ENGINE.

Definition: Simply put, An Engine can be said to be a device /machine with moving parts that
converts power into motion. A heat engine converts heat energy into mechanical energy.

Classification of engines.

Engines can be classified into two main categories.

a. External combustion engines (EC)

b. Internal combustion engines.(IC)

a. External combustion engine. (EC).

In this category, the combustion of fuel takes place outside the engine. Example of this engine is
the steam engine. The steam formed outside the engine is used to run the engine externally. The
steam is heated from somewhere else and projected towards the engine where it strikes the vanes
of the turbines. These turbines in turn, turns the driving shaft which now transmits the energy
mechanically to its final applications.

Another example of external engine is gas turbine engine.

b. Internal combustion engines. (IC).

In this category, the combustion of the fuel takes place inside the engine chambers/cylinders. The
main fuel for this class of engine is fossil fuel. (In today’s modern engine, there is an application
of artificial fuel and also some electric engines.)

The fuel is drawn and mixed with air inside the combustion chambers of the engine. It is then
compressed to high compression ratios before it is burnt. When burnt, it expands spontaneously
thus giving out the heat energy which is changed into mechanical energy.

The fuel itself is in chemical form. When burnt, it is changed from chemical energy to heat
energy exothermic chemical reaction. This heat energy is changed from heat to mechanical
energy via the up and down movements of the piston. This piston movement rotates the
crankshaft which in turn transmits the energy to the driving shafts.

This category of engine is further divided into categories of Petrol Engine (also known as Spark
Ignition) and Diesel Engine (also known as Compression Ignition).

Here we have various engines with different operations and cycles. Some are classified in
accordance with their mode of operations, their arrangement and their operation cycles.
Examples, four stroke cycle engine

Two stroke cycle engine

Inline engine

Vee engine

The wankel engine etc.

ENGINE COMPONENTS.

We have various components that makes an engine. From the construction of the engine where
we have the engine block, cylinders, piston, piston rings, crankshaft, crankcase (oil sump), fans,
fins, connecting rod, engine bearings and joining pins (gudgeon pin).

Engine block:

This is the overall engine housing. It is made of cast iron. It houses the engine combustion
chambers/cylinders. It is connected to the oil sump from the bottom side/part of the engine.

Cylinder:

The cylinder of an internal combustion (IC) engine constitutes the basic and supporting portion
of the engine power unit. Its major function is to provide space within which the piston will
operate to draw in the fuel-air mixture, compress it, expand it and generate power from it. The
cylinder is usually made of high-grade cast iron to give great strength and wear resistant with
minimum weight.

Piston:
The piston of an internal combustion engine draws in the fuel-air mixture in the combustion
chamber, compresses it and delivers power to the crankshaft from the power stroke. It is made of
cast iron or cast steel with an aluminium alloy.
Piston Rings:
These are made of cast iron on account of their ability to retain bearing qualities and elasticity
indefinitely after being subjected into high temperatures. The primary function of the piston rings
is to retain compression and at the same time reduce the cylinder wall and piston wall contact
area to a minimum, thus reducing friction losses and excessive wear.
Their other role is to carry lubrication oil for lubrication purposes and cooling effects. They can
be classified as compression and lubrication piston rings moving from top to bottom rings
respectively.
Piston Pin (Gudgeon Pin):
The connecting rod is connected to the piston through the gudgeon pin. It is made of case
hardened alloys of steel with precision finish.
Connecting Rod (Con Rod):
This is the connection between the piston and crankshaft. In other words, this components
connects the crankshaft to the piston.
It is made of drop forged steel.
Crankshaft:
This is connected to the piston through the connecting rod and converts the piston motion which
is in form of reciprocating motion to a rotary motion.
Crankcase:
Crankcase serves two main purposes. It houses the crankshaft as it connects to the engine block.
It is also serves as the oil reservoir (oil sump).

Materials used for engine parts:

S. No. Name of the Parts Materials of Construction
1. Cylinder head Cast iron, Cast Aluminium
2. Cylinder liner Cast steel, Cast iron
3. Engine block Cast iron, Cast aluminum, Welded steel
4. Piston Cast iron, Aluminium alloy
5. Piston pin Forged steel, Casehardened steel.
6. Connecting rod Forged steel. Aluminium alloy.
7. Piston rings Cast iron, Pressed steel alloy.
8. Connecting rod bearings Bronze, White metal.
9. Main bearings White metal, Steel backed Babbitt base.
10. Crankshaft Forged steel, Cast steel
11. Camshaft Forged steel, Cast iron, cast steel,
12. Timing gears Cast iron, Fiber, Steel forging.
13. Push rods Forged steel.
14. Engine valves Forged steel, Steel, alloy.
15. Valve springs Carbon spring steel.
16. Manifolds Cast iron, Cast aluminium.
17. Crankcase Cast iron, Welded steel
18. Flywheel Cast iron.
19. Studs and bolts Carbon steel.
20. Gaskets Cork, Copper, Asbestos.

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION.
SPARK IGNITION ENGINE
FOUR-STROKE CYCLE OF A SPARK ENGINE
In four-stroke cycle engines there are four strokes completing two revolutions of the crankshaft.
They are namely: induction/intake stroke, compression stroke, power stroke and exhaust stroke.
 1. Induction/intake stroke.
During the intake stroke of a spark ignition engine, the piston is moves down [Link] intake
valve is open. Air-fuel mixture flows through the intake port/valve and into the cylinder. The
fuel system supplies the mixture. As the piston passes through BDC, the intake valve closes. This
seals off the upper end of the cylinder.

2. Compression stroke.
After the piston passes BDC, it starts moving up again. Both ports/valves are closed. The upward
movement of the piston compresses the air-fuel mixture into a smaller space, between the top of
the piston and the cylinder head. This space is combustion chamber. The mixture is compressed
1/8 or less of its original volume. The amount that the mixture is compressed is compression
ratio.

3. Power stroke
As the piston nears TDC at the end of the compression stroke, an electric spark jumps the gap at
the spark plug. The heat from the spark ignites the compressed air-fuel mixture in the cylinder.
The air-fuel mixture then burns spontaneously. These high temperatures causes very high
pressure within the cylinder which pushes down the piston. The connecting rod carries this force
to the crankshaft, which in turn, transmits the rotary motion to the driving rod which then moves
to the final drive.

4. Exhaust stroke
As the piston approaches BDC during the power stroke, the exhaust valve opens.
After passing through BDC, the piston moves up again. The burnt gases escapes through the
open exhaust port/valve. As the piston nears TDC, the intake valve opens.
When the piston passes through TDC and starts downward movement again, the exhaust valve
closes.
The cycle is now complete and it restarts/repeats again.
 An illustration of the four stroke cycle in a petrol engine cylinder.
TWO-STROKE CYCLE PETROL ENGINE
The two-cycle spark ignition engine makes use of an airtight crankcase which partially
compresses the air-fuel mixture. As the piston moves down, the mixture previously which was
previously drawn into the crankcase is partially compressed. When the piston nears the bottom of
the stroke, it uncovers/opens the exhaust port and intake ports. The exhaust flows out, this
reduces the pressure in the cylinder. When the pressure in the combustion chamber is lower than
the pressure in the crankcase through the port openings to the combustion chamber, the incoming
mixture is deflected upward by a baffle on the piston. When the piston moves upward, it
compresses the air-fuel mixture above and the inlet port opens. This draws in a new fresh air-
mixture to the crankcase.

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION.
DIESEL (CI) ENGINES:
FOUR-STROKE CYCLE OF A DIESEL ENGINE.

Diesel (CI) engines are similar to spark ignition engines in construction. Both have pistons, with
piston rings, moving up and down in cylinders. Both burn fuel inside combustion
chambers/cylinders in the upper part of the cylinders. The high pressure produced by the burning
fuel pushes the pistons down. This rotates the crankshaft and the rotary motion is carried through
shafts and gears to the drive wheels.

1. Intake/induction stroke.
The diesel engine takes in air alone. There is no throttle valve to impede the [Link] opposed
in the spark-ignition engine, where a mixture of air and fuel enters the engine cylinders on the
intake stroke. The throttle valve controls the amount that enters.
Here, only air is sucked in the combustion chambers.

2. Compression stroke.
In the diesel engine, the upward movement of the piston compresses air alone. As opposed to the
SI engine where the piston compresses the air-fuel mixture. Here, on the air alone is compressed.

3. Power stroke
In diesel engine, a light oil which is referred as diesel fuel is injected into the compressed and hot
air just at the end of the compression stroke, as the piston reaches TDC. The heat of compression
ignites the fuel. This is opposed to the spark-ignition engine where a spark at the spark plug
ignites the compressed air-fuel mixture.
In diesel engine, the compressed air ignites itself when the fuel is injected towards the end of the
compression stroke. High pressures and temperatures ignites the mixture.

4. Exhaust stroke
The exhaust stroke is the same for both engines. The exhaust valve opens and the burned gases
flow out as the piston moves up the cylinder.

An illustration of the four stroke cycle in a diesel engine cylinder.

TWO-STROKE CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE:

The cycle of the four-stroke of the piston (the induction/intake, compression, power and exhaust
strokes) is completed only in two strokes in the case of a two-stroke engine. The air is drawn into
the crankcase due to the vacuum created by the upward stroke of the piston. On the down ward
stroke of the piston, the trapped in air is compressed in the crankcase. The compression pressure
is usually very low, being just sufficient to enable the air to flow into the cylinder through the
transfer port when the piston reaches near the bottom of its down stroke.
 The air therefore flows into the cylinder, where the piston compresses it as it moves up, till the
piston is nearly at the TDC. The compression pressure is increased sufficiently high to raise the
temperature of the air above the self-ignition point of the fuel used. The fuel is injected into the
cylinder head just before the completion of the compression stroke and only for a short period.
The burnt gases expand during the next downward stroke of the piston. These gases escape into
the exhaust pipe to the atmosphere when the piston uncovers the exhaust port.

IN BRIEF, THESE ARE THE FOUR SUMMARY OF THE FOUR STROKE CYCLE
ENGINES (BOTH CI AND SI)

1. Intake/Induction stroke .The intake valve opens up, letting in air and moving the piston down.
2. Compression stroke. The piston moves up again compressing the trapped in air (for CI) and
fuel-air-mixture for SI engine.
3. Combustion stroke .As the piston reaches the top, a spark is introduced from the spark plug in
SI engine and for CI engine, the fuel is injected and ignited. This forces the piston back down.
4. Exhaust stroke. The piston moves up again, pushing out the exhaust created from the
combustion in the cylinder/combustion chamber out via the exhaust valve.

COMPARISON BETWEEN DIESEL (CI) AND PETROL (SI) ENGINES

ADVANTAGES OF THE DIESEL ENGINE AS OPPOSED TO PETROL ENGINE.

1) Reliability of the CI engine is much higher than that of the SI engine. This is because in
case of the failure of the battery, ignition or carburettor system, the SI engine cannot
operate, whereas the CI engine, with a separate fuel injector for each cylinder, has less
risk of failure.
2) The distribution of fuel to each cylinder is uniform as each of them has a separate
injector, whereas in the SI engine the distribution of fuel mixture is not uniform, owing to
the design of the single carburettor and the intake manifold.
3) Since the servicing period of the fuel injection system of CI engine is longer, its
maintenance cost is less than that of the SI engine.
4) The expansion ratio of the CI engine is higher than that of the SI engine; therefore, the
heat loss to the cylinder walls is less in the CI engine than that of the SI engine.
Consequently, the cooling system of the CI engine can be of smaller dimensions.
5) The torque characteristics of the CI engine are more uniform which results in better top
gear performance.
 6) The CI engine can be switched over from part load to full load soon after starting from
cold, whereas the SI engine requires warming up.
7) The fuel (diesel) for the CI engine is cheaper than the fuel (petrol) for SI engine.
8) The fire risk in the CI engine is minimised due to the absence of the ignition system.
9) On part load, the specific fuel consumption of the CI engine is low.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TWO-STROKE CYCLE OVER

FOUR-STROKE CYCLE ENGINES
Advantages:

1. The two-stroke cycle engine gives one working stroke for each revolution of the
crankshaft. Hence theoretically the power developed for the same engine speed and
cylinder volume is twice that of the four-stroke cycle engine, which gives only one
working stroke for every two revolutions of the crankshaft. However, in practice, because
of poor scavenging, only 50-60% extra power is developed.
2. Due to one working stroke for each revolution of the crankshaft, the turning moment on
the crankshaft is more uniform. Therefore, a two-stroke engine requires a lighter
flywheel.
3. The two-stroke engine is simpler in construction. The design of its ports is much simpler
and their maintenance easier than that of the valve mechanism.
4. The power required to overcome frictional resistance of the suction and exhaust strokes is
saved, resulting in some economy of fuel.
5. Owing to the absence of the cam, camshaft, rockers, etc. of the valve mechanism, the
mechanical efficiency is higher.
6. The two-stroke engine gives fewer oscillations.
7. For the same power, a two-stroke engine is more compact and requires less space than a
four-stroke cycle engine. This makes it more suitable for use in small machines and
motorcycles.
8. A two-stroke engine is lighter in weight for the same power and speed especially when
the crankcase compression is used.
9. Due to its simpler design, it requires fewer spare parts.
10. A two-stroke cycle engine can be easily reversed if it is of the valve less type.

Disadvantages:

1. The scavenging being not very efficient in a two-stroke engine, the dilution of the
charges takes place which results in poor thermal efficiency.
2. The two-stroke spark ignition engines do not have a separate lubrication system and
normally, lubricating oil is mixed with the fuel. This is not as effective as the lubrication
of a four-stroke engine. Therefore, the parts of the two-stroke engine are subjected to
greater wear and tear.
 3. In a spark ignition two-stroke engine, some of the fuel passes directly to the exhaust.
Hence, the fuel consumption per horsepower is comparatively higher.
4. With heavy loads a two-stroke engine gets heated up due to the excessive heat produced.
At the same time the running of the engine is riot very smooth at light loads.
5. It consumes more lubricating oil because of the greater amount of heat generated.
6. Since the ports remain open during the upward stroke, the actual compression starts only
after both the inlet and exhaust ports have been closed. Hence, the compression ratio of
this engine is lower than that of a four-stroke engine of the same dimensions.

Exercise.

1. Identify similarities between diesel and petrol engines.

2. Compare and contrast between the two types of engines.
3. Identify the functions of a flywheel.
4. Identify the functions of a clutch in a vehicle system.
5. Identify the functions and operating principle of an ignition coil.