of power semiconductor components. Furthermore, the authors have proposed an analysis
based on propagation delays to assess the source of the acoustic emission. The authors
in [33] have investigated the acoustic emission as a CM method to measure the fatigue
mechanisms in the power module. More specifically, they have investigated the physical
degradation, observing the aging process of the whole power module by measuring the
frequency spectrum of acoustic emission. The authors in [34] have measured the acoustic
emission during converter operations to estimate the aging of a power semiconductor
module due to power cycling. However, a spectrum analysis has been conducted to process
the acquired data. The experimental results have shown a correlation between acoustic
emission and the drain-source voltage, which is a common indicator of degradation of the
bond wires of the power module.
As for disadvantages, the acoustic method needs an expensive and complex sensing
circuit to correctly decode the acoustic emission. Furthermore, the system has to be shielded
against Electromagnetic interference (EMI) and the superposition of noise contributions.

4. Optical Methods
Temperature variation, especially the sudden increase of the JT, plays a significant role
in terms of power device reliability [34,35]. CM methods performing on-line JT monitoring
raise great interest in terms of planning maintenance operations because the working
conditions of a power converter are extremely unpredictable. From this perspective, the
CM methods based on the optical properties of the semiconductor power devices were
studied in depth because they are useful for temperature estimation. These methods are
usually based on an optical beam that is reflected or scattered back from the semiconductor
lattice. There is an inherent dependence between temperature and the energy related
to the photoemission. More specifically, such energy is a function of the JT, hence, in
turn, the energy variation can be used to estimate the temperature of the chip. It is worth
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 7 of 28

remembering that these solutions based on optical quantities have some other drawbacks,
such as the high cost and the impracticality in high-voltage converters.
There are various techniques for thermal mapping based on the use of an IR sensor [36–40],
IR microscope [41], 2D radiometry [41,42], and the laser deflection technique [43–45],
while fiber optic [46–48] and the IR camera [49–54] can both be used to obtain a thermal
mapping or the JT value. In the following, the aforementioned optical techniques are
briefly discussed.

4.1. Infra-Red/Visible Emission

An IR sensor is able to detect changes in the amount of infrared radiation of an object,
which may vary depending on the temperature and surface characteristics of the objects in
front of the sensor. The use of the IR sensors as a CM method for the measurement of the
JT in a power device [36–39] is almost inexpensive as well as not very intrusive. However,
these sensors have a low response time and, furthermore, the IR sensors average out the
junction temperature value of the power device, and hence the accuracy is very low.
On the other hand, the emerging trend of the Wide-bandgap (WBG) power devices,
such as the SiC power MOSFETs, are more and more diffusing devices as they concurrently
enable high switching frequency, high voltage, and high-temperature operations. Therefore,
the study of the electroluminescence proprieties of the SiC material for on-line CM has
started to attract wide interest. For different reasons, the electroluminescence proprieties
have already been studied back in 1907 [55], while, in the last three years, the inadvertent
light emission phenomenon in the intrinsic body diode has drawn attention. While the
body diode is in forward conduction mode, the chip glows a visible blue light [56]. The
light brightness of the SiC body diode strongly depends on both the injected current
magnitude and the JT. Hence, the measurement of light brightness can be used as a novel
CM method for temperature detection, where only a few works have already focused on
this topic [56–58]. The first proof of concept of the SiC light emission in a commercial
power module has already proven the potentiality of this CM method [57]. An inexpensive
passive sensing circuit, such as a silicon photodiode and a resistor, was adopted and the
photodiode output voltage was correlated to the light emission intensity as a function
of the temperature. It is worth noting that the system is small enough such that it can
be easily embedded in the package. Another approach considers a light circuit sensing
using two commercial photodiodes with an active signal conditioning circuit [58]. This
approach has been adopted for JT estimation in a real application such as a pulse-width
modulation (PWM) driven converter. The temperature-dependent changes in the spectrum
of the light emission from the body diode of a SiC module have also been investigated [59].
The method has been proven through static characterization and dynamic double pulse
measurement using two silicon photomultipliers, which can detect the peak intensity and,
consequentially, the temperature dependence. Different from the previous CM methods,
the last one, based on the light intensity of the SiC body diode, enables high-voltage
operations and, even more importantly, the JT can be estimated during on-line operations.

4.2. Optical Fibers

The use of optical fiber as a CM method for the power modules has been discussed in
very few works [46–48]. It is worth underlining that this CM method can be used without
removing the dielectric gel on the power module surface, and the JT can be measured by
placing the fiber optic cable in direct contact with the power chip. On the other hand, the
measure is able to give only a local temperature; further, for almost all fiber optic methods,
the measurement response time is generally high. Furthermore, it requires an external
conditioning circuit unit that may be bulky for a specific application.
As an example, in [49], an optical fiber sensor has been used to measure the die
temperature of an IGBT power module to estimate the thermal impedance (see Figure 3).
The module top lid has been removed because the optical system has to be placed close to
 out removing the dielectric gel on the power module surface, and the JT can be measured
by placing the fiber optic cable in direct contact with the power chip. On the other hand,
the measure is able to give only a local temperature; further, for almost all fiber optic
methods, the measurement response time is generally high. Furthermore, it requires an
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 external conditioning circuit unit that may be bulky for a specific application. 8 of 28
As an example, in [49], an optical fiber sensor has been used to measure the die tem-
perature of an IGBT power module to estimate the thermal impedance (see Figure 3). The
module top lid has been removed because the optical system has to be placed close to the
the
[Link]. Printing
Printing the the
die die
andand bond-wires
bond-wires to increase
to increase the emissivity
the emissivity ofchip
of the the chip is usually
is usually pref-
preferable, but causes a cost increment and severely limits the on-line use of the method.
erable, but causes a cost increment and severely limits the on-line use of the method.

Figure 3. Example of a power module with optical fiber thermal sensors (Based on [49]).

4.3. IR-Detection
Figure 3. ExampleApparatuses
of a power module with optical fiber thermal sensors (Based on [49]).
IR-detection apparatuses are not really used as a CM method for power devices,
but are extremely useful in laboratory testing (e.g., under power cycling) [49–53]. More
specifically, the use of an IR camera allows to display the thermal map of the whole surface
of the power module under test, as shown in Figure 4. As expected, the module temperature
is not uniformly distributed; the temperature gradient between the center and the edge of
the module can be greater than 40 ◦ C. Usually, an IR camera is used to carry out a spatial
thermal mapping on the device surface, but it is not able to provide an accurate measure of
the device JT. It is worth remembering that some temperature measurement errors can be
done using an IR camera because of the surface degradation of materials and the intrinsic
low emissivity of aluminum. Even in this case, the IR temperature measurements are
usually conducted by varnishing the surface of the DUT with a particular solution that
increases the thermal emissivity on the surface.

4.4. Other Techniques

The IR microscope [40], 2D radiometry [41,42], and the laser deflection technique [43–45]
have also been used as CM methods for power devices. All the aforementioned methods
are able to provide a very precise JT estimation of a semiconductor device, but, on the other
hand, the devices under test are to be driven with a specific testing sequence, not matching
with the real operation in a power converter. They are also very expensive solutions and
are not easily embedded in a real application.
Among the various sensors that use the 2D radiometry and laser deflection technique,
it is worth remembering the InSb photovoltaic detector, which is a high-speed, low-noise
infrared detector that delivers high sensitivity, and with an optical microsensor whose
operating principle is based on detecting the absorption, deflection, and phase shift of an
optical beam.
 edge of the module can be greater than 40 °C. Usually, an IR camera is used to carry out a
spatial thermal mapping on the device surface, but it is not able to provide an accurate
measure of the device JT. It is worth remembering that some temperature measurement
errors can be done using an IR camera because of the surface degradation of materials and
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 the intrinsic low emissivity of aluminum. Even in this case, the IR temperature measure-
9 of 28
ments are usually conducted by varnishing the surface of the DUT with a particular solu-
tion that increases the thermal emissivity on the surface.

[Link]
Figure Thermalmap
mapof
ofaaSiC
SiCpower
powermodule
modulein
inthe
thecase
caseof
ofaacurrent
currentinjection
injectionininthe
thebody
bodydiode.
diode.

5.4.4.
Physical Methods
Other Techniques
The
The early works treating
IR microscope [40], 2DCM methods [41,42],
radiometry for the and
JT measurement have been
the laser deflection done[43–
technique by
directly
45] havecontacting the chip
also been used as CM surface
methodswithforapower
thermo-sensitive
devices. All material such as a point
the aforementioned meth-
contact
ods are system. In this acase,
able to provide verydirect
preciseaccess to the semiconductor
JT estimation chip device,
of a semiconductor is necessary and,
but, on the
consequentially, the package must be removed.
other hand, the devices under test are to be driven with a specific testing sequence, not
Various
matching equipment
with has been used
the real operation for theconverter.
in a power physical contact
They aremeasurement, including
also very expensive so-
thermocouples, thermistors, scanning thermal
lutions and are not easily embedded in a real application. probes, and multiple contact or blanket
coatings such as
Among theliquid crystals
various and that
sensors thermographic
use the 2Dphosphors
radiometry[59–65]. The aforementioned
and laser deflection tech-
equipment relies on the transfer of thermal energy from the DUT to the
nique, it is worth remembering the InSb photovoltaic detector, which is a high-speed, thermal [Link]-
In
this case, the spatial resolution related to the contact measurements strictly
noise infrared detector that delivers high sensitivity, and with an optical microsensor depends on
the sizeoperating
whose and the thermal
principlecapacitance
is based onofdetecting
thermo-sensible materials.
the absorption, The ability
deflection, andto provide
phase shift
aoftemperature map
an optical beam. utilizing a matrix of sensors and a wide spatial resolution (can reach
less than 100 nm) are the main advantages. In the following, the aforementioned physical
techniques
5. Physicalhave been briefly discussed.
Methods
The early works treating CM methods for the JT measurement have been done by
5.1. Thermocouples
directly contacting the chip surface with a thermo-sensitive material such as a point con-
The physical contact methods that rely on the use of thermocouples are not widespread
tact system. In this case,asdirect
in practical applications access
the chip to the
of the semiconductor
power module mustchip is necessary
be accessible and,
to the conse-
thermal
quentially, the package must be removed.
probe and, from this perspective, the on-line measurements and high voltage operations
are strongly limited. Furthermore, the measurement of the thermal variation of the power
module strictly depends on the time response of the probe, which may be considerably
slower (few seconds) than the variation of the module JT.
Nowadays, only in a few cases [60,61], the JT of an IGBT module has been experimentally
measured during on-line converter operation. More specifically, the temperature has been
determined using several thermocouples physically connected to the chip (see Figure 5). On
the other hand, several works use the measurement of some thermocouples as target values
to prove the accuracy and effectiveness of new on-line junction temperature estimation
models [62–65]. For example, the effectiveness of a model carried out for a three-phase
power module IGBT by considering the transient thermal impedance has been proven
using several thermocouples [63]. An experimental setup and an on-line control system
that includes a microcontroller and a matrix of K-type thermocouples have been built up
to verify a numerical thermal model for IGBT devices [64]. In [65], an electrical-thermal
 Figure 5). On the other hand, several works use the measurement of some thermocouples
as target values to prove the accuracy and effectiveness of new on-line junction tempera-
ture estimation models [62–65]. For example, the effectiveness of a model carried out for
a three-phase power module IGBT by considering the transient thermal impedance has
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 been proven using several thermocouples [63]. An experimental setup and an on-line con-
10 of 28
trol system that includes a microcontroller and a matrix of K-type thermocouples have
been built up to verify a numerical thermal model for IGBT devices [64]. In [65], an elec-
trical-thermal model has been carried out in terms of both the transient and steady-state
model has been
responses. carriedthe
To validate outmodel,
in terms
an of both
array ofthe transient and
thermocouple hassteady-state responses.
been installed To
on the chip
validate the model, an array of thermocouple has been installed on the chip surface.
surface. A thermal model based on the Fourier series solution of heat conduction equa- A
thermal model based on the Fourier series solution of heat conduction equations has also
tions has also been validated using several thermocouples placed on the surface of the
been validated using several thermocouples placed on the surface of the silicon die, on
silicon die, on the base plate, and on the heat sink, in order to characterize the transient
the base plate, and on the heat sink, in order to characterize the transient electrothermal
electrothermal behavior of an IGBT module [66].
behavior of an IGBT module [66].

Figure 5. Measurement of the junction temperature (JT) of a device under test (DUT) with a thermo-
couple probe on the die surface (Based on [62]).
Figure 5. Measurement of the junction temperature (JT) of a device under test (DUT) with a ther-
mocouple
5.2. Liquidprobe on the die surface (Based on [62]).
Crystals
The earliest physical CM methods for the measurement of the JT in a power device
have been obtained by using the scanning thermal probes, as well as multiple contact or
blanket coatings, such as liquid crystals and thermographic phosphors [60].
More specifically, the thermochromic liquid crystals consist of a thermal imaging
tool for mapping surface and spatial temperature distributions. It is worth remembering
that the molecular structure and optical properties of the liquid crystals vary with the
temperature. Hence, the JT measurement of a power device can be done by measuring the
wavelength of the reflected light. These CM methods have a very good spatial resolution,
but on the other hand, they are extremely highly invasive and cannot be used in a real
power converter application owing to the bulky sensing circuits.

6. Electrical Methods
Electrical methods for JT measurement are often the preferred choice for CM of power
devices because the temperature estimation can be carried out through the measurement of
electrical quantities. More specifically, it is worth remembering that the proprieties of the
semiconductor materials are temperature dependent and, hence, the measurement of the
voltage drop or the current that flows into the device can be used as a valid temperature
estimator. Among the various electrical CM methods, thermal test chips (TTCs) are directly
fabricated on the die surface of the device, and the voltage drop can be used to estimate
the temperature variations. On the other hand, the TSEPs are based on the measurement of
the voltage drop (or current) during the converter operations. Generally, the measurement
of the voltage drop can be carried out using some voltage probes that are connected to
the device terminals. The TSEPs are usually the preferred choice for CM because of their
user-friendliness, fast response time to the temperature transients, and good accuracy.
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 11 of 28

6.1. Thermal Test Chips

TTCs were originally developed for the thermal characterization of device pack-
ages [67], and since then have also been used in IGBT power modules. TTCs act as thermal
sensors to monitor the JT and they are fabricated on the proximity of the silicon chip.
TTCs can be suitable for on-line temperature measurements. Various types of TTCs
have been realized, such as integrated diodes and resistance temperature detectors
(RTDs) [67–75]. As the forward voltage of the diodes strongly depends on the temperature
variation, the measure of the voltage drop can be used for temperature estimation. It
is worth remembering that the temperature presents an exponential dependence on the
forward voltage. Likewise, RTDs are also used as the temperature-sensitive parameter
because the voltage drop is related to the resistance variations. The variable resistance, Rt ,
can be expressed as follows:
Rt = R0 (1 + α0 ∆T ) (1)
where R0 is the value of the resistance at 0 ◦ C, α0 is the resistance temperature coefficient
that strictly depends on the material, and ∆T is the temperature variation.
To use TTCs, a modified IGBT power module layout with an accessible on-chip
temperature terminal has been proposed in [68]. A string of diodes on the top of the chip
has been fabricated and the measurement of the JT has been performed by measuring
the forward voltage drop. Instead, in [69] a thin-film RTD placed on the top of the IGBT
chip has been realized to measure the average temperature of the die. A similar solution
where an NTC thermistor has been embedded in the IGBT power module has been also
investigated [70]. Innovative use of a kelvin-emitter resistor, placed directly on the IGBT
die surface, as a junction temperature sensor has been also adopted [71]. It provides only a
local temperature measurement. Meanwhile, in [72], a chain of integrated diodes has been
fabricated on the die surface to investigate the JT variations during a power cycling test.
The widespread nature of SiC power modules in different power electronics applica-
tions has also driven forward the research of innovative control techniques that require
real-time monitoring or estimation of the module’s JT. From this perspective, several
works [72–75] have been focused on the development of electrical models of the devices
in which several NTC thermistors have been integrated on the die surface. The mea-
surement of the temperature variation enables the estimation of aging of a device and,
consequentially, the device model can be continuously updated.
The main drawbacks of the TTCs are the production cost and manufacturing complex-
ity of the embedded sensors. Indeed, such layout modification complexity of the power
module packaging can considerably increase and also requires additional terminals for the
temperature measurements. Furthermore, it is worth remembering that the diodes and
RTDs can be affected by degradations along the lifetime of the device that may affect the
accuracy of the measurement. These issues have limited the spread of TTCs in commercial
power devices.

6.2. Methods Using the Thermo-Sensitive Electrical Parameters (TSEPs)

The CM methods outlined so far require visual or physical access to the chip. To
overcome this limitation, the temperature measurement by thermo-sensitive electrical pa-
rameters (TSEPs) has been used as a valid alternative for the estimation of the JT of a power
device. The key point consists of correlating the temperature of the semiconductor material
with the electrical quantities during the normal operation of the converter. More specifically,
the semiconductor devices have an intrinsic dependence on the temperature related to
different parameters, such as the mobility of the carriers µ(T), intrinsic concentration ni (T),
and the bandgap energy Eg (T). It is worth remembering that the Eg (T) and ni (T) increase
at higher temperatures, while µ(T) has a complex dependence with the temperature that
is related to the doping concentration and traps in the gate oxide and silicon interface.
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 12 of 28

Therefore, the temperature dependence on the aforementioned parameters may be written

as follows [76–78]:
T2
Eg ( T ) = Eg ( T0 ) − α1 (2)
T + β1
−γ
n i ( T ) = N α2 e T (3)
  α3
β 2 TT0
µ ( T ) = µ0   α4 (4)
1 + β 2 TT0

where α1 , α2 , α3 , β1 , β2 , and γ are empirical coefficients; N is the number per unit volume
of effectively available levels states; and T0 is the room temperature.
Consequentially, the measurement of the electrical quantities measured at the device
terminal can be used as a temperature estimator.
Therefore, TSEPs methods use passive voltage or current probes that measure the
electrical quantities at the device electrodes, without direct access to the chip device, then
the JT is estimated from these measurements. Furthermore, the TSEPs are the preferred
approaches to easily obtain JT measurements on packaged devices with a fast time response
(less than 100 microseconds). On the other hand, the TSEPs methods do not provide a
thermal map of the DUT and, hence, the JT peak is often hard to evaluate [79]. Such an
issue is more severe in multichip devices where the voltage or current measurements only
provide a rough temperature of the whole device, without the possibility to know the
effective temperature distribution among several paralleled chips [80]. In the following
subsection, the main TSEPs methods are briefly discussed.

6.2.1. On-State Voltage Measurement

Among the different TSEPs methods, on-state voltage measurement under low current
injection has been the most used in many industrial and academic applications. In this case,
the TSEP is the voltage drop across the device. The advantage of using this CM method
lies in the easy calibration procedure and the negligible self-heating of the DUT.
This CM method is widely employed when the devices have a PN junction in their
structure. More specifically, bearing in mind a vertical diffusion MOSFET power device,
the temperature variation can be evaluated as the on-resistance Rds,on fluctuations during
the converter operations. For the sake of simplicity, the Rds,on can be approximated as
follows (see Figure 6):

Rds,on ≈ Rch + Rd + Rsub + Rcs + Rcd + Rs + R a + R j f et (5)

where Rch is the channel resistance, Rd is the drift region resistance, Rsub is the substrate
resistance, Rcs and Rds are the source and drain contact resistance, Rs is the source resistance,
Rjfet is the JFET resistance, and Ra is the accumulation resistance. Furthermore, the Rch and
Rd can be evaluated as follows [78]:

Lch
Rch =
(6)
Wch µch Cox Vgs − Vth

Ld
Rd = (7)
qµd Nd Ad
where Lch and Wch are the channel length and width, respectively; Cox is the gate ca-
pacitance; Ld and Ad are the drift region length and area, respectively; Nd is the doping
concentration of the drift region; and µch and µd are the channel and drift region mobility,
respectively. It is worth noting that Rch decreases at higher temperatures because both
µch and Vth decrease at higher temperatures. On the other hand, Rd acts as a positive
temperature coefficient thermistor owing to the temperature dependence of µd , which
decreases at higher temperatures.
 where Lch and Wch are the channel length and width, respectively; Cox is the gate capaci-
tance; Ld and Ad are the drift region length and area, respectively; Nd is the doping concen-
tration of the drift region; and μch and μd are the channel and drift region mobility, respec-
tively. It is worth noting that Rch decreases at higher temperatures because both μch and Vth
decrease at higher temperatures. On the other hand, Rd acts as a positive temperature co-
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 13 of 28
efficient thermistor owing to the temperature dependence of μd, which decreases at higher
temperatures.

Figure 6. Power
Figure vertical
6. Powerdiffused
verticalMOSFET structure structure
diffused MOSFET with its internal
with itsresistances.
internal resistances.

It is worth underlining that the temperature coefficient of Rds,on may differ for the
power devices from different vendors, which is mainly caused by the different design of
the device. Therefore, notwithstanding an easier calibration procedure, the CM method
must be calibrated when a different device is adopted.
Firstly, the calibration procedure is mandatory, which is used to find the relationship
between the JT and the TSEP. Typically, the calibration step consists of the use of a current
source ICal , in a range from 1 mA to tens of A. It is worth noting that, during the calibration
procedure, the device temperature can usually be fixed by a temperature-controlled heat
sink. Then, the temperature measurement can be carried out during the dissipation stage,
where the TSEP is measured in a typical converter application. In this case, a current source,
Id, feeds the DUT to increase its temperature by means of power dissipations. Therefore,
the voltage drop across the device, under known electrical conditions, is measured as a
function of the temperature.
A simplified schematic of the circuits for the measurement of the voltage under low
current is depicted in Figure 7 for an IGBT (Figure 7a) and a MOSFET (Figure 7b). The
measurement can be carried out for both the on-state and off-state voltage. A voltmeter
is usually connected in parallel to the DUT for the measurement of the voltage drop.
It is worth noting that the current Ical must be at least hundreds of mA to guarantee a
linear relationship between the voltage drop and the temperature [80,81]. In the literature,
many works [80–96] have focused on voltage measurement under low current injection
in power diodes during forward polarization [84–87], in IGBT power modules [90–95], as
well as in power BJTs. Some works [94,95] have focused on the JT estimation in an IGBT
power module whose on-state voltage (i.e., collector-emitter voltage, VCEon ) has a negative
temperature coefficient. The main drawback of this method is the high dependence on
the collector current during the measurement of VCE,on . Hence, the load current should be
diverted during the measurement and this momentary interruption limits the use of this
method in real-time applications.
 power BJTs. Some works [94,95] have focused on the JT estimation in an IGBT power
module whose on-state voltage (i.e., collector-emitter voltage, VCEon) has a negative tem-
perature coefficient. The main drawback of this method is the high dependence on the
collector current during the measurement of VCE,on. Hence, the load current should be di-
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 verted during the measurement and this momentary interruption limits the use of this
14 of 28
method in real-time applications.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 7.
7. Electrical
Electrical circuits
circuits for
for the
the static
static measurement
measurement of
of the
the voltage
voltage under
under aa low
low current:
current: (a)
(a) IGBT
IGBT and
and (b)
(b) MOSFET.
MOSFET.

The
The principle of of operation
operationof ofthetheCM CMmethods
methodsbased basedonon thethe on-state
on-state voltage
voltage meas-
measure-
urement at high
ment at high currentcurrent injection
injection is almostis almost
similarsimilar
to that to thatlow
of the of the lowinjection
current current methods.
injection
methods. The measurement
The measurement of the VCE,onof (or
the VVds,on
CE,on)(or Vds,on)drop
voltage voltage
acrossdrop
theacross
devicethe device
is used as is used
a TSEP,
as
as adescribed
TSEP, as fordescribed
the lowfor the low
current currentmode.
injection injection
Themode. The main with
main difference difference
respectwith re-
to the
previous
spect CMprevious
to the method lies CMinmethod
the calibration procedure.
lies in the More
calibration specifically,
procedure. a higher
More current is
specifically, a
used for
higher the calibration
current is used forprocedure and it produces
the calibration procedurea and non-negligible
it producesself-heating. Fromself-
a non-negligible this
perspective,
heating. Fromthe relation
this between
perspective, thethe voltage
relation drop on
between thethe DUT and
voltage dropthe on temperature
the DUT andalso the
depends on the
temperature alsovalue of the
depends oninjected
the value current.
of the injected current.
The experimental
The experimentalsetup setupfor forthe
thetemperature
temperaturemeasurement
measurement is is depicted
depicted in in Figure
Figure 8. A 8.
A high current generator feeds the DUT with a
high current generator feeds the DUT with a pulsed current, IH, and pulsed current, I , and a voltmeter
H a voltmeter is15con- is
Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 29
connected
nected in parallel
in parallel to the
to the DUT. DUT.
It isItimportant
is important to point
to point outoutthatthat
thethe measurement
measurement of the
of the JT
JT can
can be be obtained
obtained during
during thethe heating
heating process.
process.

Figure 8. Electrical circuits of a DUT for the static measurement of the

the voltage
voltage under
under high
high current.
current.

The TSEPs
TSEPs are areusually
usuallythe theMOSFET
MOSFETon-state
on-state drain-source
drain-source voltage
voltage [97],
[97], thethe power
power di-
diodes forwardvoltage
odes forward voltage[91],
[91],and
andthe
theIGBT
IGBT on-state
on-state emitter-collector
emitter-collector voltage [91,97]. The The
sensitivity of of the
theaforementioned
aforementionedTSEP TSEPisisstrictly
strictly related
related to to
thethe on-state
on-state current
current value,
value, re-
regardless
gardless ofofthe thespecific
specificdevice.
[Link]
TheJT JTestimation
estimationisis only
only practicable
practicable for
for current
current values
values
greater
greater than
than tens
tens ofof Ampere
Ampere [98]. Hence, this
[98]. Hence, this method
method appears
appears to to be
be very
very useful,
useful, especially
especially
for on-line JT measurement during the normal converter operation.
for on-line JT measurement during the normal converter operation. Several Several circuit solutions
circuit solu-
to measure the
tions to measure CEonV of the power device have been devised [81,90,96–99].
the VCEon of the power device have been devised [81,90,96–99].
This
This approach
approachalso alsopresents
presentssome
somelimitations
limitations owing
owing to the voltage
to the swing
voltage between
swing the
between
on-state and off-state of the device. This implies the use of advanced electronic
the on-state and off-state of the device. This implies the use of advanced electronic sensing sensing
circuits,
circuits, thus
thus increasing
increasing the the complexity
complexity of of the
the system.
system. Innovative
Innovative and and compact
compact sensing
sensing
circuits to face these issues have been proposed
circuits to face these issues have been proposed [97,98]. [97,98].
Another
Another issueissueisisthe
thecontact
contactresistances
resistancesof of
thethe
voltage probes,
voltage which
probes, cause
which an undesired
cause an unde-
voltage
sired voltage drop that may produce an overestimation of the JT measurementThis
drop that may produce an overestimation of the JT measurement [99]. [99].issue
This
issue has been partially mitigated with a correction factor based on the layout of the power
module [98,99]. Unfortunately, the introduced correction factor has to be calibrated as the
device aging progresses.
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 15 of 28

has been partially mitigated with a correction factor based on the layout of the power
module [98,99]. Unfortunately, the introduced correction factor has to be calibrated as the
device aging progresses.

6.2.2. Saturation Current

The measurement of the saturation current, Isat, has also been used as a TSEP [88,93,100,101]
in power modules with IGBTs or MOSFETs. This current can be measured using a current
probe or a voltage probe (by adding a shunt resistor). The electrical quantities measured
provide a JT estimation due to the dependence on the chip temperature of the channel
electron mobility, µch ; of the threshold, Vth ; and of the PNP transistor current gain β for
the IGBT [101]. It is worth remembering that the current Isat shows a complex temperature
dependence, but under the assumption that all the devices are at the same temperature
and by neglecting the self-heating, the current Isat in a device can be simply approximated
as follows:
1 µch ( T )Wch Cox
Isat = (VGS − Vth ( T ))2 (8)
2 Lch
The measurement setup consists of a voltage source, VGT , connected between the
gate-emitter (or gate-source) terminals of the DUT and a DC source voltage, VD , connected
between the drain-source or collector-emitter terminals of the DUT. Figure 9 shows the
setup of an IGBT device. The voltage value of VGT is usually higher than the threshold
voltage Vth of the device and a pulsed current is injected into the DUT by controlling
the switch T1 . The saturation current can be measured through the voltage drop on the
Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 29
Rshunt . The setup demonstrates that the thermal characterization of the device cannot be
performed during the on-line converter operation.

Figure 9. Electrical
Electrical circuits
circuits for the measurement of the saturation current in an IGBT device.

The first
first procedure
procedureisisthe
thecalibration
calibration step,
step, where
where thethe
DUTDUT is usually
is usually placedplaced in a
in a con-
controlled hot plate that overheats the device and, hence, the
trolled hot plate that overheats the device and, hence, the Isat is measuredI sat is measured at varying
at varying plate
plate temperatures.
temperatures. Then,Then, the measurement
the measurement procedure
procedure (see(see Figure
Figure 9) consists
9) consists of of performinga
performing
a non-destructiveshort-circuit
non-destructive short-circuittotoproduce
produceaasignificant
significantchannel
channeltemperature
temperature variation
variation over
over
aa short
short period
period of of time.
time. From
From this
this perspective,
perspective, the
the measurement
measurement variation
variationof of the currentIIsat
thecurrent sat
can be associated with a specific temperature value. Moreover, the temperature
can be associated with a specific temperature value. Moreover, the temperature calibra- calibration
may may
tion not benot
performed without
be performed power losses
without powerthat influence
losses the devicethe
that influence self-heating [100–102].
device self-heating
Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that JT measurement is more
[100,101]. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that JT measurement is more accurate accurate only for
high temperatures.
only for high temperatures.
6.2.3. Gate Threshold Voltage
6.2.3. Gate Threshold Voltage
The threshold voltage V is defined as the voltage to be applied to the gate-source
The threshold voltage Vthth is defined as the voltage to be applied to the gate-source
terminals to have a given current, which is the minimum current that must flow into the
terminals to have a given current, which is the minimum current that must flow into the
device channel to assume the device is turned on. Instead, from the standpoint of power
device channel to assume the device is turned on. Instead, from the standpoint of power
electronic devices, Vth is defined as the level of gate bias needed to observe a transition
from weak inversion to strong inversion. For a MOS transistor structure, the Vth can be
approximated as follows [103]:
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 16 of 28

electronic devices, Vth is defined as the level of gate bias needed to observe a transition
from weak inversion to strong inversion. For a MOS transistor structure, the Vth can be
approximated as follows [103]:
s
Q 2εqNA
q
Vth ≈ 2ϕ F ( T ) − SS + ϕms ( T ) + 2ϕ F ( T ) (9)
CO CO

where ϕF is the Fermi potential, QSS is the extrinsic change due to surface states, CO is the
gate oxide capacitance, ϕms is the metal-semiconductor work function difference, ε is the
oxide dielectric constant, q is the elementary charge unit, and NA is the body doping.
Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 29
By referring to (9), it can be demonstrated that the voltage VTH decreases with the
increasing temperature [103], and it is a TSEP useful for temperature monitoring of MOS-
FETs [90,103] and IGBTs [93,94,104,105]. A potential measurement setup for the calibration
the other for
procedure JTthe
and measurement
measurement (low
of current injection),
the Vth as has case
TSEP in the beenofproposed. This CM
an IGBT device method
is depicted
is
innot suitable
Figure 10. for on-line condition monitoring [106,107].

Figure
Figure 10.
10. Circuit
Circuit for
for the
the calibration
calibration step
step of the threshold voltage method.

[Link] gate and or

Gate-Source drain (collector)Voltage
Gate-Emitter terminals short-circuited and a current source, Ical ,
areON-OFF
Turn
feedsThethe gate-emitter
DUT, while a(source)
voltmeter measures the V ), .isIt used
voltage, Vge (or Vgsth is worth
as anoting that thethe
TSEP during calibration
turn-on
step is based on the low current injection method and, thereby, the self-heating
and turn-off of the switch [108–109]. The high sensitivity and the linear dependence is negligible.
of Vge
Some
(or Vgs works
) with [93,94] have are
the temperature focused on the temperature
the strengths dependence
of this method. of the
Similarly Vth threshold
to the measured
by varying the collector-emitter voltage and the current collector value for an IGBT device.
voltage method, the Vge (or Vgs) TSEP method cannot be used for on-line JT estimation in
The Ical value has to be higher than 5 mA to have a correct calibration step for high
a power converter application, because the gate and collector (drain) terminal has to be
temperatures and high sensitivity [93,94]. Other works [104,105] have focused on the
shorted. The experimental setup of the gate-source or gate-emitter voltage as the CM
temperature measurements after the power dissipation of the device. More specifically, a
method is very similar to that of the threshold voltage (see Figure 10). In this case, the
current source with two different current levels, one for dissipation (high current injection)
current injected into the DUT is higher than the current used in the threshold voltage
and the other for JT measurement (low current injection), has been proposed. This CM
method and, consequentially, the self-heating is not negligible.
method is not suitable for on-line condition monitoring [106,107].
Figure 11 depicts the simulation of the gate-emitter voltage Vge of an IGBT during the
turn-off while varying
6.2.4. Gate-Source the device temperature.
or Gate-Emitter Voltage TurnItON-OFF
is worth noting that the following anal-
ysis can be done by considering the turn-on of a device. The Miller plateau becomes wider
The gate-emitter (source) voltage, Vge (or Vgs ), is used as a TSEP during the turn-on
as the temperature increases. In other terms, the time shift Δt in the figure is strictly related
and turn-off of the switch [108,109]. The high sensitivity and the linear dependence of Vge
to the temperature of the chip and can be detected using a time counter that triggers from
(or Vgs ) with the temperature are the strengths of this method. Similarly to the threshold
the first falling
voltage method, edge
theto
V the(or
second one after
V ) TSEP the Miller
method cannotplateau.
be used for on-line JT estimation
ge gs
in a power converter application, because the gate and collector (drain) terminal has to
be shorted. The experimental setup of the gate-source or gate-emitter voltage as the CM
method is very similar to that of the threshold voltage (see Figure 10). In this case, the
current injected into the DUT is higher than the current used in the threshold voltage
method and, consequentially, the self-heating is not negligible.
Figure 11 depicts the simulation of the gate-emitter voltage Vge of an IGBT during
the turn-off while varying the device temperature. It is worth noting that the following
analysis can be done by considering the turn-on of a device. The Miller plateau becomes
wider as the temperature increases. In other terms, the time shift ∆t in the figure is strictly
 shorted. The experimental setup of the gate-source or gate-emitter voltage as the CM
method is very similar to that of the threshold voltage (see Figure 10). In this case, the
current injected into the DUT is higher than the current used in the threshold voltage
method and, consequentially, the self-heating is not negligible.
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 Figure 11 depicts the simulation of the gate-emitter voltage Vge of an IGBT during the 17 of 28
turn-off while varying the device temperature. It is worth noting that the following anal-
ysis can be done by considering the turn-on of a device. The Miller plateau becomes wider
as the temperature increases. In other terms, the time shift Δt in the figure is strictly related
relatedof
to the temperature tothe
thechip
temperature of the
and can be chip and
detected canabe
using detected
time using
counter thatatriggers
time counter
from that triggers
from the first falling edge to the second one after
the first falling edge to the second one after the Miller plateau. the Miller plateau.

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Simulated VgeSimulated
waveformVduring
ge waveform during
the turn off ofthe
an turn
IGBToff
byofvarying
an IGBTthebytemperature
varying theworking
temperature
operations (figure
working operations (figure based on [110]).
based on [110]).
The Miller plateau width td can be approximated as follows [109]:

RGint ( T )·Crss ( T )·(VDD − VON )

td =   (10)
Iload ( T )
gm ( T )
+ Vth ( T )

where RGint is the internal gate resistance, Crss is the Miller capacitance, VDD is the DC-link
voltage, VON is the on-state voltage, Iload is the load current, and gm is the transconductance.
Equation (10) shows that td is directly proportional to Crss and RGint . It is worth noting
that the impact of temperature variation on VON and VDD is negligible, while the tempera-
ture variations of the terms (Iload /gm ) and VTH partly neutralize each other. The internal
gate resistance depends on the temperature as the electron mobility decreases at higher
temperatures. Therefore, td increases at higher temperatures owing to the temperature
dependence of Crss and RGint . Therefore, the time interval td of the Miller plateau in the Vge
(or Vgs ) voltage can be used as a TSEP to estimate the JT of IGBTs (or MOSFETs).
The authors in [109] have proved the temperature independence of the collector-
emitter voltage. Instead, the calibration step measurement has been improved in [53],
where an auxiliary sensing circuit has been added to the gate driver to reduce undesirable
oscillations during the turn off of the device. Meanwhile, in [110], the linear dependence of
td with respect to the temperature of the chip has been demonstrated, and a parametric
analysis by varying the JT, Iload , and DC-link voltage has been performed.

6.2.5. Turn On-Off Delay Time

The switching behavior of the power devices has been also adopted as a CM
method [110–116]. In this case, the TSEPs are the voltage and current waveforms during
the turn-on and turn-off of the DUT. This method is quite similar to the Vge (or Vgs ) TSEP
method, but the JT monitoring can be performed on-line during the converter operations.
More specifically, the delay, ∆D, at turn-on, between the collector current ic and the gate-
emitter voltage Vge for an IGBT device (see Figure 11), is used as a TSEP [110–112], as well
as the delay between the drain current id and the gate-source voltage Vgs for a MOSFET
device. Bearing in mind the IGBT devices, the turn-on delay is of great interest because ∆D
increases linearly with the temperature [113], it only depends on the dc-link voltage, and it
is not influenced by the value of ic . More specifically, during the switching on time interval
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 18 of 28

ton , the gate current charges the gate-emitter capacitance CGE that is connected in series
with the gate resistance RGint .
Therefore, the zero state waveform of the vge (t) can be written as follows [109]:
 
 t
 V (T )
v ge (t) = VG · 1 − e τ τ ≈ RGint ( T )·CGE ( T ) tON ≈ τ ( T )· ln 1 − th (11)
VG

where VG is the driver gate-emitter voltage.

The dependence on the temperature of the turn-on delay ∆D can be analyzed by
combining both (9) and (11). Vth decreases as the temperature increases and the value of
the time constant τ depends on the temperature variations too. It is worth underlining that
the gate charge (the intrinsic gate capacitances) has a weak dependence on temperature,
while the internal gate-resistance RGint has a stronger dependence on temperature owing
to the channel mobility µ, which decreases at higher temperatures.
Figure 12 depicts the simulation of an ideal IGBT device during the turn-on at varying
working operation temperatures (40 ◦ C, 70 ◦ C, and 100 ◦ C). The shift on the right of the
Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 29
waveforms is strictly related to the aforementioned temperature dependence. The previous
method is also valid for MOSFETs.

Figure 12. Simplified ic –Vge turn ON waveforms of an IGBT at different temperature working operations.
Figure 12. Simplified ic–Vge turn ON waveforms of an IGBT at different temperature working oper-
ations.
An advanced sensing circuit (voltage probes, Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA),
Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)) that records the transient evolutions of both Vge and ic
An advanced sensing circuit (voltage probes, Field Programmable Gate Array
waveforms has been proposed in [112]. The delay is calculated as the time interval between
(FPGA), Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)) that records the transient evolutions of both
the time instant the rising edge of the Vge is detected, and the rising edge of the current ic
Vge and ic waveforms has been proposed in [112]. The delay is calculated as the time inter-
(Figure 12). This method allows a sensitivity close to 2 ns/◦ C. Moreover, because a gate
val between the time instant the rising edge of the Vge is detected, and the rising edge of
resistor with a large resistance improves the accuracy of the temperature measurements
the current ic (Figure 12). This method allows a sensitivity close to 2 ns/°C. Moreover, be-
during the switching behavior of the converter, but worsens the efficiency, a variable gate
cause a gate resistor with a large resistance improves the accuracy of the temperature
resistor has been proposed to set a higher value exclusively when the JT is measured [113].
measurements during the switching behavior of the converter, but worsens the efficiency,
Similarly, the turn-off delay can also be used as a TSEP, reaching a sensitivity level
close to thegate
a variable one resistor
obtainedhas been
with theproposed to setmethod
turn-on delay a higher value
[114]. exclusively
Other whenproposed
works have the JT is
measured
an [113].
alternative sensing circuit for the JT estimation during the turn OFF [115]. However, the
Similarly, the turn-off
turn-off delay method does delay can also
not attract be used
interest as aitTSEP,
because is not reaching a sensitivity level
linear at high-temperature
close to the one obtained with the turn-on delay method [114].
operations, and the time delay depends greatly on both the ic current and Other works have
theproposed
DC link
an alternative sensing
voltage [115,116]. circuit for the JT estimation during the turn OFF [115]. However,
the turn-off delay
In general, themethod
turn-ondoes
and not attract
turn-off interest
TSEPs because
methods it is not
require linear
high at high-temper-
bandwidth sensors
atureanoperations,
and advanced and the time
sampling delayfor
circuit depends greatlymeasurement,
temperature on both the ic which
currentconsiderably
and the DC
link voltage [115,116].
In general, the turn-on and turn-off TSEPs methods require high bandwidth sensors
and an advanced sampling circuit for temperature measurement, which considerably in-
crease the cost of the overall system. Furthermore, these methods usually require an ex-
ternal circuit to trigger a counter for the estimation of the turn-on and turn-off delay time.
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 19 of 28

increase the cost of the overall system. Furthermore, these methods usually require an
external circuit to trigger a counter for the estimation of the turn-on and turn-off delay time.

6.2.6. Current and Voltage Change Rate

In the last decade, the research has moved from the study of the electrical quan-
tities (such as the voltage and current waveforms) to their derivative functions, which
are observed during the device commutation, called dynamic thermo-sensitive electrical
parameter (DTSEP) methods. More specifically, the collector-emitter voltage change rate
(dvce /dt) and the collector current change rate (dic /dt) have been used as temperature
estimators [117–121]. The temperature dependence of both dvce /dt and dic /dt has been
explored theoretically as well as confirmed experimentally [119–121].
As an example, the dVce /dt in an IGBT device can be approximated as follows [121]:
 
dvce 1  VGE,ON − VGE,OFF 
≈   τgc ≈ RGint ( T )·CGC ( T ) (12)
dt τgc ( T ) 1 + CO
gm ( T )τgc ( T )

where CO is the charge extraction capacitance and VGE,ON and VGE,OFF are the on-off gate
driver voltages, respectively.
It is worth noting that the term dVce /dt depends on the physical parameters of the
IGBT device and the temperature dependence is not easy to obtain. More specifically,
the JT affects the dVce /dt through the MOS channel parameters such as the Lch , Wch ,
emitter recombination parameter, channel mobility, and so on. A detailed discussion of
all the temperature parameter dependencies is given in [121]. The dependence of many
parameters influencing the derivative quantities on the temperature strongly limits the use
of this CM method for on-line JT measurement in practical power converter applications.
A wide investigation of the IGBT maximum dvce /dt for the JT estimation has revealed the
severe limits owing to the influence of the control method, the DC link voltage, and the
load current [121]. Likewise, the maximum dic /dt during turn-off as a TSEP has been also
investigated in [122]. Even in this case, the measurement of the current change rate has
been performed using an additional circuit able to capture the current and voltage transient
dynamics, which require both high bandwidth sensors and the use of voltage probes and
Rogowski coil probes. Furthermore, this sensing circuit should be designed to avoid any
disturbance, and it has to be insensitive to the temperature variation of the system.
In the recent generations of IGBT and SiC high power modules, the Kelvin emitter
pin has been introduced. Such an additional pin involves in the package an integrated
inherent parasitic inductance LeE between the Kelvin pin and power emitters pin [122–124],
as shown in Figure 13. The transient collector current characteristic during the turn OFF
process has been introduced as a potential DTSEP, called the maximum collector current
falling rate −dIC /dtmax [125]: the collector current IC flows in the inductance LeE and the
resulting voltage drop enables an easier investigation of the JT measurement.
Moreover, in [122], both the static and dynamic behaviors of the stored carriers in
the IGBT collector current during the falling rate have been analyzed. Furthermore, the
influences of the physical parameters of the device on the temperature sensitivity of
−dIC /dtmax have been fully investigated. However, several drawbacks of these methods
are related to the strong dependence of the applied voltage and the gate resistance, and the
thermal characterization can only be done off-line.
 resulting
Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEWvoltagedrop enables an easier investigation of the JT measurement. 21 of 29
Moreover, in [122], both the static and dynamic behaviors of the stored carriers in the
IGBT collector current during the falling rate have been analyzed. Furthermore, the influ-
ences Firstly,
of the physical parameters
the measure of RGintofinthe
a device
power on the temperature
module has alreadysensitivity of −dIC/dtmax
been investigated using a
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 have been fully RLC
standard investigated. However,
meter [126], where several
a commondrawbacks ofis
approach these methodsthe
to consider areequivalent
related20to
ofseries
28
the strong dependence of the applied voltage and the gate resistance, and the thermal
resistance (ESR) of both the gate-emitter and gate-collector capacitance (see Figure 14a).
characterization can only
Another method be done off-line.
to estimate the RGint variation has been related to the measurement of the
gate charge during the turn-on of the DUT [127]. Therefore, the peak gate current during
the turn-on switching behavior has been assumed as a valid TSEP.
JT measurement via the peak gate current can be studied during the standard charg-
ing cycles of the gate terminal. Considering an IGBT device, the turn-on process starts
when the gate driver output voltage changes from a negative value to a positive one.
Therefore, the gate current can be computed as the step response of a second-order RLC
circuit [129] (see Figure 14a). The parasitic inductance LG can be neglected and the peak
current can be estimated by simply using the Ohm’s law, provided that the RLC circuit is
overdamped. It is worth noting that the external gate resistance RGext does not have a sig-
nificant temperature dependence. Therefore, the temperature variation of RGint can be car-
ried out by the measurement of the peak current variation. In other words, the maximum
value of the gate current provides a suitable strategy for the measurement of the chip JT.
The measurement circuit is shown in Figure 14b. The peak voltage on the external gate
resistor during turn-on is measured with a peak detector circuit (a differential amplifier
and a peak detector). Then, the acquired data are processed by an analog to digital con-
verter to the microcontroller. This measurement circuit can be integrated into the gate
driver, and the JT monitoring can be operated during the on-line operation of the con-
verter. This method does not require calibration steps and, more importantly, the voltage
Figure 13. 13.
peak
Figure IGBT
has module
a linear
IGBT equivalent
modulerelationshipcircuit.
equivalent with the temperature.
circuit.
Only a few works have focused on the peak gate current as a TSEPs method. More
6.2.7.
6.2.7. Peak
Peak GateGate
specifically, Current
Current
the sensing circuit depicted in Figure 14b has been proposed in [129,130],
An
where innovative
the JT has
An innovative method method
been forfor
JT JT
esteemed measurement
in an IGBT power
measurement in IGBTs
module.
in IGBTs andand MOSFETs,
The authorsbased
MOSFETs, based
have ononthethethat
asserted
temperature
the proposed
temperature dependence
method
dependence of
of has the internal gate
better accuracy
the internal resistance, has been
for JT measurement
gate resistance, studied
compared
has been studied in the
in thewith last years.
other
last years. TSEP
Firstly, the measure of
methods in the literature.R Gint However, this method requires additional complex triggeracir-
in a power module has already been investigated using
standard
cuits forRLC
themeter [126], where
measurement of JT,a which
common mayapproach
introduceis to considerdisturbance
additional the equivalentintoseries
the sys-
resistance (ESR) of both the gate-emitter and gate-collector capacitance (see
tem. It is worth remembering that the aging of the power module may affect the internal Figure 14a).
Another method to estimate
gate resistances. Hence, athe RGint variation
correction has beenberelated
factor should to the for
introduced measurement
calibration of the the
with
gate charge during
aging of the [Link] turn-on of the DUT [127]. Therefore, the peak gate current during
the turn-on switching behavior has been assumed as a valid TSEP.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 14. Gate
14. Gate driver
driver RLCRLC network.
network. (a) Peak
(a) Peak detector
detector schematic
schematic to detect
to detect peakpeak voltage
voltage overover
the the external
external gategate resistor
resistor (b). (b).

[Link]
Comparison
measurement of via
the the
CMpeak
Methods
gate current can be studied during the standard charging
cycles ofTable
the gate
2 summarizes all the CM an
terminal. Considering IGBT device,
methods the turn-on
discussed process
previously. starts when be-
A comparison
thetween
gate driver output voltage changes from a negative value to
the advantages and disadvantages of each approach is outlined.a positive one. Therefore,
the gateAmong
current can be computed as the step response of a second-order RLC
the aforementioned optical CM methods, the use of fiber optic shows circuit [128] the
(seehighest
Figure accuracy
14a). Theand
parasitic inductance L can be neglected and the peak current can
sensitivity. On the Gother hand, the device package has to be removed be
estimated
to carryby simply
out using the Ohm’s
the temperature law, provided
measurement. Thethat the methods
optical RLC circuit is overdamped.
based It is
on the photodiode
worth noting that the external gate resistance RGext does not have a significant temperature
dependence. Therefore, the temperature variation of RGint can be carried out by the
measurement of the peak current variation. In other words, the maximum value of the gate
current provides a suitable strategy for the measurement of the chip JT. The measurement
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 21 of 28

circuit is shown in Figure 14b. The peak voltage on the external gate resistor during turn-on
is measured with a peak detector circuit (a differential amplifier and a peak detector). Then,
the acquired data are processed by an analog to digital converter to the microcontroller.
This measurement circuit can be integrated into the gate driver, and the JT monitoring can
be operated during the on-line operation of the converter. This method does not require
calibration steps and, more importantly, the voltage peak has a linear relationship with
the temperature.
Only a few works have focused on the peak gate current as a TSEPs method. More
specifically, the sensing circuit depicted in Figure 14b has been proposed in [129–131],
where the JT has been esteemed in an IGBT power module. The authors have asserted
that the proposed method has better accuracy for JT measurement compared with other
TSEP methods in the literature. However, this method requires additional complex trigger
circuits for the measurement of JT, which may introduce additional disturbance into the
system. It is worth remembering that the aging of the power module may affect the internal
gate resistances. Hence, a correction factor should be introduced for calibration with the
aging of the device.

7. Comparison of the CM Methods

Table 2 summarizes all the CM methods discussed previously. A comparison between
the advantages and disadvantages of each approach is outlined.

Table 2. Summary of different CM methods.

Method Advantages Disadvantages

On-line measurements Package modification
OPTICAL—Fiber optic [46–48]
High sensitivity and accuracy High cost
On-line measurements Technology not mature
OPTICAL—Photodiode sensor—internal
Contactless Package modification
On-line measurements
OPTICAL—Photodiode sensor—external [56–58] Package modification
Contactless
Package modification
Spatial resolution
OPTICAL—IR camera [48–53] Poor response time
Contactless
Poor accuracy
Spatial resolution Poor response time
OPTICAL—IR camera print [49]
Contactless Poor accuracy
On-line measurements Technology not mature
Acoustic [28–33]
Contactless Noise sensitive
On-line measurements Package modification
Physical [59–65]
High linearity and sensitivity Poor response time
On-line measurements Layout modification
TTCs—NTC [67,69,70,72,75]
High linearity Aging sensitive
On-line measurements Layout modification
TTCs—Diode [68,71]
High sensitivity Poor linearity
High sensitivity, linearity High-cost sensing
TSEP—On-state voltage, low current [80–95]
Easy calibration Off-line measurements
Off-line measurements
TSEP—Gate threshold voltage [89,93,94,103–105] High sensitivity and linearity
Unplug DUT
On-line measurements High-cost sensing
TSEP—On-state voltage, high current [96–99]
High linearity Aging sensitive
Off-line measurements
TSEP—Saturation current [87,93,100,101] High sensitivity
Poor linearity
Off-line measurements
TSEP—Gate turn OFF voltage [108,109] High linearity
High-cost sensing
On-line measurements Aging sensitive
TSEP—Turn on-off delay time [110–116]
High linearity High-cost sensing
On-line measurements Aging sensitive
TSEP—Peak gate current [129,130]
High linearity High-cost sensing
Off-line measurements
TSEP—Voltage-current change rate [117–121] High sensitivity and linearity
Gate resistance dependence
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 22 of 28

Among the aforementioned optical CM methods, the use of fiber optic shows the
highest accuracy and sensitivity. On the other hand, the device package has to be removed
to carry out the temperature measurement. The optical methods based on the photodiode
sensors and the use of the IR camera are able to operate contactless, without the lift-off of
the device package. It is worth underlying that all the optical methods can be used during
the on-line converter operations.
The acoustic method has been studied as a CM method for power devices in recent
years. The strength of the proposed solution is owing to the ability to estimate the state of
aging a power module and prevent any mechanics fatigue. It is worth remembering that it
may be used during the on-line converter operations. In the literature, only a few papers
have been focused on this CM method. Thus, the technology is not yet well mature to be
widespread in commercial solutions.
It is worth highlighting that the physical and TTCs–NTC methods can be adopted
for on-line JT measurements in a real power converter application. Furthermore, both
CM methods show a strong linear dependence with the voltage and the temperature.
As a drawback, method is almost obsolete and requires a device package modification.
Meanwhile, the use of method needs a layout modification and it is strongly aging sensitive,
hence the measurement setup has to be frequently calibrated. Moreover, the method based
on the TTCs diode requires device layout modifications and shows poor linearity owing to
a nonlinear dependence between the voltage drop of the diode and the temperature.
Finally, TSEPs methods have been widely used as CM methods for the estimation of
the JT of the power devices, where the key point consists of correlating the temperature of
the semiconductor material with the electrical quantities during the switching operation of
the power device. More specifically, the TSEPs CM methods such as the on-state voltage
under high current injection, the gate turn–off voltage, the turn on-off delay time, and the
peak gate current enable the estimation of the JT during the on-line converter operations.
Furthermore, the aforementioned CM methods exhibit high linearity between the voltage
measurement and the temperature of the device.
On the other hand, the on-state voltage under high-level current injection, the gate
threshold voltage, the saturation current, the gate turn-off voltage, and the voltage-current
change rate require to switch off the power converter for the JT estimation. On the other
hand, the aforementioned CM methods highlight the highest accuracy among the various
TSEPs in the literature.

8. Conclusions
In this work, the main CM methods used to estimate the SOH of the semiconductor
power devices were discussed and compared. The analysis has highlighted that the method
based on the TSEP on-state voltage, measured under low currents injection, is the best one
both for silicon and WBG power devices. Indeed, this CM method can involve a significant
reduction of the experimental time duration of the calibration steps in comparison with
other solutions. Furthermore, the experimental setup does not impact the device under
test, i.e., the measurement does not degrade the electrical connections, the metallization,
and the wire bonding. On the other hand, this method is not able to measure the junction
temperature during the on-line converter operations. From this perspective, the TSEP
methods based on the threshold voltage can be used during the on-line converter operations
with comparable sensitivity and accuracy of the junction temperature estimation.
Finally, from the analysis of the literature arose the lack of studies of CM intrusiveness.
Many CM methods have been presented so far, but only in a few cases do they discuss
the intrusiveness of the proposed method, and very rarely do these works compare the
intrusiveness of the proposed CM method with others. CM methods requiring the removal
of the device package for temperature monitoring are intrusive for the device and this
intrusiveness could make these CM methods impracticable in dusty or moist environments
or in applications where atmospheric agents could damage the device. CM methods
that need to shut down the converter are very intrusive for the converter operations and
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 23 of 28

cannot be used in any application where the converter cannot shut down. Finally, a CM
method adopting tools for the measurement, conditioning, elaboration, and so on is more
of an encumbrance on the conversion system. This intrusiveness impedes their use in
applications requiring high power density or, more in general, where the weight and
encumbrance of the conversion system must be minimized. Therefore, accurate studies
focusing on the CM intrusiveness, which also provide some figure of merits based on the
previous aspects as well as the specific application, are strongly recommended.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Blaabjerg, F.; Dragicevic, T.; Davari, P. Applications of Power Electronics. Electronics 2019, 8, 465. [CrossRef]
2. Abadi, I.; Imron, C.; Bachrowi, M.M.; Fitriyanah, D.N. Design and implementation of battery charging system on solar tracker
based standalone PV using fuzzy modified particle swarm optimization. AIMS Energy 2020, 8, 142–155. [CrossRef]
3. García Salvador, R.M.; Novas, N.; Alcayde, A.; El Khaled, D.; Montoya, F.G. Electronics and Its Worldwide Research. Electronics
2020, 9, 977. [CrossRef]
4. Gritti, G.; Adragna, C. Analysis, design and performance evaluation of an LED driver with unity power factor and constant-
current primary sensing regulation. AIMS Energy 2019, 7, 579–599. [CrossRef]
5. Musumeci, S.; Bojoi, R.; Armando, E.; Borlo, S.; Mandrile, F. Three-Legs Interleaved Boost Power Factor Corrector for High-Power
LED Lighting Application. Energies 2020, 13, 1728. [CrossRef]
6. Yilmaz, M.; Krein, P.T. Review of the Impact of Vehicle-to-Grid Technologies on Distribution Systems and Utility Interfaces. IEEE
Trans. Power Electron. 2013, 28, 5673–5689. [CrossRef]
7. Konara, K.M.S.Y.; Kolhe, M.L.; Sharma, A. Power dispatching techniques as a finite state machine for a standalone photovoltaic
system with a hybrid energy storage. AIMS Energy 2020, 8, 214–230. [CrossRef]
8. Faraci, G.; Raciti, A.; Rizzo, S.A.; Schembra, G. Green Wireless Power Transfer System for a Drone Fleet Managed by Reinforcement
Learning in Smart Industry. Appl. Energy 2020, 259, 114204. [CrossRef]
9. Ding, Y.; Loh, P.C.; Tan, K.K.; Wang, P.; Gao, F. Reliability evaluation of three-level inverters. In Proceedings of the 25th Annual
IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition, Palm Springs, CA, USA, 21–25 February 2010; pp. 1555–1560.
10. De Leon-Aldaco, S.E.; Calleja, H.; Chan, F.; Jimenez-Grajales, H.R. Effect of the mission profile on the reliability of a power
converter aimed at photovoltaic applications-a case study. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2013, 28, 2998–3007. [CrossRef]
11. Alam, M.K.; Khan, F.H. Reliability analysis and performance degradation of a boost converter. In Proceedings of the IEEE Energy
Conversion Congress and Exposition, Denver, CO, USA, 15–19 September 2013; pp. 5592–5597.
12. Tajfar, A.; Mazumder, S.K. A fault-tolerant switching scheme for a photovoltaic high-frequency-link inverter. In Proceedings
of the 27th Annual IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition, Orlando, FL, USA, 5–9 February 2012; pp.
2087–2094.
13. Madhukar Rao, A.; Umesh, B.S.; Sivakumar, K. A fault tolerant dual inverter configuration for islanded mode photovoltaic
generation system. In Proceedings of the 1st International Future Energy Electronics Conference, Tainan, Taiwan, 3–6 November
2013; pp. 816–821.
14. Haumann, S.; Becker, M.; Rudzki, J.; Eisele, R.; Osterwald, F. Novel bonding and joining technology for power electronics—
Enabler for improved lifetime, reliability, cost and power density. In Proceedings of the 28th Annual IEEE Applied Power
Electronics Conference and Exposition, Long Beach, CA, USA, 17–21 March 2013; pp. 622–626.
15. Krebs, T.; Duch, S.; Schmitt, W.; Kotter, S.; Prenosil, P.; Thomas, S. A breakthrough in power electronics reliability–new die attach
and wire bonding materials. In Proceedings of the IEEE 63rd Electronics Components and Technology Conference, La Vegas, NV,
USA, 28–31 May 2013; pp. 1746–1752.
16. Mohagheghi, S.; Harley, R.G.; Habetler, T.G.; Divan, D. Condition monitoring of power electronic circuits using artificial neural
networks. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2009, 24, 2363–2367. [CrossRef]
17. Xiang, D.; Ran, L.; Tavner, P.; Bryant, A.; Yang, S.; Mawby, P. Monitoring solder fatigue in a power module using case-above-
ambient temperature rise. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2011, 47, 2578–2591. [CrossRef]
18. Li, D.; Li, X. Study of degradation in switching mode power supply based on the theory of PoF. In Proceedings of the International
Conference Computing Science and Service Systems, Nanjing, China, 11–13 August 2012; pp. 1976–1980.
19. Bhargava, C.; Sharma, P.K.; Senthilkumar, M.; Padmanaban, S.; Ramachandaramurthy, V.K.; Leonowicz, Z.; Blaabjerg, F.;
Mitolo, M. Review of Health Prognostics and Condition Monitoring of Electronic Components. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 75163–75183.
[CrossRef]
20. Jiang, N.; Zhang, L.; Liu, Z.Q.; Sun, L.; Long, W.M.; He, P.; Xiong, M.Y.; Zhao, M. Reliability issues of lead-free solder joints in
electronic devices. Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 2019, 20, 876–901. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 24 of 28

21. Takamiya, M.; Miyazaki, K.; Obara, H.; Sai, T.; Wada, K.; Sakurai, T. Power electronics 2.0: IoT-connected and Al-controlled power
electronics operating optimally for each user. In Proceedings of the 2017 29th International Symposium on Power Semiconductor
Devices and IC’s (ISPSD), Sapporo, Japan, 28 May–1 June 2017; pp. 29–32.
22. Mellit, A.; Kalogirou, S.A. Artificial intelligence techniques for photovoltaic applications: A review. Progr. Energy Combust. Sci.
2008, 34, 574–632. [CrossRef]
23. Butler, S.W. Enabling a Powerful Decade of Changes [Flyback]. IEEE Power Electron. Mag. 2019, 6, 18–26. [CrossRef]
24. Balda, J.C.; Mantooth, A.; Blum, R.; Tenti, P. Cybersecurity and Power Electronics: Addressing the Security Vulnerabilities of the
Internet of Things. IEEE Power Electron. Mag. 2017, 4, 37–43. [CrossRef]
25. Jasperneite, J.; Sauter, T.; Wollschlaeger, M. Why We Need Automation Models: Handling Complexity in Industry 4.0 and the
Internet of Things. IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag. 2020, 14, 29–40. [CrossRef]
26. Levikari, S.; Kärkkäinen, T.J.; Andersson, C.; Tammminen, J.; Silventoinen, P. Acoustic Detection of Cracks and Delamination in
Multilayer Ceramic Capacitors. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2019, 55, 1787–1794. [CrossRef]
27. Cheraghi, M.; Karimi, M.; Booin, M.B. An investigation on acoustic noise emitted by induction motors due to magnetic sources.
In Proceedings of the 9th Annual Power Electronics, Drives Systems and Technologies Conference (PEDSTC), Tehran, Iran, 13–15
February 2018; pp. 104–109.
28. Smulko, J.; Józwiak, k.; Olesz, M.; Hasse, L. Acoustic emission for detecting deterioration of capacitors under aging. Microelectron.
Reliab. 2011, 51, 624–627. [CrossRef]
29. Kärkkäinen, T.J.; Talvitie, J.P.; Kuisma, M.; Silventoinen, P.; Mengotti, E. Measurement challenges in acoustic emission research of
semiconductors. In Proceedings of the 17th European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications (EPE’15 ECCE-Europe),
Geneva, Switzerland, 8–10 September 2015; pp. 1–6.
30. Kärkkäinen, T.J.; Talvitie, J.P.; Kuisma, M.; Silventoinen, P.; Mengotti, E. Acoustic emission caused by the failure of a power
transistor. In Proceedings of the IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC), Charlotte, NC, USA, 15–19
March 2015; pp. 2481–2484.
31. Kärkkäinen, T.J.; Talvitie, J.P.; Ikonen, O.; Kuisma, M.; Silventoinen, P.; Mengotti, E. Sounds from semiconductors—Acoustic
emission experiment with a power module. In Proceedings of the 16th European Conference on Power Electronics and
Applications, Lappeenranta, Finland, 26–28 August 2014; pp. 1–6.
32. Kärkkäinen, T.J.; Talvitie, J.P.; Kuisma, M.; Hannonen, J.; Ström, J.P.; Mengotti, E.; Silventoinen, P. Acoustic Emission in Power
Semiconductor Modules—First Observations. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2014, 29, 6081–6086. [CrossRef]
33. Müller, S.; Drechsler, C.; Heinkel, U.; Herold, C. Acoustic emission for state-of-health determination in power modules. In
Proceedings of the 13th International Multi-Conference on Systems, Signals & Devices (SSD), Leipzig, Germany, 21–24 March
2016; pp. 468–471.
34. Davari, P.; Kristensen, O.; Iannuzzo, F. Investigation of acoustic emission as a non-invasive method for detection of power
semiconductor aging. Microelectron. Reliab. 2018, 88–90, 545–549. [CrossRef]
35. Oh, H.; Han, B.; McCluskey, P.; Han, C.; Youn, B.D. Physics-of failure, condition monitoring, and prognostics of insulated gate
bipolar transistor modules: A review. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2015, 30, 2413–2426. [CrossRef]
36. Luo, H.; Wang, X.; Zhu, C.; Li, W.; He, X. Investigation and emulation of junction temperature for high-power IGBT modules
considering grid codes. IEEE J. Emerg. Sel. Top. Power Electron. 2018, 6, 930–940. [CrossRef]
37. Scheuermann, U.; Schuler, S. Power cycling results for different control strategies. Microelectron. Reliabil. 2010, 50, 1203–1209.
[CrossRef]
38. Zarebski, J.; Gorecki, K. The electro thermal large-signal model of power MOS transistors for SPICE. IEEE Trans. Power Electron.
2010, 25, 1265–1274. [CrossRef]
39. Breglio, G.; Irace, A.; Spirito, P.; Letor, R.; Russo, S. Fast transient infrared thermal analysis of smart Power MOSFETS in
permanent short circuit operation. In Proceedings of the 18th International Symposium on Power Semiconductor Devices IC’s,
Naples, Italy, 4–8 June 2006; pp. 1–4.
40. Hunger, T.; Schilling, O. Numerical investigation on thermal crosstalk of silicon dies in high voltage IGBT modules. In Proceedings
of the PCIM International Exhibition & Conference for Power Electronics, Intelligent Motion, Power Quality, Nuremberg, Germany,
27–29 May 2008.
41. Hillkirk, L.-M. Dynamic surface temperature measurements in SiC epitaxial power diodes performed under single-pulse
self-heating conditions. Solid State Electron. 2004, 48, 2181–2189. [CrossRef]
42. Breglio, G.; Rinaldi, N.; Spirito, P. Thermal mapping and 3D numerical simulation of new cellular power MOS affected by
electro-thermal instability. Microelectron. J. 2000, 31, 741–746. [CrossRef]
43. Spirito, P.; Breglio, G.; D’Alessandro, V.; Rinaldi, N. Thermal instabilities in high current power MOS devices: Experimen-
tal evidence electro-thermal simulations and analytical modeling. In Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on
Microelectronics, Nis, Yugoslavia, 12–15 May 2002; pp. 23–30.
44. Thalhammer, R.-K.; Wachutka, G. Physically rigorous modeling of internal laser-probing techniques for micro structured
semiconductor devices. IEEE Trans. Comput. Aided Des. Integr. Circuits Syst. 2004, 23, 60–70. [CrossRef]
45. Furbock, C.; Thalhammer, R.; Litzenberger, M.; Seliger, N.; Pogany, D.; Gornik, E.; Wachutka, G. A differential backside laser
probing technique for the investigation of the lateral temperature distribution in power devices. In Proceedings of the 11th
International Symposium on Power Semiconductors Devices ICs, Toronto, ON, Canada, 26–28 May 1999; pp. 193–196.
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 25 of 28

46. Werber, D.; Wachutka, G. Interpretation of laser absorption measurements on 4 H-SiC bipolar diodes by numerical simulation. In
Proceedings of the International Conference on Simulation of Semiconductor Processes and Devices, Yokohama, Japan, 9–11
September 2008; pp. 89–92.
47. Hamidi, A.; Coquery, G.; Lallemand, R.; Vales, P.; Dorkel, J.M. Temperature measurements and thermal modeling of high
power IGBT multichip modules for reliability investigations in traction applications. Microelectron. Reliabil. 1998, 38, 1353–1359.
[CrossRef]
48. Carubelli, S.; Khatir, Z. Experimental validation of a thermal modelling method dedicated to multichip power modules in
operating conditions. Microelectron. J. 2003, 34, 1143–1151. [CrossRef]
49. Khatir, Z.; Carubelli, S.; Lecoq, F. Real-time computation of thermal constraints in multichip power electronic devices. IEEE Trans.
Compon. Packag. Technol. 2004, 27, 337–344. [CrossRef]
50. Schmidt, R.; Scheuermann, U. Using the chip as a temperature sensor—The influence of steep lateral temperature gradients on
the Vce(T)-measurement. In Proceedings of the 13th European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications, Barcelona,
Spain, 8–10 September 2009; pp. 1–9.
51. Brckner, T.; Bernet, S. Estimation and measurement of junction temperatures in a three-level voltage source converter. IEEE Trans.
Power Electron. 2007, 22, 3–12. [CrossRef]
52. Mermet-Guyennet, M.; Perpina, X.; Piton, M. Revisiting power cycling test for better life-time prediction in traction. Microelectron.
Reliabil. 2007, 47, 1690–1695. [CrossRef]
53. Avenas, Y.; Dupont, L. Comparison of junction temperature evaluations in a power IGBTs module using an IR camera and three
thermo-sensitive electrical parameters. In Proceedings of the Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition, Orlando, FL,
USA, 5–9 February 2012.
54. Dupont, L.; Avenas, Y.; Jeannin, P.-O. Comparison of junction temperature evaluations in a power IGBT module using an IR
camera and three thermosensitive electrical parameters. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2013, 49, 1599–1608. [CrossRef]
55. Round, H.J. A Note on Carborundum. In Semiconductor Devices: Pioneering Papers; World Scientific: Singapore, 1991.
56. Winkler, J.; Homoth, J.; Kallfass, I. Utilization of parasitic luminescence from power semiconductor devices for current sensing.
In Proceedings of the PCIM Europe 2018, International Exhibition and Conference for Power Electronics, Intelligent Motion,
Renewable Energy and Energy Management, Nuremberg, Germany, 5–7 June 2018; pp. 1–8.
57. Ceccarelli, L.; Luo, H.; Iannuzzo, F. Investigating SiC MOSFET body diode’s light emission as temperature-sensitive electrical
parameter. Microelectron. Reliab. 2018, 88–90, 627–630. [CrossRef]
58. Li, C.; Luo, H.; Li, C.; Li, W.; Yang, H.; He, X. Online Junction Temperature Extraction of SiC Power MOSFET with Temperature
Sensitive Optic Parameter (TSOP) Approach. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2019, 34, 10143–10152. [CrossRef]
59. Winkler, J.; Homoth, J.; Kallfass, I. Electroluminescence-Based Junction Temperature Measurement Approach for SiC Power
MOSFETs. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2020, 35, 2990–2998. [CrossRef]
60. Parsley, M. The use of thermochromics liquid crystals in research applications, thermal mapping and non-destructive testing. In
Proceedings of the 7th IEEE Semiconductor Thermal Measurement and Management Symposium, Phoenix, AZ, USA, 12–14
February 1991; pp. 53–58.
61. Brekel, W.; Duetemeyer, T.; Puk, G.; Schilling, O. Time Resolved in situ Tvj Measurements of 6.5 kV IGBTs during Inverter
Operation. In Proceedings of the PCIM Europe 2009: International Exhibition & Conference for Power Electronics Intelligent
Motion Power Quality, Nurember, Germany, 12–14 May 2009.
62. Salem, T.E.; Ibitayo, D.; Geil, B.R. A Technique for Die Surface Temperature Measurement of High-Voltage Power Electronic
Components using Coated Thermocouple Probes. In Proceedings of the IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Technology
Conference, Sorrento, Italy, 24–27 April 2006; pp. 651–654.
63. Sathik, M.H.M.; Prasanth, S.; Sasongko, F.; Padmanabhan, S.K.; Pou, J.; Simanjorang, R. Online junction temperature for off-the-
shelf power converters. In Proceedings of the IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC), San Antonio,
TX, USA, 4–8 March 2018; pp. 2769–2774.
64. Ikonen, M.; Häsä, H.; Rauma, K.; Silventoinen, P. A system for thermal model verification of a power switch. In Proceedings of
the 37th IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference, Jeju, Korea, 18–22 June 2006; pp. 1–4.
65. Bonsbaine, A.; Trigkidis, G.; Benamrouche, N. An integrated electro-thermal model of IGBT devices (experimental validation). In
Proceedings of the 44th International Universities Power Engineering Conference (UPEC), Glasgow, UK, 1–4 September 2009; pp.
1–5.
66. Du, B.; Hudgins, J.L.; Santi, E.; Bryant, A.T.; Palmer, P.R.; Mantooth, H.A. Transient Electrothermal Simulation of Power
Semiconductor Devices. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2010, 25, 237–248.
67. Claassen, A.; Shaukatullah, H. Comparison of diodes and resistors for measuring chip temperature during thermal charac-
terization of electronic packages using thermal test chips. In Proceedings of the13th Annual IEEE. Semiconductor Thermal
Measurement and Management Symposium, Austin, TX, USA, 28–30 January 1997; pp. 198–209.
68. Motto, E.R.; Donlon, J.F. IGBT module with user accessible on-chip current and temperature sensors. In Proceedings of the
Twenty-Seventh Annual IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC), Orlando, FL, USA, 5–9 February
2012; pp. 176–181.
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 26 of 28

69. Ka, I.; Avenas, Y.; Dupont, L.; Vafaei, R.; Thollin, B.; Crebier, J.C.; Petit, M. Instrumented chip dedicated to semiconductor
temperature measurements in power electronic converters. In Proceedings of the IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and
Exposition (ECCE), Milwaukee, WI, USA, 18–22 September 2016; pp. 1–8.
70. Zhou, Y.; Shi, W.; Tang, J.; Wang, X.; Li, W.; He, X.; Zhang, C.; Li, Z. Dynamic junction temperature estimation via built-in negative
thermal coefficient (NTC) thermistor in high power IGBT modules. In Proceedings of the IEEE Applied Power Electronics
Conference and Exposition (APEC), Tampa, FL, USA, 26–30 March 2017; pp. 772–775.
71. Baker, N.; Iannuzzo, F.; Beczkowski, S.; Kristensen, P.K. Proof-of-Concept for a Kelvin-Emitter On-Chip Temperature Sensor for
Power Semiconductors. In Proceedings of the 21st European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications (EPE ‘19 ECCE
Europe), Genova, Italy, 3–5 September 2019; pp. P.1–P.8.
72. Kempiak, C.; Lindemann, A.; Thal, E.; Idaka, S. Investigation of the usage of a chip integrated sensor to determine junction
temperature during power cycling tests. In Proceedings of the CIPS 2018, 10th International Conference on Integrated Power
Electronics Systems, Stuttgart, Germany, 20–22 March 2018; pp. 1–6.
73. Baker, N.; Iannuzzo, F.; Li, H. Impact of Kelvin-Source Resistors on Current Sharing and Failure Detection in Multichip Power
Modules. In Proceedings of the 20th European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications (EPE’18 ECCE Europe), Riga,
Latvia, 17–21 September 2018; pp. 1–7.
74. Kempiak, C.; Lindemann, A.; Idaka, S.; Thal, E. Investigation of an Integrated Sensor to Determine Junction Temperature of SiC
MOSFETs during Power Cycling Tests. In Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Power Electronics and ECCE Asia
(ICPE 2019—ECCE Asia), Busan, Korea, 27–31 May 2019; pp. 3084–3089.
75. Liu, P.; Chen, C.; Zhang, X.; Huang, S. Online junction temperature estimation method for SiC modules with built-in NTC sensor.
CPSS Trans. Power Electron. Appl. 2019, 4, 94–99. [CrossRef]
76. Liu, P.; Zhang, X.; Yin, S.; Tu, C.; Huang, S. Simplified Junction Temperature Estimation using Integrated NTC Sensor for SiC
Modules. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Power Electronics and Application Conference and Exposition (PEAC),
Shenzhen, China, 4–7 November 2018; pp. 1–4.
77. O’ Donnell, K.P.; Chen, X. Temperature dependence of semiconductor band gaps. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1991, 58, 2924–2926. [CrossRef]
78. Baliga, B.J. Fundamentals of Power Semiconductor Devices; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2013.
79. Blackburn, D.-L. An electrical technique for the measurement of the peak junction temperature of power transistors. In
Proceedings of the 13th Annual Reliability Physics Symposium, Las Vegas, NV, USA, 1–3 April 1975; pp. 143–150.
80. Farjah, E.; Perret, R. Application and analysis of thermosensitive parameters in the case of hybrid power modules. In Proceedings
of the IEEE IndustryApplcations Society Annual Meeting, Orlando, FL, USA, 8–12 October 1994; pp. 1284–1289.
81. Choi, U.; Blaabjerg, F.; Iannuzzo, F.; Jørgensen, S. Junction temperature estimation method for a 600V, 30A IGBT module during
converter operation. Microelectron. Reliab. 2015, 55, 2022–2026. [CrossRef]
82. Oettinger, F.F.; Blackburn, D.L.; Rubin, S. Thermal characterization of power transistors. IEEE Trans. Electron. Devices 1976, 23,
831–838. [CrossRef]
83. Held, M.; Jacob, P.; Nicoletti, G.; Scacco, P.; Poech, M.-H. Fast power cycling test for insulated gate bipolar transistor modules in
traction application. Int. J. Electron. 1999, 86, 1193–1204. [CrossRef]
84. Blackburn, D.L. A review of thermal characterization of power transistors. In Proceedings of the Fourth Annual IEEE Semicon-
ductor Thermal and Temperature Measurement Symposium, San Diego, CA, USA, 10–12 February 1988; pp. 1–7.
85. Khatir, Z.; Dupont, L.; Ibrahim, A. Investigations on junction temperature estimation based on junction voltage measurements.
Microelectron. Reliabil. 2010, 50, 1506–1510. [CrossRef]
86. Barnes, C.-M.; Tuma, P.-E. Practical considerations relating to immersion cooling of power electronics in traction systems. IEEE
Trans. Power Electron. 2010, 25, 2478–2485. [CrossRef]
87. Sofia, J.-W. Electrical measurement using semiconductors. Electron. Cool. 1997, 3, 22–25.
88. Nowak, M.; Rabkowski, J.; Barlik, R. Measurement of temperature sensitive parameter characteristics of semiconductor silicon
and silicon carbide power devices. In Proceedings of the 13th Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference, Poznan, Poland,
1–3 September 2008; pp. 84–87.
89. Blackburn, D.-L.; Berning, D.-W. Power MOSFET temperature measurements. In Proceedings of the Annual Power Electronics
Specialists Conference, Cambridge, MA, USA, 14–17 June 1982; pp. 400–407.
90. Jakopovic, Z.; Bencic, Z.; Kolonic, F. Important properties of transient thermal impedance for MOS-gated power semiconductors.
In Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Electronics, Bled, Slovenia, 12–16 July 1999; pp. 574–578.
91. Perpiñà, X.; Serviere, J.-F.; Saiz, J.; Barlini, D.; Mermet-Guyennet, M.; Millán, J. Temperature measurement on series resistance and
devices in power packs based on on-state voltage drop monitoring at high current. Microelectron. Reliab. 2006, 46, 1834–1839.
[CrossRef]
92. Meysenc, L.; Saludjian, L.; Bricard, A.; Rael, S.; Schaeffer, C. A high heat flux IGBT micro exchanger setup. IEEE Trans. Compon.
Packag. Manuf. Technol. A 1997, 20, 334–341. [CrossRef]
93. Cova, P.; Ciappa, M.; Franceschini, G.; Malberti, P.; Fantini, F. Thermal characterization of IGBT power modules. Microelectron.
Reliabil. 1997, 37, 1731–1734. [CrossRef]
94. Ammous, A.; Allard, B.; Morel, H. Transient temperature measurements and modeling of IGBT’s under short circuit. IEEE Trans.
Power Electron. 1998, 13, 12–25. [CrossRef]
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 27 of 28

95. Duong, S.; Rael, S.; Schaeffer, C.; De Palma, J.F. Short circuit behaviour for PT and NPT IGBT devices—Protection against
explosion of the case by fuse. In Proceedings of the European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications, Seville, Spain,
19–21 September 1995; pp. 249–254.
96. Forest, F.; Rashed, A.; Huselstein, J.-J.; Martiré, T.; Enrici, P. Fast power cycling protocols implemented in an automated test bench
dedicated to IGBT module ageing. Microelectron. Reliab. 2015, 55, 81–92. [CrossRef]
97. Koenig, A.; Plum, T.; Fidler, P.; De Doncker, R.-W. On-line junction temperature measurement of CoolMOS devices. In Proceedings
of the 7th International Conference on Power Electronics and Drive Systems, Bangkok, Thailand, 27–30 November 2007; pp. 90–95.
98. Kim, Y.-S.; Sul, S.-K. On-line estimation of IGBT junction temperature using on-state voltage drop. In Proceedings of the 1998
IEEE Industry Applications Conference, St Louis, MO, USA, 12–15 October 1998; pp. 853–859.
99. Dupont, L.; Avenas, Y. Evaluation of thermo-sensitive electrical parameters based on the forward voltage for on-line chip
temperature measurements of IGBT devices. In Proceedings of the Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE-2014),
Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 14–18 September 2014; pp. 4028–4035.
100. Ghimire, P.; Pedersen, K.B.; Trintis, I.; Munk-Nielsen, S. Online chip temperature monitoring using Uce -load current and IR
thermography. In Proceedings of the Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE-2015), Montreal, QC, Canada, 20–24
September 2015; pp. 6602–6609.
101. Castellazzi, A.; Wachutka, G. Low-voltage Power MOSFETs used as dissipative elements: Electrothermal analysis and characteri-
zation. In Proceedings of the 37th IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference, Jeju, Korea, 18–22 June 2006; pp. 1–7.
102. Ayadi, M.; Fakhfakh, M.; Moez, G.; Neji, R. Electro-Thermal Simulation of a Three Phase Inverter with Cooling System. J. Model.
Simul. Syst. 2010, 1, 163–170.
103. Baliga, J. Power Semiconductor Devices; International Thomson Publishing: Boston, MA, USA, 1996.
104. Chen, H.; Pickert, V.; Atkinson, D.J.; Pritchard, L.S. On-line monitoring of the MOSFET device junction temperature by
computation of the threshold voltage. In Proceedings of the 3rd IET International Conference on Power Electronics, Machines
and Drives, Dublin, Ireland, 4–6 April 2006; pp. 440–444.
105. Cao, X.; Wang, T.; Lu, G.-Q.; Ngo, K.D.T. Characterization of lead-free solder and sintered nano-silver die-attach layers using
thermal impedance. In Proceedings of the International Power Electronics Conference, Sapporo, Japan, 21–24 June 2010;
pp. 546–552.
106. Huang, X.Y.; Lu, C.; Xie, X.; Fan, Y.; Zhang, J.; Meng, X. A study of test system for thermal resistance of IGBT. In Proceedings of
the 2010 Asia Pacific Conference on Postgraduate Research in Microelectronics Electronics (PrimeAsia), Shanghai, China, 22–24
September 2010; pp. 312–315.
107. Strauss, B.; Lindemann, A. Indirect measurement of junction temperature for condition monitoring of power semiconductor
devices during operation. In Proceedings of the PCIM Europe, International Exhibition and Conference for Power Electronics,
Intelligent Motion, Renewable Energy and Energy Management, Nuremberg, Germany, 19–20 May 2015; pp. 1–6.
108. Butron Ccoa, J.A.; Strauss, B.; Mitic, G.; Lindemann, A. Investigation of Temperature Sensitive Electrical Parameters for Power
Semiconductors (IGBT) in Real-Time Applications. In Proceedings of the PCIM Europe, International Exhibition and Conference
for Power Electronics, Intelligent Motion, Renewable Energy and Energy Management, Nuremberg, Germany, 20–22 May 2014;
pp. 1–9.
109. Berning, D.; Reichl, J.; Hefner, A.; Hernandez, M.; Ellenwood, C.; Lai, J.-S. High speed IGBT module transient thermal response
measurements for model validation. In Proceedings of the 38th IAS Annual Meeting on Industry Applications Conference,
Salt Lake City, UT, USA, 12–16 October 2003; pp. 1826–1832.
110. Sundaramoorthy, V.; Bianda, E.; Bloch, R.; Nistor, I.; Knapp, G.; Heinemann, A. Online estimation of IGBT junction temperature
(Tj) using gate-emitter voltage (Vge) at turn-off. In Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Power Electronics and
Applications (EPE), Lille, France, 3–5 September 2013; pp. 1–10.
111. Kuhn, H.; Mertens, A. On-line junction temperature measurement of IGBTs based on temperature sensitive electrical parameters.
In Proceedings of the 13th European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications, Barcelona, Spain, 8–10 September 2009;
pp. 1–10.
112. Barlini, D.; Ciappa, M.; Castellazzi, A.; Mermet-Guyennet, M.; Fichtner, W. New technique for the measurement of the static and
of the transient junction temperature in IGBT devices under operating conditions. Microelectron. Reliabil. 2006, 46, 1772–1777.
[CrossRef]
113. Du, M.; Xin, J.; Wang, H.; Ouyang, Z.; Wei, K. Estimating Junction Temperature of SiC MOSFET Using Its Drain Current during
Turn-On Transient. IEEE Trans. Electron. Devices 2020, 67, 1911–1918. [CrossRef]
114. Li, L.; Ning, P.; Wen, X.; Li, Y.; Ge, Q.; Zhang, D.; Tai, X. A turn-off delay time measurement and junction temperature estimation
method for IGBT. In Proceedings of the Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC-2017), Tampa, FL, USA,
26–30 March 2017; pp. 2290–2296.
115. Zhang, Z.; Wang, F.; Costinett, D.J.; Tolbert, L.M.; Blalock, B.J.; Wu, X. Online junction temperature monitoring using turn-off
delay time for silicon carbide power devices. In Proceedings of the IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE),
Milwaukee, WI, USA, 18–22 September 2016; pp. 1–7.
116. Luo, H.; Chen, Y.; Sun, P.; Li, W.; He, X. Junction Temperature Extraction Approach with Turn-Off Delay Time for High-Voltage
High-Power IGBT Modules. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2016, 31, 5122–5132. [CrossRef]
Electronics 2021, 10, 683 28 of 28

117. Zhang, J.; Du, M.; Jing, L.; Wei, K.; Hurley, W.G. IGBT Junction Temperature Measurements: Inclusive of Dynamic Thermal
Parameters. IEEE Trans. Device Mater. Reliab. 2019, 19, 333–340. [CrossRef]
118. Luo, H.; Chen, Y.; Li, W.; He, X. Online high-power pin diode junction temperature extraction with reverse recovery fall storage
charge. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2016, 32, 2558–2567. [CrossRef]
119. Luo, H.; Li, W.; He, X. Online high power Pin diode chip temperature extraction and prediction method with maximum recovery
current di/dt. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2015, 30, 2395–2404. [CrossRef]
120. Xiang, D.; Ran, L.; Tavner, P.; Yang, S. Condition monitoring power module solder fatigue using inverter harmonic identification.
IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2012, 27, 235–247. [CrossRef]
121. Bryant, A.; Yang, S.; Mawby, P.; Xiang, D. Investigation into IGBT dV/dt during turn-off and its temperature dependence. IEEE
Trans. Power Electron. 2011, 26, 3019–3031. [CrossRef]
122. Chen, Y.; Luo, H.; Li, W.; He, X.; Iannuzzo, F.; Blaabjerg, F. Analytical and Experimental Investigation on a Dynamic Thermo-
Sensitive Electrical Parameter with Maximum dIC /dt during Turn-off for High Power Trench Gate/Field-Stop IGBT Modules.
IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2017, 32, 6394–6404. [CrossRef]
123. Zheng, R.; Haoge, X.; Chengmin, L.; Wuhua, L.; Xiangning, H.; Luo, H.; Li, D. Online Aging Parameter Extraction with Induced
Voltage veE between Kelvin and Power Emitter in Turn-off Progress for IGBT Modules. In Proceedings of the IEEE Energy
Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), Portland, OR, USA, 23–27 September 2018; pp. 362–366.
124. Zeng, Z.; Li, X.; Zhang, X.; Cao, L. Comparative Evaluation of Kelvin Connection for Current Sharing of Multi-Chip Power
Modules. In Proceedings of the IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), Portland, OR, USA, 23–27 September
2018; pp. 4664–4670.
125. Chen, H.L.; Li, W.; He, X. A thermo-sensitive electrical parameter with maximum dIC/dt during turn-off for high power
trench/field-stop IGBT modules. In Proceedings of the 31th Annual IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition,
Long Beach, CA, USA, 20–24 March 2016; pp. 499–504.
126. Mautry, P.G.; Trager, J. Investigation of self-heating in VLSI and ULSI MOSFETs. In Proceedings of the International Conference
on Microelectronic Test Structures, San Diego, CA, USA, 5–7 March 1990; pp. 221–226.
127. Baker, N.; Munk-Nielsen, S.; Liserre, M.; Iannuzzo, F. Online junction temperature measurement via internal gate resistance
during turn-on. In Proceedings of the 16th European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications, Lappeenranta, Finland,
26–28 August 2014; pp. 1–10.
128. Lembeye, Y.; Schanen, J.L.; Keradec, J.P. Experimental characterization of insulated gate power components: Capacitive aspects.
In Proceedings of the 32nd IAS Annual Meeting on Industry Applications Conference, New Orleans, LA, USA, 5–9 October 1997;
pp. 983–988.
129. Zhou, S.; Zhou, L.; Sun, P. Monitoring potential defects in an IGBT module based on dynamic changes of the gate current. IEEE
Trans. Power Electron. 2013, 28, 1479–1487. [CrossRef]
130. Baker, N.; Munk-Nielsen, S.; Iannuzzo, F.; Liserre, M. IGBT Junction Temperature Measurement via Peak Gate Current. IEEE
Trans. Power Electron. 2016, 31, 3784–3793. [CrossRef]
131. Baker, N.; Dupont, L.; Munk-Nielsen, S.; Iannuzzo, F.; Liserre, M. IR Camera Validation of IGBT Junction Temperature Measure-
ment via Peak Gate Current. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2017, 32, 3099–3111. [CrossRef]

View publication stats