Expository

Writing
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Basic Structure

Expository paragraphs deal with facts, ideas, beliefs. They ex-

plain, analyze, define, compare, illustrate. They answer ques-
tions like What? Why? How? What was the cause? The ef-
fect? Like what? Unlike what? They are the kinds of
paragraph we write in reports or term papers or tests.
The term paragraph has no simple definition. Occasionally
a single sentence or even a word may serve as an emphatic
paragraph. Conventionally in composition, however, a para-
graph is a group of sentences developing a common idea,
called the topic.
An expository paragraph is essentially an enlargement of a
subject/predicate pattern like "Dogs bark." But the subject is
more complicated and needs to be expressed in a clause or
sentence, called the topic statement, which is usually placed
at or near the beginning. The predicate—that is, what is as-
serted about the topic—requires several sentences. These con-
stitute the body of the paragraph, developing or supporting
the topic in any of several ways, ways we shall study in sub-
sequent chapters.
No one can say how long a paragraph should be. Subject,
purpose, audience, editorial fashion, and individual prefer-
ence, all affect the length and complexity of paragraphs. As a
rough rule of thumb, however, you might think of expository
90 THE EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH

paragraphs in terms of 120 or 150 words. If most of your

paragraphs fall below 100 words—50 or 60, say—the chances
are they need more development. If your paragraphs run con-
sistently to 200 or 300 words, they are probably too long and
need to be shortened or divided. Numerous brief paragraphs
are liable to be disjointed and underdeveloped. Great long
ones fatigue readers. But remember—we are talking about a
very broad average. An occasional short paragraph of 15 to
20 words may work very well; so may an occasional long one
of 300.

The Topic Sentence

A good topic sentence is concise and emphatic. It is no longer
than the idea requires, and it stresses the important word or
phrase. Here, for instance, is the topic statement which opens
a paragraph about the collapse of the stock market in 1929:

The Big Bull Market was dead. Frederick Lewis Allen

Notice several things. (1) Allen's sentence is brief. Not all

topics can be explained in six words, but whether they take
six or sixty, they should be phrased in no more words than
are absolutely necessary. (2) The sentence is clear and strong:
you understand exactly what Allen means. (3) It places the
key word—"dead"—at the end, where it gets heavy stress and
leads naturally into what will follow. Of course, if a topic
sentence ends on a key term, it must do so naturally, without
violating any rules of word order or idiom. (4) The sentence
stands first in the paragraph. This is where topic statements
generally belong: at or near the beginning.
To attract attention topic sentences sometimes appear in
the form of rhetorical questions:

What then is the modern view of Joan's voices and messages from
God? George Bernard Shaw
BASIC STRUCTURE 91

What did Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation accomplish?

J. G. Randall

Rhetorical questions are easy ways of generating paragraphs.

Perhaps too easy; so use them with restraint. Once is probably
enough in a short piece of writing.
Another eye-catching form of topic statement is the frag-
ment, the grammatically incomplete sentence, as in the second
paragraph of this passage (italics added):

Approaching the lake from the south, spread out, high up in a great
V, was a flock of Canada geese. They did not land but continued
on their way, trailed by the brass notes of their honking.
Spring. How perfect its fanfare. No trumpets or drums could ever
have so triumphantly announced the presence of royalty. I stood
marveling in their wake until, cold, I returned to the firs to see what
else I Could Summon up. Ruth Rudner

But fragments, too, are effective only if they are used with
restraint. Most of the time the best topic statement is a strong,
clear, grammatically complete, declarative sentence.

Sentences as the Analytic Elements

of a Paragraph
The sentences of a good expository paragraph reflect a clear,
rational analysis of the topic. Here is a brief example, this one
by Bertrand Russell. (The sentences have been numbered for
convenience.)

[1] The intellectual life of the nineteenth century was more com-
plex than that of any previous age. [2] This was due to several
causes. [3] First: the area concerned was larger than ever before;
America and Russia made important contributions, and Europe be-
came more aware than formerly of Indian philosophies, both an-
cient and modern. [4] Second: science, which had been a chief
source of novelty since the seventeenth century, made new con-
quests, especially in geology, biology, and organic chemistry.
92 THE EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH

[5] Third: machine production profoundly altered the social struc-

ture, and gave men a new conception of their powers in relation
to the physical environment. [6] Fourth: a profound revolt, both
philosophical and political, against traditional systems of thought,
in politics and in economics, gave rise to attacks upon many beliefs
and institutions that had hitherto been regarded as unassailable.
[7] This revolt had two very different forms, one romantic, the other
rationalistic. [8] (I am using these words in a liberal sense.) [9] The
romantic revolt passes from Byron, Schopenhauer, and Nietzsche
to Mussolini and Hitler; the rationalistic revolt begins with the
French philosophers of the Revolution, passes on, somewhat soft-
ened, to the philosophical radicals in England, then acquires a
deeper form in Marx and issues in Soviet Russia.

Russell's nine sentences correspond to his steps in analyz-

ing his topic:

Sentence Idea
Topic: increasing intellectual complexity
Plan: list several causes
First cause: larger area
Second cause: science
Third cause: machine production
Fourth cause: intellectual revolt
two forms
qualification
specification of the two forms

Examining whether the sentences of a paragraph corre-

spond with its ideas is a good test of the coherence of the
paragraph. The correspondence need not be as exact as in
Russell's paragraph (and usually will not be). But if you can-
not outline a generally clear relationship, the paragraph is
probably confused and confusing.
The fact that a paragraph like Russell's reveals a coherent
logical structure does not imply that the writer worked from
an outline. One can proceed in this way, but in writing of any
length an outline is tedious and time-consuming. Experienced
BASIC STRUCTURE 93

writers adjust sentences to thought intuitively, without con-

stantly thinking about when to begin a new sentence. Those
with less experience must remain more conscious of the prob-
lem. Working up paragraphs from outlines provides good
practice. But whether it is consciously thought out or intui-
tive, a well-made paragraph uses sentences to analyze the
subject.

For Practice
> Selecting one of the general subjects listed below, compose ten
topic sentences, each on a different aspect of the subject, with an
eye to developing a paragraph of about 150 words. Aim at clarity,
emphasis, concision. Experiment with placing key words at the end
of the sentence and with one or two rhetorical questions and
fragments.

The economic future as you see it

National or local politics
Popular entertainment
Sports
Sexual relationships

> Make an outline like that for Russell's paragraph, showing how
the sentences of the following paragraph relate to its ideas. The
analysis might begin like this:

Sentence Idea
1 Topic: a paradox about grammar
2 Specification: first part of the paradox—people regard
grammar as dull

> [1] A curious paradox exists in regard to grammar. [2] On the

one hand it is felt to be the dullest and driest of academic subjects,
fit only for those in whose veins the red blood of life has long since
turned to ink. [3] On the other, it is a subject upon which people
who would scorn to be professional grammarians hold very dog-
matic opinions, which they will defend with considerable emotion.
94 THE EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH

[4] Much of this prejudice stems from the usual sources of preju-
dice—ignorance and confusion. [5] Even highly educated people
seldom have a clear idea of what grammarians do, and there is an
unfortunate confusion about the meaning of the term "grammar"
itself. W. Nelson Francis
CHAPTER
13
Paragraph Unity

Paragraph unity involves two related but distinct concepts:

coherence and flow. Coherence means that the ideas fit to-
gether. Flow means that the sentences link up so that readers
are not conscious of gaps. Flow is a matter of style and exists
in specific words and grammatical patterns tying one sentence
to another. Coherence belongs to the substructure of the par-
agraph, to relationships of thought, feeling, and perception.
Both are necessary if a paragraph is to be truly unified.

Coherence
To be coherent a paragraph must satisfy two criteria: First,
relevance—every idea must relate to the topic. Second, effec-
tive order—ideas must be arranged in a way that clarifies their
logic or their importance. There is, in addition, a negative
criterion—inclusiveness, that nothing vital must be omitted.

Relevance
A topic sentence makes a promise that the paragraph must
fulfill. Do not wander from the topic. No matter how attrac-
tive an idea may seem, let it go if you cannot fit it into the
96 THE EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH

topic you have staked out or cannot revise the topic to include
it. Here is an example of a paragraph marred by irrelevance:

[1] College is very different from high school. [2] The professors
talk a great deal more and give longer homework assignments.
[3] This interferes with your social life. [4] It may even cost you
your girlfriend. [5] Girls don't like to be told that you have to stay
home and study when they want to go to a show or go dancing.
[6] So they find some other boy who doesn't have to study all the
time. [7] Another way college is different is the examinations. . . .

The paragraph begins well. The first sentence establishes the

topic and the second supports it. Then the writer begins to
slide away. Sentences 3 and 4 might be allowed if they were
subordinated. But 5 and 6 lose contact. True, some people do
not like to take second place to homework, but that is not
pertinent here. In sentence 7 the writer tacitly acknowledges
that he has wandered, throwing out a long transitional lifeline
to haul us back to the topic. Rid of irrelevance, the paragraph
might read:

College is very different from high school. The professors talk a

great deal more and give longer homework assignments, which in-
terfere with your social life. College examinations, too, are
different. . . .

Order of Thought
Relevance alone is not enough to establish coherence. All the
ideas in a paragraph can relate to the topic yet be poorly
arranged.
Arrangement often inheres in the subject itself. A para-
graph about baking a cake or preparing to water-ski is com-
mitted to following the steps of the process it describes. Tell-
ing a story, you must follow a certain sequence of events. And
in some subjects there is a logical structure implicit in the
PARAGRAPH UNITY 97

subject that determines order of thought, as in this example

about the value of opposition in politics:

The opposition is indispensable. A good statesman, like any other

sensible human being, always learns more from his opponents than
from his fervent supporters. For his supporters will push him to
disaster unless his opponents show him where the dangers are. So
if he is wise he will often pray to be delivered from his friends,
because they will ruin him. But, though it hurts, he ought also to
pray never to be left without opponents; for they keep him on the
path of reason and good sense. Walter Lippmann

There is a necessary order of thought here: first the assertion,

next a reason supporting it, and then a conclusion, introduced
by "so."
There are times, however, when the order of thought is less
a function of the subject itself than of the writer's view of it.
For instance, if you were writing about the three things that
most surprised you the first time you visited, say, New York
City, you might not find any logical or temporal relationship
between those things.
One solution in such cases is to arrange ideas in order of
relative importance, either climactically, placing the most im-
portant last, or anticlimactically, putting it first. If you cannot
discern any shadings of importance, consider which order
best connects with what has gone before or with what will
come next. Should you find no basis whatever for arranging
the ideas within a paragraph, then, of course, any order is
legitimate. But this is not likely to happen often. Most of the
time a proper or at least a most effective way of sequencing
ideas does exist.

Paragraph Flow
Flow, those visible links which bind the sentences of a para-
graph, can be established in two basic ways. (They are
compatible; a paragraph may employ both.) The first is to
 Unit 2: Introductory Paragraphs: Lead and Thesis Statements

Lesson 1

Purpose
• Recognize a lead and thesis statement in an introductory paragraph.
• Identify six different techniques for writing an effective lead.

Materials
✓ Overhead transparency or chart examples of the six techniques
✓ Student copies of Blackline Masters 11 and 12

Introducing the Skill

• Define the terms “lead” and “thesis statement” for the class. Outline the functions of these
components in an introductory paragraph: The lead comes first and its purpose is to attract
the readers’ attention and arouse their interest. The thesis statement is the sentence that
gives the main idea. It is the most important sentence in the essay and needs to be given
careful thought. After these two components, there may be supporting sentences that
outline what is to come in the next three paragraphs.
• Discuss the importance of a strong lead to hook the reader. Techniques that help to create
strong leads include:

— an amazing or unusual fact

— a description
— a quote, proverb, or saying
— a question
— a bold opinion
— a statistic

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Modelling the Skill
• Read the following examples to the class (each example illustrates a different technique
for writing an effective lead). For each example, ask students to identify the technique the
author used. Can they think of another way of writing the lead?

An Amazing or Interesting Fact

During the Apollo 11 mission to the moon, the astronauts spotted a large object flying
in the same direction.

A Description
Reports of flying saucers, flashing lights in the sky, strange burn marks on the ground,
and men in shiny spacesuits have continued over the years.

A Quote
“The recent explosion in UFO reports has more to do with the increase in UFO study
groups around the country than it does with an increase in alien visitors,” said
Rutkowski of Ufology Research, Manitoba.

A Question
Is there life in outer space?

A Bold Opinion
We are not alone in the universe.

A Statistic
Almost 75% of all UFO reports turn out to be a weather balloon, meteors, or the
reflection from clouds and ice.

Guided Practice
• Distribute copies of BLMs 11, 12, and 13.
• Have students:
— read the introductory paragraph
— circle the lead and identify the technique the author used to write it
— locate and underline the thesis statement

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Name: ___________________________ BLM 11

Leads and Thesis Statements

• Read the introductory paragraphs below.
• For each paragraph:
— circle the lead
— underline the thesis statement
— identify the type of lead the author used.

Types of Leads:
— an amazing or unusual fact
— a description
— a quote
— a question
— a bold opinion
— a statistic

Did you ever wonder where we would be without chocolate fudge sundaes, chocolate
milkshakes, and chewy chocolate bars? The discovery of the cocoa bean and the
invention of chocolate as we know it today is a remarkable story.

Type of lead: __________________________________________

Forty-five kilometres of white, soft sand and crystal clear blue ocean awaits you. Surfers
Paradise, Queensland, Australia, is a holiday paradise. There you will find endless sand, sun,
and surf, as well as exciting nightlife and amusement parks.

Type of lead: ___________________________________________

“Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country,” said
John F. Kennedy. We each have a unique contribution we can make to our own
communities. Joining a volunteer organization is an excellent way to contribute.

Type of lead: ___________________________________________

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Name: ___________________________ BLM 12

Leads and Thesis Statements

• Read the introductory paragraphs below.
• For each paragraph:
— circle the lead
— underline the thesis statement
— identify the type of lead the author used.

Types of Leads:
— an amazing or unusual fact
— a description
— a quote, proverb, or saying
— a question
— a bold opinion
— a statistic

Canada is the best country in the world in which to live. Each year, thousands of
immigrants come to Canada to begin a new and better life.

Type of lead: __________________________________________

The ozone layer protects the Earth from nearly 90% of the sun’s ultraviolet rays. In the 1970s,
scientists discovered a hole in the ozone layer above Antarctica and since that time, the
hole has got much worse. Exposure to ultraviolet rays has serious consequences for our
health, but there are ways that we can help solve this problem.

Type of lead: ___________________________________________

The largest coral reef in the world is 2,000 kilometres long. It is the Great Barrier Reef off the
coast of Queensland, Australia. Here you can snorkel and scuba dive to see the coral, fish,
and other sea creatures.

Type of lead: ___________________________________________

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Name: ___________________________ BLM 14

Writing a Lead Sentence for an Introduction

• Read the thesis statement.

• Use the space provided below to write leads for the thesis statement, using each of the
following techniques:
— a question
— a bold opinion
— a statistic

A Question
___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________ A tornado is a destructive force.

A Bold Opinion
___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________ A tornado is a destructive force.

A Statistic
___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________ A tornado is a destructive force.

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 Unit 2: Introductory Paragraphs: Leads and Thesis Statements

Lesson 4

Purpose
• Write an effective thesis statement (topic sentence).

Materials
✓ Student copies of Blackline Masters 17 and 18

Introducing the Skill

• Define the term “thesis statement” for students. Explain that this statement may include a
list of the three main ideas that are to follow in paragraphs 2, 3, and 4. Use introduction #3
on BLM 16 as an example.
• Explain that a thesis statement may also be more general and suggest the main ideas
without stating them. Use introductions #1 and #2 on BLM 15 as examples of this type of
thesis statement.
• Emphasize that, in either case, the thesis statement briefly and clearly tells the reader what
the entire piece will be about. The thesis statement should be one sentence.

Modelling the Skill

• Present several topics that students have a general knowledge about.
• Invite students to brainstorm two possible thesis statements related to one of these topics.
One statement should be general; the other should list three components that will be
expanded upon in the following paragraphs.

Example:
Topic: Dogs
Thesis Statement #1: Dogs are popular pets.
Thesis Statement #2: Dogs are loyal, useful, and excellent companions.

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Name: ___________________________ BLM 17

Writing a Thesis Statement

• Read each topic listed below. Write two thesis statements for each topic. Use one
complete sentence for each thesis statement.
• The first thesis statement should suggest what your main ideas will be. The second should
include each of your three main ideas.

Topic: Fast Food Restaurants

Thesis Statement #1 (general)

_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Thesis Statement #2 (include 3 main ideas)

_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Topic: Going to the Mall

Thesis Statement #1 (general)

_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Thesis Statement #2 (include 3 main ideas)

_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

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Name: ___________________________ BLM 18

Writing a Thesis Statement

• Read each topic listed below. Write two thesis statements for each topic. Use one
complete sentence for each thesis statement.
• The first thesis statement should suggest what your main ideas will be. The second should
include each of your three main ideas.

Topic: Summer

Thesis Statement #1: (general)

_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Thesis Statement #2: (include 3 main ideas)

_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Topic: Sports

Thesis Statement #1: (general)

_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Thesis Statement #2: (include 3 main ideas)

_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

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 Unit 2: Introductory Paragraphs: Leads and Thesis Statements

Lesson 5

Purpose
• Write an introductory paragraph that includes a lead and thesis statement.

Materials
✓ Student copies of Blackline Masters 19 and 20

Introducing the Skill

• Share student work from Lessons 2, 3, and 4 with the class. Review the six techniques for an
effective lead and the two kinds of thesis statements (topic sentences).

Modelling the Skill

• Present the following topics or topics that you have chosen to represent current curriculum
projects.
• Invite students to brainstorm possible leads and thesis statements.

Example:
Topic: The Beach
Lead: When you think of summer, do you imagine yourself lying on a sandy beach?
Thesis Statement #1: The beach offers activities that all age groups can enjoy.
Thesis Statement #2: At the beach you can swim, sunbathe, or build sandcastles.

Guided Practice
• Distribute student copies of BLMs 19 and 18.
• Have students write a lead and thesis statement. The lead may be one or two sentences.
The thesis statement is to be written in one sentence.
• Read and discuss the topics as a class before asking students to begin their independent
work. Ask students to generate possible leads using each of the six techniques. List these
leads on an overhead or on the blackboard. Create two possible thesis statements for
each topic as an example for student writing.

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Name: ___________________________ BLM 19

Writing the Introductory Paragraph

• Read the topics below and decide which type of lead you will use to introduce each one.
Will you use:
— an amazing or unusual fact?
— a description?
— a quote, proverb, or saying?
— a question?
— a bold opinion?
— a statistic?

• Write a thesis statement to follow each lead. The thesis statement should be one sentence.
Decide if you will list the three main ideas or use a general statement about the topic.

Topic: The Perfect Playground

Lead: _____________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

Thesis Statement: __________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

Topic: Changes I Would Make to My School

Lead: _____________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

Thesis Statement: __________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

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Name: ___________________________ BLM 20

Writing the Introductory Paragraph

• Read the topics below and decide which type of lead you will use to introduce each one.
Will you use:
— an amazing or unusual fact?
— a description?
— a quote, proverb, or saying?
— a question?
— a bold opinion?
— a statistic?

• Write a one-sentence thesis statement to follow each lead. Decide if you will list the three
main ideas or use a general statement about the topic.

Topic: A Special Person (relative, friend, hero, etc.)

Lead: _____________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

Thesis Statement: __________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

Topic: How I Get My Exercise

Lead: _____________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

Thesis Statement: __________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

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 Unit 3: Writing Main Idea Sentences

Lesson 1

Purpose
• Generate three distinct main ideas on a given topic.

Materials
✓ “Pick, List, Choose” chart (see “Introducing the Skill”)
✓ Student copies of Blackline Masters 21 and 22

Introducing the Skill

• Use the Pre-writing Planner (BLM 1) from Unit 1 to review the structure of an expository piece
of writing.
• Use a “Pick, List, Choose” chart (see below) to outline the process involved in writing the
body of an expository piece. Remind students that the body includes paragraphs 2, 3, and
4, and that each paragraph discusses one main idea. This idea is stated in the main idea or
topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph.

Pick, List, Choose

• Pick a topic.
• List your ideas about the topic. Write each idea in a (topic) sentence. Read your
sentences. Cross out any that overlap.
• Choose the three best main idea sentences. Check that each sentence is distinct.

Modelling the Skill

• List: Ask students to choose one of the following topics and then generate 4 – 6 ideas
about each one. Record these ideas in list form on an overhead or on the blackboard.

Topics
• sports
• street smarts
• space exploration (or a curriculum topic)
• crocodiles (or another reptile or animal that students are familiar with)

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• Write: Model how to translate these points into complete main idea sentences.

Main Ideas Main Idea Sentences

Why basketball is fun ___________________________________________

___________________________________________

___________________________________________

The benefits of playing basketball ___________________________________________

___________________________________________

___________________________________________

The equipment you need to play ___________________________________________

basketball
___________________________________________

___________________________________________

• Read and Check: Read through the sentences and revise as necessary. Ask students to
identify any sentences that overlap. One way to check if the sentences overlap is to
restate them in one or two words and see if they make the same or a similar point on the
topic. Have students summarize each sentence in one or two words to see if there is any
redundancy.
• Generate Details: Ask students to generate 3 – 4 details about each main idea sentence
that remains — Are the ideas broad enough to expand upon or are they too narrow?

Main Idea Sentence Detail Sentences

___________________________________________
______________________________
___________________________________________

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• Choose: Select three main idea sentences that are distinct yet give enough scope for
adding more details. Sequence these sentences as paragraphs 2, 3, and 4. Example:

Main Idea Sentences

Paragraph #2: ______________________________________________________________________

Paragraph #3: ______________________________________________________________________

Paragraph #4: ______________________________________________________________________

Guided Practice
• Distribute student copies of BLMs 21 and 22.
• Have students write three main ideas for each topic and translate these ideas into
sentences.
• To modify this activity, you may wish to provide students with the three main ideas and
then have them translate these ideas into sentences.

Curriculum Connection
You may wish to provide students with a curriculum topic and specify the three main
areas they must include in their main idea sentences.

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Name: ___________________________ BLM 21

Writing Main Idea Sentences

• Read the topic.
• Think about what you know or wonder about this topic.
• List three distinct main ideas for the topic.
• Write these ideas in complete sentences.
• Check that your sentences do not overlap.

Topic: Pollution

Main Idea #1: ____________________________________________

Main Idea Sentence #1: __________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

Main Idea #2: ____________________________________________

Main Idea Sentence #2: _________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________

Main Idea #3: _____________________________________________

Main Idea Sentence #3: ________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

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Name: ___________________________ BLM 22

Writing Main Idea Sentences

• Read the topic.
• Think about what you know or wonder about the topic.
• List three distinct main ideas for the topic.
• Write these ideas in complete sentences.
• Check that your sentences do not overlap.

Topic: Sports Equipment

Main Idea #1: _______________________________________________________

Main Idea Sentence #1: _____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Main Idea #2: ______________________________________________________

Main Idea Sentence #2: _____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Main Idea #3: ______________________________________________________

Main Idea Sentence #3: _____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

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Name: ___________________________ BLM 23

Missing Main Ideas

• Read the supporting sentences below.

• For each group of supporting sentences, write a main idea sentence that tells the reader
what the paragraph will be about.

1. ______________________________________________________________________________________
Pizza, spaghetti, and lasagne are Italian.
Tacos and tortillas are foods that were adopted from Mexico.
Egg rolls and fortune cookies originally came from China.
Hamburgers were introduced from Germany.

2. ______________________________________________________________________________________
Wear a wide-brimmed hat, T-shirt, and sunglasses.
Keep in the shade as much as possible.
Drink lots of water.
Use sunscreen on any skin that is exposed.

3. ______________________________________________________________________________________
Helmets protect your head and face.
Knee and elbow pads help prevent injuries to your joints.
Mouth guards can save your teeth.
Gloves prevent bruises and cuts to your hands and wrists.

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 Unit 4: Writing Supporting Details

Lesson 1

Purpose
• Recognize and identify the five kinds of supporting details.
• Apply this understanding to writing supporting sentences.

Materials
✓ Student copies of Blackline Masters 25 and 26
✓ Chart of the five kinds of supporting details (see “Introducing the Skill”)

Introducing the Skill

• As a class, review the purpose of an expository piece of writing (i.e., to give information).
Explain that the clarity of this information depends on the specific details that support each
main idea sentence.
• Display the chart of the five kinds of supporting details (see below). Four of these details are
similar to the techniques used to write effective leads (quotes, statistics, descriptions, and
interesting facts). In supporting sentences, these techniques are used to present a number
of relevant points on the topic.

Quote: The words of an expert or authority on the subject. State the name of the
person and their qualifications if possible. Example: “The number of grizzlies surviving in
the wild is rapidly dwindling,” reported the spokesperson for the Save the Wildlife Fund,
Mr. Ted E. Bear.
Statistic: Information presented as a number, percentage, fraction, or ratio. Example:
Studies show that over 50% of people/9 out of 10 people/on average one million
people every day …
Interesting Fact: A little-known fact that readers may not be aware of. Example: It’s
hard to believe, but a baby kangaroo is only the size of a jellybean when it is born.
Anecdote: A short story that illustrates the main idea. Example: I remember the time a
hockey puck hit my facemask. This event certainly proved the importance of using the
right sports equipment.
Description: Words and phrases that convey an idea, impression, or image to the
reader. Example: People rush by on the sidewalk. Cars and buses go by in an endless
flow of traffic. The air is filled with horns, sirens, and construction. The city never sleeps!

© 2001 Margot Southall

46
Modelling the Skill
• Present the following main idea sentence. Have students generate five kinds of detail
sentences to support this topic.
• Record student input and use a “think aloud” process as you translate student ideas into
complete sentences.
Main Idea Sentence: The Internet has certainly made a difference in our lives.

Guided Practice
• Assign the Task: Distribute copies of BLMs 25 and 26. Ask students to read the main idea
sentence and write a supporting detail sentence. The type of supporting sentence they are
to use is identified on the BLMs.
• Read and Examine: Invite students to share and compare their detail sentences — Do the
sentences give specific information or commentary on the topic?
• Extension: To extend this activity, have students write a complete paragraph consisting of
three detail sentences.

© 2001 Margot Southall

47
Name: ___________________________ BLM 25

Writing Supporting Details

• Read this main idea sentence. It tells you what the paragraph will be about.
• Use the specified technique to add a supporting detail in a complete sentence.
• Begin each sentence in a different way. You may use one of the sentence starters at the
bottom of the page or your own ideas.

Main Idea Sentence

Living with brothers and sister can be difficult

Convince your reader with an anecdote: _____________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

Convince your reader with a statistic: _________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Sentence starters for anecdotes: Sentence starters for statistics:

I’ll never forget the time when … The majority of kids report that …
There is always … Over 90% of kids say they …
You may not believe it, but … Statistics show that …
You’d be surprised at how I … Four out of five kids …

© 2001 Margot Southall

48
Name: ___________________________ BLM 26

Writing Supporting Details

• Read this main idea sentence. It tells you what the paragraph will be about.
• Use the specified technique to add a supporting detail in a complete sentence.
• Begin each sentence in a different way. You may use one of the sentence starters at the
bottom of the page or your own ideas.

Main Idea Sentence

The day after the first snowfall brings a winter wonderland of scenery.

Convince your reader with a description: _____________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Convince your reader with an interesting fact: ________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Sentence starters for descriptions: Sentence starters for an interesting

fact:
On every tree you can see …
It is amazing that …
You can almost feel …
Every year …
The sound of …
Without a doubt …
You can imagine …
It is interesting to note that …

© 2001 Margot Southall

49
 Unit 4: Writing Supporting Details

Lesson 2

Purpose
• Recognize the different types of transitional phrases and their functions.

Materials
✓ Student copies of Blackline Master 27
✓ “The Purpose of Transitional Phrases” and “Transitional Phrases” charts
(see “Introducing the Skill”)

Introducing the Skill

• Introduce the chart of transitional phrases and their functions to the class.

Trasitional phrases enable a writer to:

— move smoothly from one detail sentence to the next
— link similar ideas or introduce an example
— express alternative or contrasting views and connect cause and effect situations
— provide clues to the reader regarding the nature of the next fact (e.g., Is it a similar
or contrasting idea?)
— provide sentence variety within the paragraph

• Use the transitional phrases below to compose sentences that refer to a topic the class has
studied or that students are familiar with. Read these sentences aloud. Point out the
function of each type of phrase, using the above chart as a guide.

Transitional Phrases
A) Express Alternative Ideas (compare similarities and contrast differences):
Similar Ideas
Yet another In the same way It’s also true that
In addition to this Similarly Not only that, but
Another similarity
Contrasting Ideas
In contrast On the other hand Despite this
However Yet But
Nevertheless By contrast Instead of
Unlike

© 2001 Margot Southall

50
 B) Express Cause and Effect (reasons):
For this reason Because of _______ As a result
Yet another reason The main reason In view of _______
Therefore Still another reason
C) Show an Example:
For example As an example of _______ is An illustration of _______ is
For instance Yet another example I remember when

D) Tell How To Do Something (process paragraph):

To begin with At this point Finally
The last thing When Next

E) Classification Paragraph (divide things into groups):

The first One kind The first type
Another kind The second The last type

• Review the different types of expository writing that these transitions would be used in.

Example Paragraph (gives examples)

Process Paragraph (tells how to do something)
Reason Paragraph (gives reasons for something)
Classification Paragraph (divides things into groups)
Definition Paragraph (defines something with examples)
Comparison and Contrast Paragraph (compares and contrasts things, ideas, etc.)

© 2001 Margot Southall

51
 Unit 5: Concluding Paragraphs

Lesson 1

Purpose
• Identify three effective techniques for writing a concluding paragraph.

Materials
✓ Student copies of Blackline Master 33
✓ “Three Techniques for an Effective Conclusion” chart (see “Introducing the Skill”)

Introducing the Skill

• Define the term “concluding paragraph” for students (the concluding paragraph sums up
the main ideas in the expository piece). Emphasize that the three or four main ideas are not
simply restated in list format — the conclusion may include a summary of the main ideas,
but these ideas need to be presented in an interesting way. Present the following
paragraph on the blackboard and discuss the effectiveness of this type of summary.

So, now you know what beavers look like, where they live, and how they make their
home. The end.

• Stress the importance of avoiding redundant conclusions. The above example may make it
clear what the main ideas are, but the ideas need to be presented in varied formats to
keep the reader’s attention. The following three techniques help writers avoid redundancy:
— a series of questions
— a description
— an anecdote

Modelling the Skill

• Read aloud the following revisions of the beaver paragraph. Have students compare the
various revisions and identify the techniques the author used.

A concluding paragraph that uses a series of questions:

Are you interested in watching animals at work? Would you enjoy a nature walk by a
beaver pond? Do you have an interest in conservation? If so, you should get to know
our fascinating Canadian animal, the beaver.

© 2001 Margot Southall

62
 A concluding paragraph that uses a description:
Whether round, furry babies or full-grown, tail-slapping adults, these amusing creatures
are the delight of the pond! Now that you know these animals a little better, you will
appreciate them more.

A concluding paragraph that uses an anecdote:

So, if you’re ever strolling near a pond in the woods and come across a fascinating
flat-tailed animal, stop and take another look! From kits to adults, these creatures are
amazing!

• As a class, discuss the differences among these revised versions. Use a “Before and After”
format to compare the new paragraphs to the original summary, making reference to the
three techniques. How does each paragraph differ?
• Review the concept of anecdotes with the class. An anecdote is a comment that sums up
what you have learned, gives advice about what the reader can learn, or places the
information in a time or place. Examples of anecdotes: “It often took explorers months of
arduous travel to navigate the rivers and lakes” or “Before the Industrial Revolution, there
wasn’t a pollution problem.”

Guided Practice
• Distribute student copies of BLM 33. Instruct students to read the concluding paragraphs,
locate and underline the main ideas, and state the technique used.
• Discuss how these paragraphs incorporate the main ideas by using the three techniques
(as opposed to being stated in list format).

The three main ideas in paragraph #1:

— scenery — sounds and sights in the forest
— health — clean air and sunshine
— use of our national parks for your holidays

The three main ideas in paragraph #2:

— transportation routes last century
— individual explorers who established these routes
— exploration in the future

The three main ideas in paragraph #3:

— plants you can grow — vegetables
— fruits for the garden
— fresh air and exercise

© 2001 Margot Southall

63
Name: ___________________________ BLM 33

Concluding Paragraphs: Identify the Technique

• Read the concluding paragraphs below.

• Underline the three main ideas that are summarized.
• Identify which techniques the author used:
— a series of questions
— a description
— an anecdote

The blaring noises of the city and the harsh concrete buildings are replaced with the
sounds of birds singing and towering canopies of green trees. The fresh, clean air fills
your lungs and the sunshine warms your face. There is nothing as restful as a camping
trip in our national parks.

Technique used: __________________________________________

When the first explorers arrived in Canada, there were no paved highways and it could
take years to travel from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. Without the group of brave
men and women who established the transportation routes, the early settlers could not
have survived. Perhaps a hundred years from now astronauts and aquanauts will have
explored new frontiers to open the doors for a new kind of settlement.

Technique used: ___________________________________________

Do you enjoy fresh corn on the cob and sweet tomatoes straight from the vine? Does
the spring weather get you thinking about succulent fruits like strawberries and
watermelon? Can you imagine yourself digging and planting in the fresh air and
sunshine? Then start planning that garden so you can soon enjoy the benefits of fresh
foods right in your own backyard.

Technique used: ___________________________________________

© 2001 Margot Southall

64
Name: ___________________________ BLM 35

Concluding Paragraphs: Revise a Boring Conclusion

• Read this concluding paragraph. It sums up the main ideas in a boring way.
• List the topic and the three main ideas.

Like I said, it would be very difficult to live in a world without electricity. I would really
miss having a CD player, television, and a computer.

The topic is _________________________

The three main ideas are _____________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

• Revise the concluding paragraph by using a series of questions. Remember to include a

suggestion for each main idea.

_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

© 2001 Margot Southall

68
Name: ___________________________ BLM 1

Pre-writing Planner

Introduction ____________________________________________________________________________
Lead/
Thesis ____________________________________________________________________________
Statement
____________________________________________________________________________

Body
Main Idea #1 ____________________________________________________________________________

Detail #1: ____________________________________________________________________________

Detail #2: ____________________________________________________________________________

Detail #3: ____________________________________________________________________________

Main Idea #2 ____________________________________________________________________________

Detail #1: ____________________________________________________________________________

Detail #2: ____________________________________________________________________________

Detail #3: ____________________________________________________________________________

Main Idea #3 ____________________________________________________________________________

Detail #1: ____________________________________________________________________________

Detail #2: ____________________________________________________________________________

Detail #3: ____________________________________________________________________________

Conclusion ____________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

© 2001 Margot Southall

6
Name: ___________________________ BLM 2

The Dragon
If you travel to many parts of the world you will find stories of giant, flying reptiles. These strange
creatures are called dragons. The word “dragon” is from the Greek word for serpent. In some
places, dragons may have two heads, but they all have wings like a bat and the scales of a
reptile. It is interesting that the dragon can be friendly or evil depending on whether it is from
China or Europe.
The dragon in Chinese myths was usually friendly and able to bring you good fortune. It was
important to please the dragon because it could control the weather. An angry dragon could
cause a flood, drought, or even an eclipse of the sun. The Chinese farmers tried to please the
dragon so they could get the rain they needed for their crops. This is why you can still see the
dragon in Chinese New Year parades.
On the other side of the world we find a very different type of dragon. The dragons in stories
from England are evil, ugly, fire-breathing creatures. They often live in caves and might guard
a treasure. Some of the most famous stories describe how brave knights saved beautiful
princesses from wicked dragons. The most famous English legend is the tale of Saint George
and the Dragon, which tells the story of how Saint George killed a dragon that had grabbed a
beautiful girl.
In Scandinavia they also wrote about aggressive, evil dragons. Viking myths tell us about
dragons that guarded the places where the warriors were buried. The dragon was a symbol of
war for the Vikings. To scare their enemies, the Vikings painted pictures of fierce-looking
dragons on their shields and on the prows of their ships.
It is interesting that people see dragons in very different ways in the East and the West. The
question is why do these stories even exist? They describe a creature that has never been
discovered. Many people wonder why the dragons in these legends look so much like
dinosaurs when people didn’t even know dinosaurs existed in those days. Is it just a
coincidence or did the dragon really roam the Earth hundreds of years ago?

© 2001 Margot Southall

7
Name: ___________________________ BLM 3

The Dragon — Analysis

1. Number each paragraph.

2. Write the word “Introduction” above the introductory paragraph.

3. Circle the lead sentence in the introduction.

4. Draw a box around the thesis statement in the introduction.

5. Write the word “Conclusion” above the concluding paragraph.

6. Read paragraphs 2, 3, and 4. Underline the main idea (topic) sentence in each of these
paragraphs.

7. Summarize paragraphs 2, 3, and 4 in one or two words. In the left margin, write these words
next to the appropriate paragraph.

8. List three supporting details that describe the dragon in stories from England:

a) _____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

b) _____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

c) _____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

9. If you wanted to find out what the Chinese thought of dragons, which paragraph would
you skim? ________________

10. What is this piece of writing all about? ___________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

© 2001 Margot Southall

8
Name: ___________________________ BLM 4

The Invention of Foods

Have you ever wondered where all those new foods on the supermarket shelf come from?
Hundreds of new foods are invented every year, and each one is the result of an inventor at
work. Potato chips, chewing gum, and peanut butter are three popular foods that were
invented here in North America.
Today, potato chips are the biggest selling snack food in Canada. The average Canadian
eats about 4.5 kilograms of potato chips every year. Sometimes inventions happen by
accident. This is how the potato chip was invented about 150 years ago by a chef named
George Crumb. One night a customer at the restaurant asked George to make the potatoes
thinner and George cut them as thin as paper and fried them in oil. The customer loved them
and the idea soon caught on. But it wasn’t until a potato peeling machine was invented that
potato chips could be made in factories and sold all over North America.
Imagine a chewing gum made from tree sap. The earliest chewing gum was invented by the
Aboriginal peoples, who used the resin from the black spruce tree for a kind of chewy snack.
The Aboriginal peoples shared this idea with the pioneers who settled in North America. In
1850, John Curtis decided to turn this idea into a chewing gum business. He cooked the gum
until it was thick, rolled it out, and cut it into small pieces. They called it “pure spruce gum.” It
wasn’t until 1906 that the first bubble gum was invented. It was called “blibber-blubber.”
Today there are over a hundred different kinds of bubble gum and new flavours are always
being invented.
It’s hard to believe that four out of every five homes in Canada has peanut butter in the
cupboard. Peanut butter was invented by a doctor from St. Louis, U.S.A. in 1890. He wanted to
give his patients a high-protein food that was easy to digest. There are eight grams of protein
in two tablespoons of peanut butter. It also contains some vitamins and minerals. Now there
are lots of factories that make peanut butter and this sticky food is the most common
sandwich filling in children’s lunches. What kind is your favourite, smooth or chunky?
Our food is always changing thanks to inventors who continue to think up new foods. So go
ahead, crunch that potato chip, chew that gum, and spread the peanut butter! Perhaps
someday you will create a food of your own.

© 2001 Margot Southall

9
Name: ___________________________ BLM 5

The Invention of Foods — Analysis

1. Number each paragraph.

2. Write the word “Introduction” above the introductory paragraph.

3. Circle the lead sentence in the introduction.

4. Draw a box around the thesis statement in the introduction.

5. Write the word “Conclusion” above the concluding paragraph.

6. Read paragraphs 2, 3, and 4. Underline the main idea (topic) sentence in each of these
paragraphs.

7. Summarize paragraphs 2, 3, and 4 in one or two words. In the left margin, write these words
next to the appropriate paragraph.

8. List three supporting details that explain how chewing gum was invented:

a) _____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

b) _____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

c) _____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

9. If you wanted to find a statistic or number fact about a food, which paragraph would you
skim? ________________

10. What is this piece of writing all about? ___________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

© 2001 Margot Southall

10
Manuscript Form 34
This chapter will describe manuscript from: the required format for any
paper you hand in.

KEY TERMS
format: the formal characteristics of a manuscript, comprising
such things as paper size, margins, spacing, and font.
manuscript: literally, a paper written by hand; in this text, any
paper handed in for a grade.

When you hand in a paper for any course, it will probably be judged
first by its format. It is important, then, to make the paper look attrac-
tive, neat, and easy to read. Here is a checklist you should use when
preparing a paper for an instructor:
[Link]/langan
• Is the paper full-size, 8½ by 11 inches?
• Are there wide margins (1 to 1½ inches) all around the
paper? In particular, have you been careful not to crowd the
right-hand or bottom margin?
• If the paper is handwritten, have you
Used a blue or black pen?
Been careful not to overlap letters or to make decorative
loops on letters?
Made all your letters distinct, with special attention
to a, e, i, o, and u—five letters that people sometimes
write illegibly?
Kept all your capital letters clearly distinct from small
letters?
• Have you centered the title of your paper on the first line of
page 1? Have you been careful not to put quotation marks
542 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

around the title and not to underline it? Have you capitalized all the
words in the title except short connecting words like of, for, the, and, in,
and to?
• Have you skipped a line between the title and the first line of your
paper?
• Have you indented the first line of each paragraph about five spaces
(half an inch) from the left-hand margin?
• Have you made commas, periods, and other punctuation marks firm and
clear? If you are typing, have you left a double space after a period?
• If you have broken any words at the end of a line, have you been careful
to break only between syllables?
• Have you put your name, the date, and other information at the end of
the paper (or wherever your instructor has specified)?
Also ask yourself these important questions about the title and the first sentence
of your paper:
• Is your title made up of several words that tell what the paper is about?
(The title should be just several words, not a complete sentence.)
• Does the first sentence of your paper stand independent of the title?
(The reader should not have to use the words in the title to make sense
of the opening sentence.)

Use the checklist to locate the seven mistakes in format in the following lines
Activity from a student paper. Explain the mistakes in the spaces provided. One mistake is
described for you as an example.
1
“Being alone”
This is something that I simply cannot tolerate, and I will predi-
ctably go to great lengths to prevent it. For example, if I know that

1. Hyphenate only between syllables (predict-ably,not predi-ctably).

2.
3.
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

7.
5.
4.

6.
Chapter 34 Manuscript Form
543
 35 Capital Letters
This chapter will describe
• the main uses of capital letters

• secondary uses of capital letters

• unnecessary use of capital letters

INCORRECT:
The Bank is located on the corner.
“The” is capitalized correctly because it appears at the beginning
of the sentence, but “bank” is not the building’s official, specific
name.

CORRECT:
The bank is located on the corner.
“The” is capitalized to start the sentence, but “bank” is left
lowercase.

Main Uses of Capital Letters

Capital letters are used with
[Link]/langan 1. First word in a sentence or direct quotation
2. Names of persons and the word I
3. Names of particular places
4. Names of days of the week, months, and holidays
5. Names of commercial products
6. Titles of books, magazines, newspapers, articles, stories, poems,
films, television shows, songs, papers that you write, and the
like
7. Names of companies, associations, unions, clubs, religious and
political groups, and other organizations
Each use is illustrated in this chapter.
 Chapter 35 Capital Letters 545

First Word in a Sentence or Direct Quotation

The corner grocery was robbed last night.
The alien said, “Take me to your leader.”
“If you need help,” said Teri, “call me. I’ll be over in no time.”
In the third example above, If and I’ll are capitalized because they start new
sentences. But call is not capitalized, because it is part of the first sentence.

Names of Persons and the Word I

Last night, I saw Elf, a hilarious movie starring Will Ferrell and James Caan.
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Names of Particular Places and Institutions

Although Bill dropped out of Port Charles High School, he eventually earned
his degree and got a job with Atlas Realty Company.

But Use small letters if the specific name is not given.

Although Bill dropped out of high school, he eventually earned his degree and
got a job with a real estate company.

Names of Days of the Week, Months, and Holidays

On the last Friday afternoon in May, the day before Memorial Day, my boss is
having a barbecue for all the employees.

But Use small letters for the seasons—summer, fall, winter, spring.
Most people feel more energetic in the spring and fall.

Names of Commercial Products

Keith installed a new Sony stereo and a Motorola cell phone into his old Ford
Ranger pickup.

But Use small letters for the type of product (stereo, cell phone, pickup, and so on).
546 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

Titles of Books, Magazines, Newspapers, Articles,

Stories, Poems, Films, Television Shows, Songs,
Papers That You Write, and the Like
We read the book Hiroshima, by John Hersey, for our history class.
In the doctor’s waiting room, I watched All My Children, read an article in
Reader’s Digest, and leafed through the Miami Herald.

Names of Companies, Associations, Unions,

Clubs, Religious and Political Groups,
and Other Organizations
Joe Naples is a Roman Catholic, but his wife is a Methodist.
The Hilldale Square Dancers’ Club has won many competitions.
Brian, a member of Bricklayers Local 431 and the Knights of Columbus,
works for Ace Construction.

Underline the words that need capitals in the following sentences. Then write the
Activity capitalized form of each word in the space provided. The number of spaces tells
you how many corrections to make in each case.
1
EXAMPLE

In our biology class, each student must do a report on an article in the maga-
zine scientific american. Scientific American

1. Leon’s collection of beatles souvenirs includes a pair of tickets from their last
concert in candlestick park in San Francisco.

2. Yumi read in natural health magazine that abraham lincoln suffered from se-
vere depression.

3. When i have a cold, I use vicks ointment and chew listerine lozenges.
 Chapter 35 Capital Letters 547

4. Since no man volunteered for the job, the boy scouts in springfield, illinois,
have a woman troop leader.

5. A nature trail for the blind in cape cod, massachusetts, has signs written in
Braille that encourage visitors to smell and touch the plants.

6. Some of the most popular items at a restaurant called big river are chilean sea
bass and atlantic clam chowder.
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

7. We visited several theme parks in orlando, florida , including disney

world.

8. Stan was a big eater. For lunch he had a mcdonald’s quarter-pounder, a big
mac and a large coke.

9. Vince listened to a U2 album called The Joshua Tree while Donna read an
article in glamour titled “What Do men Really want?”

10. After having her baby, joan received a card from one of her friends that read,
“congratulations, we all knew you had it in you.”

Other Uses of Capital Letters

Capital letters are used with
1. Names that show family relationships [Link]/langan
2. Titles of persons when used with their names
3. Specific school courses
4. Languages
5. Geographic locations
6. Historical periods and events
548 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

7. Races, nations, and nationalities

8. Opening and closing of a letter
Each use is illustrated on the following pages.

Names That Show Family Relationships

All his life, Father has been addicted to gadgets.
I browsed through Grandmother’s collection of old photographs.
Aunt Florence and Uncle Bill bought a mobile home.

But Do not capitalize words like mother, father, grandmother, grandfather, uncle,
aunt, and so on when they are preceded by a possessive word (such as my, your,
his, her, our, their).
All his life, my father has been addicted to gadgets.
I browsed through my grandmother’s collection of old photographs.
My aunt and uncle bought a mobile home.

Titles of Persons When Used with Their Names

I contributed to Senator McGrath’s campaign fund.
Is Dr. Gomez on vacation?
Professor Adams announced that there would be no tests in the course.

But Use lowercase letters when titles appear by themselves, without specific
names.
I contributed to my senator’s campaign fund.
Is the doctor on vacation?
The professor announced that there would be no tests in the course.

Specific School Courses

The college offers evening sections of Introductory Psychology I, Abnormal
Psychology, Psychology and Statistics, and Educational Psychology.
But Use lowercase letters for general subject areas.
The college offers evening sections of many psychology courses.

Languages
My grandfather’s Polish accent makes his English difficult to understand.
 Chapter 35 Capital Letters 549

Geographic Locations
He grew up in the Midwest but moved to the South to look for a better job.

But Use lowercase letters in directions.

Head west for five blocks and then turn south on State Street.

Historical Periods and Events

During the Middle Ages, the Black Death killed over one-quarter of
Europe’s population.
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Races, Nations, and Nationalities

The questionnaire asked whether the head of our household was Caucasian,
African American, Asian, Latino, or Native American.
Tanya has lived on army bases in Germany, Italy, and Spain.
Denise’s beautiful features reflect her Chinese and Mexican parentage.

Opening and Closing of a Letter

Dear Sir: Sincerely yours,
Dear Ms. Henderson: Truly yours,
Capitalize only the first word in a closing.

Underline the words that need capitals in the following sentences. Then write the
capitalized forms of each words in the spaces provided. The number of spaces tells Activity
you how many corrections to make in each case.
2
1. The boston tea party was an act of defiance against the british government’s
policy of taxation in the american colonies.

2. On their job site in korea, the french, swiss, and chinese coworkers used
English to communicate.

3. When uncle harvey got the bill from his doctor, he called the American Medi-
cal Association to complain.
550 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

4. Dr. Freeling of the business department is offering a new course called intro-
duction to web design.

5. A new restaurant featuring vietnamese cuisine has just opened on the south
side of the city.

Unnecessary Use of Capitals

Many errors occur when capitalization is used when it is not needed. Work-
Activity ing with a fellow classmate, underline the incorrectly capitalized words in
the following sentences, and write the correct forms in the spaces provided.
3 The number of spaces tells you how many corrections to make in each
sentence.
1. George Washington’s Forces starved at Valley Forge because Pennsylvania
Farmers preferred to sell food to the British for cash.

2. Minnesota is bordered by the Canadian Provinces of Manitoba and Ontario

to the North, by Wisconsin to the East, and by North and South Dakota to the
West.

3. North America is the World’s third largest Continent. It includes Canada,

the United States, Mexico, the Countries of Central America, and the island
Nations of the Caribbean.

4. In his Book titled Offbeat Museums, Saul Rubin tells about various Unusual
Museums, such as the Kansas Barbed Wire Museum.

5. Einstein’s theory of relativity, which he developed when he was only twenty-six,

led to the invention of the Electron Microscope, Television, and the Atomic
bomb.
 Chapter 35 Capital Letters 551

Review Test 1
Add capitals where needed in the following sentences.
EXAMPLE
W U
In an injured tone, Mary demanded, “why wasn’t uncle Lou invited to the
party?”
1. The white house is located at 1600 pennsylvania avenue in washington, d.c.
2. My favorite movie is the godfather, starring al pacino and marlon brando.
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

3. Insects living in mammoth cave in kentucky include blind crickets, spiders,

and flies.
4. For practical purposes, the american civil war ended when general robert e.
lee surrendered to general ulysses s. grant at appomatox on April 9, 1865.
5. In an old movie, an attractive young lady invites groucho marx to join her.
6. “why?” asks groucho. “are you coming apart?”
7. I was halfway to the wash & dry Laundromat on elm street when i realized
that my box of tide was still home on the kitchen counter.
8. Although I know that mother loves holidays, even I was surprised when she
announced a party in february to celebrate groundhog day.
9. Rolling stone magazine features an article about plans to remake the Al-
fred Hitchcock classic the birds and a review of a new biography about elvis
presley.
10. Celebrities have earned big money by endorsing products, including nike
shoes, trident gum, and jell-O pudding.

Review Test 2
On separate paper, write

1. Seven sentences demonstrating the seven main uses of capital letters.

2. Eight sentences demonstrating the eight other uses of capital letters.
20
This chapter will
Writing a Résumé
and Cover Letter

provide
• a sample résumé
and cover letter
• points to note when
writing a résumé
and cover letter
© Kayte M. Deioma/PhotoEdit

Write an essay about your first job interview. What was the job
for? Did the interview go well? How did you feel before, during,
and after the interview? Is there anything you would have done
differently?

When applying for a job through the mail, you should ordinarily send
(1) a résumé and (2) a cover letter.

Résumé
A résumé is a summary of your personal background and your quali-
fications. It helps potential employers see at a glance whether you are
suited for a job opening. Two sample job résumés follow: a chronologi-
cal résumé for someone just out of college; and a functional résumé for
a more experienced person.
 Chapter 20 Writing a Résumé and Cover Letter 413

Chronological Résumé

ERIC KURLAND
27 Hawkins Road
Clarksboro, New Jersey 08020
609-723-2166
Ekurland@[Link]
Professional A challenging position in the computer technology field.
objective
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Education 2005 to present: Rowan University, Glassboro, New Jersey

Degree: B.S. (in June)

Major Introduction to Computer Science I and II

courses Data Structures and Algorithms I and II
Programming Languages
Programming in Pascal
Assembly Language
Operating Systems I and II

Related Introduction to Discrete Mathematics I and II

courses Calculus I and II
Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management
Organizational Behavior

Special Chaired study group that advised local business on

school advantages of installing computerized payroll system.
project The group projected comparative cost figures, developed a
time-sharing purchase plan, and prepared a budget.

Work 2007 to present: Salesperson at Radio Shack

experience Interact with customers, maintain inventory control, repair
equipment. Wrote computer program in Visual Basic
that demonstrates multimedia aspects of Dell Inspiron
Laptop T6400 for use in homes and small businesses.

2003–2006: Word processor, theater usher, and child-care

aide.
(continued)
414 Part 3 Special Skills

Skills Mastery of computer languages: C++, Visual Basic, Pascal,

and COBOL. Excellent math skills. Detail-oriented, relate
easily to coworkers and customers, and show initiative for
problem-solving.

References Available upon request from Rowan University Placement

Office, Glassboro, New Jersey 08028.

Functional Résumé

MOLLY CORNELL
9061 Shadow Glen Way
Fort Myers, FL 33966
239-973-0987
Mcornell@[Link]
Objective Instructional designer in corporate training and development

Summary of
Qualifications
• Write successful proposals that have secured $10 million
in training contracts.
• Design and deliver successful training programs tailored
to needs of IT professionals and sales personnel in the
pharmaceutical and telecommunication industries.
• Able to address complex training issues and diverse
client needs.
• Knowledge of all major design software programs
including Microsoft Publisher, Lotus Notes, and ACT.

Professional
Experience
• Created 13 new distance learning programs, which
increased client participation by between 15 and
30 percent.
• Designed a new product line that secured a two-year
training contract with Merck, Inc.
(continued)
 Chapter 20 Writing a Résumé and Cover Letter 415

• Supervised delivery of two training programs for

Verizon, Inc., which resulted in renewal of major contract.
• Wrote six proposals for new business that brought in
$8 million in increased revenue for 2006–2008.

Employment
History
2006 to present: Assistant Director of Training, Acme
Consultants, Fort Myers, FL
2005–2006: Proposal Writer, Instructional Design Systems,
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Alexandria, VA
Education 2005 to present: Completing MS in Instructional Design,
Freewald Online University, Minneapolis, MN
2000: BA in Technical Writing, St. Bonaventure University,
St. Bonaventure, NY
3.75/4.0 GPA

Special Skills Speak and read Russian.

References Provided upon request.

Points to Note about the Résumé

1. Your résumé, along with your cover letter, is your introduction to a
potential employer. First impressions count, so make the resume neat!
a. Prepare your résumé on a computer. This way you can change it [Link]/langan
easily if the need arises. Print it on good-quality letter paper (8½ by
11 inches).
b. Proofread very carefully for sentence-skills and spelling mistakes.
A potential employer will see such mistakes as signs of carelessness.
In addition, get someone else to proofread the résumé for you.
c. Be brief and to the point; limit it to one page if possible.
d. Use a format like that of the model résumés (consider also the
variations described below). Balance the résumé on the page so that
you have roughly the same margins on all sides.
e. Start with the most recent education/employment experience and
work backward in time.
416 Part 3 Special Skills

2. Point out strengths, not weaknesses. Don’t include “Special Training”

if you have had none. Don’t refer to your grade-point average if it is less
than a B. On the other hand, include a main heading like “Extracurricular
Activities” if the activities or awards seem relevant. For example, if Eric
Kurland had been vice president of the Computer Club in college he
should have mentioned that.
If you have no work experience related to the job for which you’re
applying, list the jobs you have had. Any job that shows a period of
responsible employment may favorably impress a potential employer.
3. List the names of references on the résumé, but get the permission of
people you cite before including their names. You can also give the
address of a placement office file that holds references, as shown on Eric
Kurland’s résumé. Or you can simply say that you will provide references
on request, as Molly Cornell did.

Cover Letter
The purpose of the cover letter that goes with your résumé is to introduce yourself
briefly and to try to make an employer interested in you. You should include only
the high points of the information in your résumé.
Following is the cover letter that Eric Kurland sent with his résumé.

27 Hawkins Road
Clarksboro, New Jersey 08020
May 13, 2009
Mr. George C. Arline
Personnel Manager, Indesco Associates
301 Sharptown Road
White Plains, New York 10019

Dear Mr. Arline:

I would like to be considered as a candidate for the assistant computer
programmer position advertised in the Philadelphia Inquirer on April 28,
2009.
I am currently finishing my degree in Computer Science at Rowan
University. I have taken every required computer course offered at Rowan
and have a solid background in the following computer languages: C++,
Visual Basic, Pascal, and COBOL. In addition to my computer background, I
have supplemented my education with business and mathematics courses.
(continued)
 Chapter 20 Writing a Résumé and Cover Letter 417

My knowledge of computers and the business field goes beyond my

formal classroom education. For the past three years I have worked part-
time at Radio Shack, where I have gained experience in sales and inventory
control. Also, on my own initiative, I designed a demonstration program
for the Compaq Presario 5062 and developed promotional fliers about the
program.
In short, I believe I have the up-to-date computer background and
professional drive needed to contribute to your organization. I have
enclosed a copy of my résumé to give you further details about my
experience. Sometime next week, I’ll give you a call to see whether I can
come in for an interview at your convenience. I look forward to speaking
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

with you then.

Sincerely,
Eric Kurland
Eric Kurland

Points to Note about the Cover Letter

1. Your letter should do the following:
a. In the first paragraph, state that you are an applicant for a job and
identify the source through which you learned about the job. [Link]/langan
Here is how Eric Kurland’s letter might have opened if his source had
been the college placement office: “I learned through the placement office
at Rowan University of the assistant computer programmer position at
your company. I would like to be considered as a candidate for the job.”
Sometimes an ad will list only a box number (such as Y 172) to reply
to. Your inside address should then be:

Y 172
Philadelphia Inquirer
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19101

Dear Sir or Madam:

b. In the second paragraph, briefly state your qualifications for the job
and refer the reader to your résumé.
c. In the last paragraph, state your willingness to come for an interview.
If you can be available for an interview only at certain times,
indicate this.
 418 Part 3 Special Skills

2. As with your résumé, neatness is crucial. Follow the same hints for the
letter that you did for the résumé.
a. Print the letter on good paper.
b. Proofread very carefully for sentence-skills mistakes and spelling
mistakes. Use the checklist of sentence skills on the inside back cover.
c. Be brief and to the point: use no more than one page.
d. Use a format like the model letter. Keep roughly the same margin on
all sides.
e. Use punctuation and spelling in the model letter as a guide. For
example:
(1) Skip two spaces between the inside address and the salutation
(“Dear Mr. Arline”).
(2) Use a colon after the salutation.
(3) Sign your name at the bottom, in addition to typing it.

Clip a job listing from a newspaper or copy a job description posted in your school
Activity placement office. The job should be one that you feel you are qualified for or that
you would one day like to have.
1 Write a résumé and a cover letter for the job. Use the models already considered
as guides.
Use the checklist on the inside back cover as a guide in your writing.

[Link]/langan
 42 Commonly Confused Words
This chapter will list homonyms and other commonly confused words
and provide activities to help you learn to distinguish them.

KEY TERM
homonym: words such as brake and break that have the same
sounds but different meanings.

Homonyms
Some words are commonly confused because they have the same sounds
but different meanings and spellings; such words are known as hom-
[Link]/langan onyms. Following are a number of homonyms. Complete the activity for
each set of words. Check off and study the words that give you trouble.
all ready completely prepared
already previously; before
It was already four o’clock by the time I thought about lunch.
My report was all ready, but the class was canceled.
Fill in the blanks: Tyrone was to sign up for the
course when he discovered that it had closed.
brake stop
break come apart
The mechanic advised me to add brake fluid to my car.
During a commercial break, Marie lay on the floor and did fifty
sit-ups.
Fill in the blanks: Tim, a poor driver, would always at
the last minute and would sometimes almost the mirror
or windshield as well.
course part of a meal; a school subject; direction
coarse rough
 Chapter 42 Commonly Confused Words 595

At the movies, I tried to decide on a course of action that would put an end to
the coarse language of the man behind me.
Fill in the blanks: Over the of time, jagged, rocks
will be polished to smoothness by the pounding waves.

hear perceive with the ear

here in this place
I can hear the performers so well from here that I don’t want to change my
seat.
Fill in the blanks: The chairperson explained that the meeting was being held
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

in the auditorium to enable everyone to the debate.

hole an empty spot

whole entire
A hole in the crumbling brick mortar made a convenient home for a small bird
and its whole family.
Fill in the blanks: The in Dave’s argument wouldn’t exist if he put
his concentration into his thinking.

its belonging to it
it’s shortened form (contraction) of “it is” or “it has”
The tall giraffe lowered its head (the head belonging to the giraffe) to the level
of the car window and peered in at us.
It’s (it is) too late to sign up for the theater trip to New York.
Fill in the blanks: I decided not to take the course because too
easy; content offers no challenge whatsoever.

knew understood; past form of know

new not old
No one knew our new phone number, but the obscene calls continued.
Fill in the blanks: Even people who Charlie well didn’t recognize
him with his beard.
596 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

know to understand
no a negative
By the time students complete that course, they know two computer languages
and have no trouble writing their own programs.
Fill in the blanks: Dogs and cats usually by the tone of the speaker’s
voice when they are being told .

passed went by; succeeded in; handed to

past a time before the present; by, as in “I drove past the house”
As Yvonne passed exit six on the interstate, she knew she had gone past the
correct turnoff.
Fill in the blanks: Lewis asked for a meeting with his boss to learn why he had
been over for promotion twice in the year.

peace calm
piece a part
The best piece of advice she ever received was to maintain her own inner
peace.
Fill in the blanks: Upon hearing that of music, my angry mood
was gradually replaced by one of .

plain simple
plane aircraft
The plain box contained a very expensive model plane kit.
Fill in the blanks: After unsuccessfully trying to overcome her fear, Selena finally
admitted the truth: she was terrified of flying in a .

principal main; a person in charge of a school

principle a law or standard
If the principal ingredient in this stew is octopus, I’ll abandon my principle of
trying everything at least once.
Fill in the blanks: Our insists that all students adhere to every
school regarding dress, tardiness, and smoking.
 Chapter 42 Commonly Confused Words 597

right correct; opposite of “left”

write to put words on paper
Without the right amount of advance planning, it is difficult to write a good
research paper.
Fill in the blanks: Connie wanted to send for the CDs offered on TV, but she could
not fast enough to get all the information down
before the commercial ended.

than (thăn) used in comparisons

(thĕn) at that time
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

then

I made more money then, but I’ve never been happier than I am now.
Fill in the blanks: When I was in high school, I wanted a racy two-seater convert-
ible more anything else; but my friends pointed out
that only one person would be able to ride with me.

their belonging to them

there at that place; a neutral word used with verbs like is, are, was, were,
have, and had
they’re contraction of “they are”
The tenants there are complaining because they’re being cheated by their
landlord.
Fill in the blanks: The tomatoes I planted in the back of the garden
are finally ripening, but bright red color will attract hungry rac-
coons, and I fear going to be eaten.

threw past form of throw

through from one side to the other; finished
As the inexperienced pizza-maker threw the pie into the air, he punched a hole
through its thin crust.
Fill in the blanks: As the president moved slowly the cheering
crowd, the Secret Service agent suddenly himself at a man waving
a small metal object.
598 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

to verb part, as in to smile; toward, as in “I’m going to heaven.”

too overly, as in “The pizza was too hot”; also, as in “The coffee was hot,
too.”
two the number 2
I ran to the car to roll up the windows. (The first to means “toward”; the second
to is a verb part that goes with roll.)
That amusement park is too far away; I hear that it’s expensive, too (The first
too means “overly”; the second too means “also.”)
The two players (2 players) jumped up to tap the basketball away.
Fill in the blanks: The of them have been dating for a year, but
lately they seem be arguing often to pretend nothing
is wrong.

wear to have on
where in what place
Where I will wear a purple feather boa is not the point; I just want to buy it.
Fill in the blanks: were we going the night I refused to
a tie?

weather atmospheric conditions

whether if it happens that; in case; if
Although meteorologists are weather specialists, even they can’t predict
whether a hurricane will change course.
Fill in the blanks: The gloomy report in the paper this morning
ended all discussion of to pack a picnic lunch for later.

whose belonging to whom

who’s contraction of “who is” and “who has”
“Who’s the patient whose filling fell out?” the dentist’s assistant asked.
Fill in the blanks: the salesperson customers are
always complaining about his high-pressure tactics?

your belonging to you

you’re contraction of “you are”
 Chapter 42 Commonly Confused Words 599

You’re making a fool of yourself; your Elvis imitation isn’t funny.

Fill in the blanks: If having trouble filling out tax
return, why don’t you call the IRS’s toll-free hot line?

Other Words Frequently Confused

Not all frequently confused words are homonyms. Here is a list of other words that
people often confuse. Complete the activities for each set of words. Check off and
study the words that give you trouble.
a, an Both a and an are used before other words to mean, approximately, “one.”
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Generally you should use an before words starting with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or a
vowel sound:
an orange an umbrella an indication an ape an effort
an hour an Xray
Generally you should use a before words starting with a consonant (all other letters)
or a consonant sound:
a genius a movie a speech a study a typewriter
a unique a useless
Fill in the blanks: The morning after the party, I had pounding
headache and upset stomach.
accept (ǎk sěpt′) to receive; agree to
except ( ı̆ k sěpt′) excluding; but
It was easy to accept the book’s plot, except for one unlikely coincidence at
the very end.
Fill in the blanks: Ved would the position, that
it would add twenty minutes to his daily commute.
advice (ǎd vı̄s′) noun meaning “an opinion”
advise (ǎd vı̄z′) verb meaning “to counsel, to give advice”
I have learned not to take my sister’s advice on straightening out my life.
A counselor can advise you about the courses you’ll need next year.
Fill in the blanks: Karen is so troubled about losing her job that I will
her to seek the of a professional counselor.
600 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

affect (uh fěkt′) verb meaning “to influence”

effect ( ı̆ fěkt′) verb meaning “to cause something”; noun meaning
“result”
The bad weather will definitely affect the outcome of the election.
If we can effect a change in George’s attitude, he may do better in his
courses.
One effect of the strike will be dwindling supplies in the supermarkets.
Fill in the blanks: Scientists have studied the of large quan-
tities of saccharine on lab animals but have yet to learn how similar amounts
human beings.

among implies three or more

between implies only two
After the team of surgeons consulted among themselves, they decided that the
bullet was lodged between two of the patient’s ribs.
Fill in the blanks: halves, one enthusiastic fan stood up
his equally fanatic friends and took off his coat and shirt.

beside along the side of

besides in addition to
Besides doing daily inventories, I have to stand beside the cashier whenever
the store gets crowded.
Fill in the blanks: those books on the table, I plan to use these
magazines stacked me while doing my research paper.

fewer used with things that can be counted

less refers to amount, value, or degree
I’ve taken fewer classes this semester, so I hope to have less trouble finding
time to study.

Fill in the blanks: This beer advertises that it has calories and is
filling.

former refers to the first of two items named

latter refers to the second of two items named
 Chapter 42 Commonly Confused Words 601

Sue yelled at her sons, Greg and John, when she got home; the former (Greg)
had left the refrigerator open and the latter (John) had left wet towels all over
the bathroom.
Fill in the blanks: Eddy collects coupons and parking tickets; the
saves him money and the is going to cost him a great deal of
money someday.

learn to gain knowledge

teach to give knowledge
I can’t learn a new skill unless someone with lots of patience teaches me.
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Fill in the blanks: Because she is quick to new things, Mandy has
offered to me how to play the latest video games.
—
loose (loos) not fastened; not tight-fitting
—
lose (looz) to misplace; fail to win
In this strong wind, the house may lose some of its loose roof shingles.
Fill in the blanks: A wire in the television set was causing us to
the picture.

quiet (kwı̄′ ı̆t) peaceful

quite (kwı̄t) entirely; really; rather
Jennifer seems quiet and demure, but she has quite a temper at times.
Fill in the blanks: Most people think the library is a good place to
study, but I find the extreme distracting.

These sentences check your understanding of its, it’s; there, their, they’re; to, too,
two; and your, you’re. Underline the two incorrect spellings in each sentence. Then Activity
spell the words correctly in the spaces provided.
1
1. “Its not a very good idea,” yelled Alexandra’s boss, “to tell
you’re customer that the striped dress she plans to buy makes
her look like a pregnant tiger.”
602 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

2. You’re long skirt got stuck in the car door, and now its
sweeping the highway.
3. When your young, their is a tendency to confuse a crush with
true love.
4. After too hours of typing, Lin was to tired to type any
longer.
5. In its’ long history, the island of Sicily has been a colony of
Greece, a Norman kingdom, and an Arab emirate. Today, its
part of the Republic of Italy.
6. The vampires bought a knife sharpener in order too sharpen
there teeth.
7. Your never alone if your loved ones are in you’re
heart.
8. When the children get to quiet, Clare knows their getting
into trouble.
9. There friendship developed into love as the years passed, and
now, in midlife, their newlyweds.
10. It is to far to swim too Nantucket Island. The Massachusetts
mainland is twenty-five miles away.

Review Test 1
Underline the correct word in the parentheses. Rather than guessing, look back at
the explanations of the words when necessary.

1. I (know, no) that I need to manage my time better now that I am enrolled in
classes on (to, too, two) campuses, and I have to take public transportation.
2. (Whose, Who’s) the author of that book about the (affects, effects) of eating
(to, too, two) much protein?
3. In our supermarket is a counter (where, wear) (your, you’re) welcome to sit
down and have free coffee and doughnuts.
 Chapter 42 Commonly Confused Words 603

4. (Its, It’s) possible to (loose, lose) friends by constantly giving out unwanted
(advice, advise).
5. Some scientists don’t (accept, except) the theory that human behavior is
contributing to global warming more (than, then) ever before.
6. The (hole, whole) platoon of marines was recognized for valor after (braking,
breaking) (through, threw) enemy lines and saving the (lives, lifes) of five
hostages.
7. The newly appointed (principal, principle) is (quite, quiet) familiar with the
problems (hear, here) at our school.
8. I found that our cat had (all ready, already) had her kittens (among, between)
the weeds (beside, besides) the porch.
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

9. I (advice, advise) you not to take children to that movie; the special (affects,
effects) are (to, too, two) frightening.
10. There were (fewer, less) than one hundred trout let (lose, loose) in our state’s
rivers and streams; now there are thousands.

Review Test 2
On separate paper, write short sentences using the ten words shown below.
[Link]/langan
1. accept
2. its
3. you’re
4. too
5. then
6. course
7. their
8. passed
9. fewer
10. all ready
Editing Tests 44
This chapter will give you practice in editing, or revising, to correct
sentence-skills mistakes.

KEY TERMS
editing: revising to correct sentence-skills mistakes.
proofreading: carefully examining written text to correct typo-
graphical mistakes and other related errors.
proofreading symbols: shorthand notations intended to call
attention to typographical mistakes and other related errors.

The twelve editing tests in this chapter will give you practice in revis-
ing to correct sentence-skills mistakes. Remember that if you don’t edit
carefully, you run the risk of sabotaging much of the work you have put
into a paper. If readers see too many surface flaws, they may assume [Link]/langan
that you don’t place much value on what you have to say, and they may
not give your ideas a fair hearing. Revising to eliminate sentence-skills
errors is a basic part of clear, effective writing.
In five of the tests, the spots where errors occur have been under-
lined; your job is to identify and correct each error. In the rest of the
tests, you must locate as well as identify and correct the errors.
612 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

EDITING HINTS
1. Have at hand two essential tools: a good dictionary and a sentence-skills
handbook (you can use Chapter 5 and Part Four of this book).
2. Use a sheet of paper to cover your essay so that you will expose only
one sentence at a time. Look for errors in grammar, spelling, and typ-
ing. It may help to read each sentence out loud. If a sentence does not
read clearly and smoothly, chances are something is wrong.
3. Pay special attention to the kinds of errors you tend to make. For
example, if you tend to write run-ons or fragments, be especially on the
lookout for those errors.
4. Proofreading symbols that may be of particular help are the following:

omit draw two two conclusions

ˆ insert missing letter or word achieve

ˆ
cap, lc add a capital cap My english Class
/ lc
(or a lowercase) letter

Editing Test 1
In the spaces at the bottom, write the numbers of the ten word groups that contain
fragments or run-ons. Then, in the spaces between the lines and in the margin, edit
by making the necessary corrections.

1
I remember my childhood as being generally happy and can recall
experiencing some of the most carefree times of my life. 2 But I can also
remember, even more vividly, other moments. 3 When I was deeply frightened.
4
As a child, I was truly terrified of the dark and of getting lost. 5 These fears
were very real, they caused me some extremely uncomfortable moments.
6
Maybe it was the strange way things looked and sounded in my familiar
room at night. 7 That scared me so much. 8 The streetlight outside or passing
(continued)
 Chapter 44 Editing Tests 613

car lights would create shadows in my room. 9 As a result, clothes hung over
a chair taking on the shape of an unknown beast.
10
Out of the corner of my eye, I saw curtains move when there was no
breeze. 11 A tiny creak in the floor would sound a hundred times louder than
in daylight, my imagination would take over. 12 Creating burglars and monsters
on the prowl. 13 Because darkness always made me feel so helpless. 14 I would
lie there motionless so that the “enemy” would not discover me.
15
Another of my childhood fears was that I would get lost. 16 Especially
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

on the way home from school. 17 After school, all the buses lined up along
the curb, I was terrified that I’d get on the wrong one. 18 Scanning the bus
windows for the faces of my friends. 19 I’d also look to make sure that the bus
driver was the same one I had in the morning.

1. 3. 5. 7. 9.
2. 4. 6. 8. 10.

Editing Test 2
Identify the five mistakes in essay format in the student paper that follows. From
the box below, choose the letters that describe the five mistakes and write those
letters in the spaces provided. Then correct each mistake.

a. Title should not be underlined.

b. Title should not be set off in quotation marks.
c. There should not be a period at the end of a title.
d. All major words in a title should be capitalized.
e. Title should be a phrase, not a complete sentence.
f. First line of a paper should stand independent of the title.
g. One line should be skipped between title and first line of the paper.
h. First line of a paragraph should be indented.
i. Right-hand margin should not be crowded.
j. Hyphenation should occur only between syllables.
614 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

“eating in fast-food restaurants”

Doing so doesn’t have to be terrible for your health. Although I often
stop at Wendy’s or Burger King, I find ways to make healthful
choices there. For one thing, I order sandwiches that are as plain as
possible. A broiled hamburger or fish sandwich isn’t so bad for you,
as long as it isn’t covered with melted cheese, fatty sauces, bacon,
or other “extras” that pile on the fat and calories. Another health-
conscious choice is to skip deep-fat-fried potatoes loaded with salt
and heavy with cholesterol; instead, I’ll order a plain baked potato
from Wendy’s and add just a bit of butter and salt for taste. In
addition, I take advantage of healthy items on menus. For example,
most fast-food places now offer green salads and low-fat chicken
choices. And finally, I order a sensible beverage—ice water or a diet
soda—instead of soda or a milk shake.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Editing Test 3
Identify the ten sentence-skills mistakes at the underlined spots in the student
paper that follows. From the box below, choose the letter that describes each mis-
take and write that letter in the space provided. (The same kind of mistake may
appear more than once.) Then, in the spaces between the lines, edit and correct
each mistake.

a. fragment d. dangling modifier

b. run-on e. missing comma
c. inconsistent verb tense f. spelling mistake
 Chapter 44 Editing Tests 615

George Washington was a land surveyor during the French and Indian
1
Wars, he led the Virginia militia. Twenty years later, when the American

Revolution broke out. Washington commanded the Continental armies. In

2
1776, after blockading Boston, the city was taken from the British. Later,
3
however, Washington yielded New York City to the enemy, he retreated to
4
Pennsylvania. In December, he boosted the sagging morale of
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

his men crossing the Delaware River on Christmas night he attacks Trenton,
5 6
where Hessians (British allies) were stationed. Then went on to defeet a
7 8
British army at Princeton. In 1777–1788, the army spent a miserable winter at

Valley Forge Pennsylvania. Later, however, it defeated the British at

9
Monmouth, New Jersey. This battle marked a turning point. In 1781, by

winning the battle of Yorktown Washington brought the war to an end.

10

1. 3. 5. 7. 9.
2. 4. 6. 8. 10.

Editing Test 4
Identify the ten sentence-skills mistakes at the underlined spots in the student
paper that follows. From the box below, choose the letter that describes each mis-
take and write that letter in the space provided. (The same kind of mistake may
appear more than once.) Then, in the spaces between the lines, edit and correct
each mistake.
616 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

a. run-on e. wordiness
b. mistake in subject-verb agreement f. slang
c. faulty parallelism g. missing comma
d. missing quotation marks

It is this writer’s opinion that smokers should quit smoking for the sake of
1
those who are around them. Perhaps the most helpless creatures that suffer

from being near a smoker is unborn babies, one study suggests that the risk of
2 3
having an undersized baby is doubled if pregnant women are exposed to

cigarette smoke for about two hours a day. Pregnant women should refrain

from smoking and to avoid smoke-filled rooms. Spouses of smokers are also
4
in big trouble. They are more likely than spouses of nonsmokers to die of
5
heart disease and the development of fatal cancers. Office workers are a final
6
group that can be harmed by a smoke-filled environment. The U.S. Surgeon

General has said “Workers who smoke are a health risk to their coworkers.
7 8
While it is undoubtedly true that one can argue that smokers have the right
9
to hurt themselves they do not have the right to hurt others. Smokers should
10
abandon their deadly habit for the health of others at home and at work.

1. 3. 5. 7. 9.
2. 4. 6. 8. 10.
 Chapter 44 Editing Tests 617

Editing Test 5
Identify the ten sentence-skills mistakes at the underlined spots in the student paper
that follows. From the box below, choose the letter that describes each mistake and
write that letter in the space provided. (The same kind of mistake may appear more
than once.) Then, in the spaces between the lines, edit and correct each mistake.

a. fragment e. dangling modifier

b. run-on f. missing comma
c. mistake in subject-verb agreement g. wordiness
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

d. misplaced modifier h. slang

The United States will never be a drug-free society but we could eliminate
1
many of our drug-related problems by legalizing drugs. Drugs would be sold

by companies and not criminals if they were legal. The drug trade would then
2
take place like any business freeing the police and courts to devote their time
3
to other problems. Lawful drugs would be sold at a fair price, no one would
4
need to steal in order to buy them. By legalizing drugs, organized crime
5
would lose one of its major sources of revenue. It goes without saying that
6
we would, instead, create important tax revenues for the government. Finally,

if drugs was sold through legal outlets, we could reduce drug problems
7
among our young people. It would be illegal to sell drugs to people under

a certain age. Just as is the case now with alcohol. And because the profits
8
on drugs would no longer be out of sight, there would be little incentive
9
for drug pushers to sell to young people. Decriminalizing drugs, in short, could

be a solution. To many of the problems that result from the illegal drug trade.
10

1. 3. 5. 7. 9.
2. 4. 6. 8. 10.
618 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

Editing Test 6
Identify the sentence-skills mistakes at the underlined spots in the paper that
follows. From the box below, choose the letter that describes each mistake and
write that letter in the space provided. (The same kind of mistake may appear more
than once.) Then, in the spaces between the lines, edit and correct each mistake.

a. fragment e. mistake with quotation marks

b. run-on f. mistake in pronoun point of view
c. mistake in subject-verb g. spelling error
agreement h. missing comma
d. mistake in verb tense

One reason that I enjoy the commute to school is that the drive gives me

uninterupted time to myself. The classes and socializing at college is great,

1 2
and so is the time I spend with my family, but sometimes all this togetherness

keeps you from being able to think. In fact, I look forward to the time I have
3
alone, it gives me a chance to plan what I’ll accomplish in the day ahead.
4
For example, one Tuesday afternoon my history professor announces that a
5
rough outline for our semester report was due that Friday. Fortunatly, I had
6
already done some reading and I had checked my proposed topic with her the
7
week before. Therefore, on the way home in the car that evening. I planned
8
the entire history report in my mind. Then all I had to do when I got home was

quickly jot it down before I forgot it. When I handed the professor the outline
9
at 8:30 Wednesday morning. She asked me “if I had stayed up all night working
10
on it.” She was amazed when I told her that I owed it all to commuting.

1. 3. 5. 7. 9.
2. 4. 6. 8. 10.
 Chapter 44 Editing Tests 619

Editing Test 7
Identify the ten sentence-skills mistakes at the underlined spots in the student
paper that follows. From the box below, choose the letter that describes each mis-
take and write that letter in the space provided. (The same kind of mistake may
appear more than once.) Then, in the spaces between the lines, edit and correct
each mistake.

a. fragment e. missing capital letter

b. run-on f. dangling modifier
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

c. mistake in subject-verb g. homonym mistake

agreement h. missing apostrophe
d. missing comma i. cliché

At one time doctors believed that diseases generated spontaneously—

1
on their own. Louis Pasteur (1822–95), a french scientist, disproved that.
2
Demonstrating that germs cause many diseases. Pasteur worked like a dog
3 4
to convince doctors to sterilize their instruments and wash their hands

before delivering a baby. Pasteur new this would reduce the chances of
5
infection as a result, it would save the lives of many women who otherwise
6
would have died giving birth. Another of Pasteurs discoveries was a vaccine
7
for rabies. Retarding the progress of the disease, a boy bitten by a rabid dog

was saved. Finally, Pasteur is responsible for a process that stop the growth
8 9
of bacteria in wine and milk, it now bears his name: pasteurization.
10

1. 3. 5. 7. 9.
2. 4. 6. 8. 10.
620 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

Editing Test 8
Locate the ten sentence-skills mistakes in the following passage. The mistakes are
listed in the box below. As you locate each mistake, write the number of the word
group in the space provided. Then, in the space between the lines, edit and correct
each mistake.

1 fragment 1 missing comma after

1 run-on introductory material
1 mistake in verb tense 2 missing quotation
1 nonparallel structure marks
1 dangling modifier 1 missing apostrophe
1 mistake in pronoun point of
view

1
The greatest of my everyday fears is technology. 2 Beginning when I
couldn’t master bike riding and extending to the present day. 3 Fear kept me
from learning to operate a jigsaw, start an outboard motor, or even using a
simple tape recorder. 4 I almost didn’t learn to drive a car. 5 At age sixteen, Dad
lifted the hood of our Chevy and said, All right, you’re going to start learning
to drive. 6 Now, this is the distributor . . . 7 When my eyes glazed over, he
shouted, Well, I’m not going to bother if youre not interested! 8 Fortunately,
the friend who later taught me to drive skipped what goes on under the
hood. 9 My most recent frustration is the digital camera, I would love to take
professional-quality pictures, but all the buttons and tiny electronic menus
confuse me. 10 As a result, my unused camera is hidden away on a shelf in
my closet. 11 Just last week, my sister gives me a beautiful digital watch for
my birthday. 12 I may have to put it on the shelf with the camera—the alarm
keeps going off, and you can’t figure out how to stop it.
 Chapter 44 Editing Tests 621

Editing Test 9
Locate the ten sentence-skills mistakes in the following passage. The mistakes are
listed in the box below. As you locate each mistake, write the number of the word
group in the space provided. Then, in the space between the lines, edit and correct
each mistake.

1 fragment 1 mistake in subject-verb

1 run-on agreement
1 missing comma around an 2 missing quotation
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

interrupter marks
2 apostrophe 1 dangling modifier
mistakes 1 nonparallel structure

1
I was six years old when, one day, my dog was struck by a car while
getting ready for school. 2 My mother and I heard the terrifying sound of
squealing brake’s. 3 In a low voice, she said, “Oh, my God—Rusty.” 4 I remember
trailing her out the door and seeing a car filled with teenagers and a
spreading pool of bright blood on our cobblestoned street. 5 To me, it
seemed only a matter of seconds until a police car pulled up. 6 The officer
glanced at the crumpled dog under the car. 7 And drew his gun. 8 My mother
shouted, “No!” 9 She crawled halfway under the car and took the dog, like a
sack of flour, out from under the wheels. 10 Her housedress was splashed with
blood, she cradled the limp dog in her arms and ordered the officers to drive
her to the vets office. 11 It was only then that she remembered me, I think.
12
She patted my head, was telling me to walk up to school, and reassured me
that Rusty would be all right. 13 The rest of the story including Rusty’s slow
recovery and few more years of life, are fuzzy and vague now. 14 But the sights
and sounds of those few moments are as vivid to me now as they were
twenty-five years ago.
622 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

Editing Test 10
Locate the ten sentence-skills mistakes in the following passage. The mistakes are
listed in the box below. As you locate each mistake, write the number of the word
group in the space provided. Then, in the space between the lines, edit and correct
each mistake.

2 fragments 2 apostrophe mistakes

1 run-on
1 mistake in subject-verb 3 missing commas
agreement
1 nonparallel structure

1
Most products have little or nothing to do with sex a person would
never know that by looking at ads’. 2 A television ad for a headache remedy,
for example shows the product being useful because it ends a womans
throbbing head pain just in time for sex. 3 Now she will not say “Not tonight,
honey.” 4 Another ad features a detergent that helps a single woman meet a
man in a laundry room. 5 When it comes to products that do relate to sex
appeal advertisers often present more obvious sexuality. 6 A recent magazine
ad for women’s clothing, for instance, make no reference to the quality of or
how comfortable are the company’s clothes. 7 Instead, the ad features a
picture of a woman wearing a low-cut sleeveless T-shirt and a very short
skirt. 8 Her eyes are partially covered by semi-wild hair. 9 And stare seductively
at the reader. 10 A recent television ad for perfume goes even further. 11 In this
ad, a boy not older than twelve reaches out to a beautiful woman. 12Sexily
dressed in a dark room filled with sensuous music. 13 With such ads, it is no
wonder that young people seem preoccupied with sex.
 Chapter 44 Editing Tests 623

Editing Test 11
Locate the ten sentence-skills mistakes in the following passage. The mistakes are listed
in the box below. As you locate each mistake, write the number of the word group in the
space provided. Then, in the space between the lines, edit and correct each mistake.

1 fragment 2 missing apostrophes

1 run-on
1 mistake in subject-verb 1 nonparallel structure
agreement 1 dangling modifier
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

2 missing commas after 1 mistake in pronoun point of

introductory material view

1
Being a waitress is an often underrated job. 2 A waitress needs the tact of
a diplomat, she must be as organized as a business executive, and the ability
of an acrobat. 3 Serving as the link between customers and kitchen, the most
demanding diners must be satisfied, and the often temperamental kitchen
help must be kept tamed. 4 Both groups tend to blame the waitress whenever
anything goes wrong. 5 Somehow, she is held responsible by the customer for
any delay (even if it’s the kitchens fault), for an overcooked steak, or for an
unavailable dessert. 6 While the kitchen automatically blames her for the
diners who change their orders or return those burned steaks. 7 In addition
she must simultaneously keep straight who ordered what at each table, who
is yelling for the check, and whether the new arrivals want cocktails or not.
8
She must be sure empty tables are cleared, everyone has refills of coffee,
and no one is scowling because a request for more rolls are going unheard.
9
Finally, the waitress must travel a hazardous route between the busy kitchen
and the crowded dining room, she has to dodge a diners leg in the aisle or a
swinging kitchen door. 10 And you must do this while balancing a tray heaped
with steaming platters. 11 The hardest task of the waitress, though, is trying to
maintain a decent imitation of a smile on her face—most of the time.
624 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

Editing Test 12
Locate the ten sentence-skills mistakes in the following passage. The mistakes are
listed in the box below. As you find each mistake, write the number of the word in
the space provided. Then, in the space between the lines, correct each mistake.

2 fragments 1 mistake in pronoun point of

1 run-on view
1 mistake in verb tense 1 mistake in pronoun
1 misplaced modifier agreement
2 missing capital 1 mistake in subject-verb
letters agreement

1
The earliest type of paper appeared about five thousand years ago in
Egypt it took its name from the papyrus plant. 2 The fibers of which were
used in its manufacture. 3 The kind of paper that you use today probably
originated in china in the second century. 4 However, some historians argue
that paper have been invented in that country hundreds of years earlier.
5
Made of hemp fiber and tree bark, the Arabs brought this new paper to
Europe in the fifteenth century via spain. 6 A country they controlled at the
time. 7 When printing was invented, the manufacture of paper increased
greatly. 8 Today, most paper consist of wood fiber, but they may also contain
cotton and other textiles.
ESL Pointers 45
This chapter will cover rules useful for speakers of English as a second
language (ESL).

INCORRECT:
The ball was thrown by the boy.
The verb is expressed in the passive voice.

CORRECT:
The boy threw the ball.
The action is attributed directly to the boy.

KEY TERMS
active voice: mode of expression in which the subject performs
the action expressed by the verb.
count nouns: words that name people, places, things, or ideas that
can be counted and made into plurals, such as teacher, restroom,
and joke.
idiomatic: particular to a certain language.
noncount nouns: words that refer to things or ideas that cannot
be counted, such as water, bravery, and snow.
qualifier: a word that expresses the quantity of a noncount noun.
Example: some water
626 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

This section covers rules that most native speakers of English take for granted but
that are useful for speakers of English as a second language (ESL).

Articles with Count and Noncount Nouns

Articles are noun markers—they signal that a noun will follow. (A noun is a word
used to name something: a person, place, thing, or idea.) The indefinite articles are
a and an. (Use a before a word that begins with a consonant sound: a car, a piano,
a uniform—the u in uniform sounds like the consonant y plus u. Use an before a
word beginning with a vowel sound: an egg, an office, an honor—the h in honor
is silent.) The definite article is the. An article may immediately precede a noun:
a smile, the reason. Or it may be separated from the noun by modifiers: a slight
smile, the very best reason.
To know whether to use an article with a noun and which article to use, you
must recognize count and noncount nouns.
Count nouns name people, places, things, or ideas that can be counted and made
into plurals, such as teacher, restroom, and joke (one teacher, two restrooms, three jokes).
Noncount nouns refer to things or ideas that cannot be counted, such as flour, history,
and truth. The following box lists and illustrates common types of noncount nouns.

TIP: There are various other noun markers besides articles, including
quantity words (some, several, a lot of), numerals (one, ten, 120),
demonstrative adjectives (this, these), possessive adjectives (my, your, our),
and possessive nouns (Jaime’s, the school’s).

Common Noncount Nouns

Abstractions and emotions: anger, bravery, health, pride, truth
Activities: baseball, jogging, reading, teaching, travel
Foods: bread, broccoli, chocolate, cheese, flour
Gases and vapors: air, helium, oxygen, smoke, steam
Languages and areas of study: Korean, Spanish, algebra, history, physics
Liquids: blood, gasoline, lemonade, tea, water
Materials that come in bulk form: aluminum, cloth, dust, sand, soap
Natural occurrences: magnetism, moonlight, rain, snow, thunder
Other things that cannot be counted: clothing, furniture, homework,
machinery, money, news, transportation, vocabulary, work
 Chapter 45 ESL Pointers 627

The quantity of a noncount noun can be expressed with a word or words called
a qualifier, such as some, a lot of, a unit of, and so on. (In the following two ex-
amples, the qualifiers are shown in italic type, and the noncount nouns are shown
in boldface type.)
Please have some patience.
We need to buy two bags of flour today.
Some words can be either count or noncount nouns, depending on whether they
refer to one or more individual items or to something in general.
Certain cheeses give some people a headache.
(This sentence refers to individual cheeses; cheese in this case is a count noun.)
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cheese is made in almost every country where milk is produced.

(This sentence refers to cheese in general; in this case, cheese is a non-
count noun.)

Using a or an with Nonspecific

Singular Count Nouns
Use a or an with singular nouns that are nonspecific. A noun is nonspecific when
the reader doesn’t know its specific identity.
A left-hander faces special challenges with right-handed tools.
(The sentence refers to any left-hander, not a specific one.)
Today, our cat proudly brought a baby bird into the house.
(The reader isn’t familiar with the bird. This is the first time it is mentioned.)

Using the with Specific Nouns

In general, use the with all specific nouns—specific singular, plural, and non-
count nouns. Certain conditions make a noun specific and therefore require the
article the.
A noun is specific in the following cases:
• When it has already been mentioned once
Today, our cat proudly brought a baby bird into the house.
Luckily, the bird was still alive.
(The is used with the second mention of bird.)

• When it is identified by a word or phrase in the sentence

The pockets in the boy’s pants are often filled with sand and dirt.
(Pockets is identified by the words in the boy’s pants.)
628 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

• When its identity is suggested by the general context

At Willy’s Diner last night, the service was terrible and the food was
worse.
(The reader can conclude that the service and food being discussed
were at Willy’s Diner.)
• When it is unique
There will be an eclipse of the moon tonight.
(Earth has only one moon.)

• When it is preceded by a superlative adjective (best, biggest, wisest)

The best way to store broccoli is to refrigerate it in an open plastic bag.

Omitting Articles
Omit articles with nonspecific plurals and noncount nouns. Plurals and noncount
nouns are nonspecific when they refer to something in general.
Pockets didn’t exist until the end of the 1700s.
Service is as important as food to a restaurant’s success.
Iris serves her children homemade lemonade.

Using the with Proper Nouns

Proper nouns name particular people, places, things, or ideas and are always capi-
talized. Most proper nouns do not require articles; those that do, however, require
the. Following are general guidelines about when and when not to use the.
1. Do not use the for most singular proper nouns, including names of the
following:
• People and animals (Benjamin Franklin, Fido)
• Continents, states, cities, streets, and parks (North America, Illinois,
Chicago, First Avenue, Washington Square)
• Most countries (France, Mexico, Russia)
• Individual bodies of water, islands, and mountains (Lake Erie, Long
Island, Mount Everest)
2. Use the for the following types of proper nouns:
• Plural proper nouns (the Turners, the United States, the Great Lakes,
the Rocky Mountains)
 Chapter 45 ESL Pointers 629

• Names of large geographic areas, deserts, oceans, seas, and rivers

(the South, the Gobi Desert, the Atlantic Ocean, the Black Sea, the
Mississippi River)
• Names with the format the of (the Fourth
of July, the People’s Republic of China, the University of California)

Underline the correct form of the noun in parentheses.

Activity
1. (A library, Library) is a valuable addition to a town.
2. This morning, the mail carrier brought me (a letter, the letter) from my 1
cousin.
3. As I read (a letter, the letter), I began to laugh at what my cousin wrote.
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

4. The Boy Scouts had to carry a great deal of (equipment, equipments) when
they marched out of camp.
5. Every day, Melissa reminds me that ( jogging, joggings) can help me keep trim.
6. (Acrobatics, The acrobatics) requires a great deal of motor coordination.
7. The soldiers in battle showed a great deal of (courage, courages).
8. A famous sight in Arizona is (Grand Canyon, the Grand Canyon).
9. My son would like to eat (the spaghetti, spaghetti) at every meal.
10. It is dangerous to stare directly at (the sun, sun).

Underline the correct form of the noun in parentheses.

Activity
1. Last night, I went to (a restaurant, the restaurant) with my best friend.
2. (The restaurant, A restaurant) was a more expensive place than we had 2
expected.
3. Jeremy was told he had been accepted to (the University, University) of
Pennsylvania.
4. A newspaper reporter is supposed to write a story with (the honesty, honesty).
5. Armando was honored by (Republic of Italy, the Republic of Italy.)
6. Long-distance runners need lots of (determination, determinations) to succeed.
7. A hurricane crossed (Atlantic Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean) before it hit the
United States.
8. (The Chilean, Chilean) sea bass at Emilio’s Restaurant is the best I have ever
tasted.
9. (Jupiter, The Jupiter) is the largest planet in our solar system.
10. Computers have been programmed to play (the chess, chess) and can now
beat most human players.
630 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

Subjects and Verbs

Avoiding Repeated Subjects
In English, a particular subject can be used only once in a clause. Don’t repeat a
subject in the same clause by following a noun with a pronoun.
Incorrect: The manager he asked Dmitri to lock up tonight.
Correct: The manager asked Dmitri to lock up tonight.
Correct: He asked Dmitri to lock up tonight.
Even when the subject and verb are separated by a long word group, the subject
cannot be repeated in the same clause.
Incorrect: The girl who danced with you she is my cousin.
Correct: The girl who danced with you is my cousin.

Including Pronoun Subjects and Linking Verbs

Some languages may omit a pronoun as a subject, but in English, every clause
other than a command must have a subject. In a command, the subject you is un-
derstood: (You) Hand in your papers now.
Incorrect: The Grand Canyon is in Arizona. Is 217 miles long.
Correct: The Grand Canyon is in Arizona. It is 217 miles long.
Every English clause must also have a verb, even when the meaning of the clause
is clear without the verb.
Incorrect: Angelita’s piano teacher very patient.
Correct: Angelita’s piano teacher is very patient.

Including There and Here

at the Beginning of Clauses
Some English sentences begin with there or here plus a linking verb (usually a
form of to be: is, are, and so on). In such sentences, the verb comes before the
subject.
There are masks in every culture on Earth.
The subject is the plural noun masks, so the plural verb are is used.
Here is your driver’s license.
The subject is the singular noun license, so the singular verb is is used.
 Chapter 45 ESL Pointers 631

In sentences like those above, remember not to omit there or here.

Incorrect: Are several chickens in the Bensons’ yard.
Correct: There are several chickens in the Bensons’ yard.

Not Using the Progressive Tense of Certain Verbs

The progressive tenses are made up of forms of be plus the -ing form of the main
verb. They express actions or conditions still in progress at a particular time.
George will be taking classes this summer.
However, verbs for mental states, the senses, possession, and inclusion are nor-
mally not used in the progressive tense.
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Incorrect: All during the movie they were hearing whispers behind them.
Correct: All during the movie they heard whispers behind them.
Incorrect: That box is containing a surprise for Pedro.
Correct: That box contains a surprise for Pedro.
Common verbs not generally used in the progressive tense are listed in the follow-
ing box.

Common Verbs not Generally

Used in the Progressive
Thoughts, attitudes, and desires: agree, believe, imagine, know, like, love,
prefer, think, understand, want, wish
Sense perceptions: hear, see, smell, taste
Appearances: appear, seem
Possession: belong, have, own, possess
Inclusion: contain, include

Using Only Transitive Verbs for the Passive Voice

Only transitive verbs—verbs that need direct objects to complete their meaning—
can have a passive form (one in which the subject receives the action instead of
performing it). Intransitive verbs cannot be used in the passive voice.
Incorrect: If you don’t fix those brakes, an accident may be happened.
(Happen is an intransitive verb—no object is needed to complete its meaning.)
Correct: If you don’t fix those brakes, an accident may happen.
632 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

If you aren’t sure whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, check your dictionary.
Transitive verbs are indicated with an abbreviation such as tr. v. or v. t. Intransitive
verbs are indicated with an abbreviation such as intr. v. or v. i.

Using Gerunds and Infinitives after Verbs

A gerund is the -ing form of a verb that is used as a noun: For Walter, eating is
a daylong activity. An infinitive is to and the basic form of the verb (the form in
which the verb is listed in the dictionary): to eat. The infinitive can function as an
adverb, an adjective, or a noun. Some verbs can be followed by only a gerund or
only an infinitive; other verbs can be followed by either. Examples are given in the
following lists. There are many others; watch for them in your reading.

Verb gerund (admit stealing)

Verb preposition gerund (apologize for yelling)
Some verbs can be followed by a gerund but not by an infinitive. In many cases,
there is a preposition (such as for, in , or of ) between the verb and the gerund.
Following are some verbs and verb-preposition combinations that can be followed
by gerunds but not by infinitives:

admit deny look forward to

apologize for discuss postpone
appreciate dislike practice
approve of enjoy suspect of
avoid feel like talk about
be used to finish thank for
believe in insist on think about

Incorrect: He must avoid to jog until his knee heals.

Correct: He must avoid jogging until his knee heals.
Incorrect: The instructor apologized for to be late to class.
Correct: The instructor apologized for being late to class.

Verb infinitive (agree to leave)

Following are common verbs that can be followed by an infinitive but not by a
gerund:
 Chapter 45 ESL Pointers 633

agree decide plan

arrange have refuse
claim manage wait

Incorrect: The children want going to the beach.

Correct: The children want to go to the beach.

Verb noun or pronoun infinitive (cause them to flee)

Below are common verbs that are followed first by a noun or pronoun and then by
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

an infinitive (not a gerund):

cause force remind

command persuade warn

Incorrect: The coach persuaded Yasmin studying harder.

Correct: The coach persuaded Yasmin to study harder.
Following are common verbs that can be followed either by an infinitive alone or
by a noun or pronoun and an infinitive:

ask need want

expect promise would like

Dena asked to have a day off next week.

Her boss asked her to work on Saturday.

Verb gerund or infinitive (begin packing or begin to pack)

Following are verbs that can be followed by either a gerund or an infinitive:

begin hate prefer

continue love start

The meaning of each of the above verbs remains the same or almost the same
whether a gerund or an infinitive is used.
Faith hates being late.
Faith hates to be late.
634 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

With the verbs below, the gerunds and the infinitives have very different meanings.

forget remember stop

Esta stopped to call home.

(She interrupted something to call home.)
Esta stopped calling home.
(She discontinued calling home.)

Underline the correct form in parentheses.

Activity
1. The doctor (asked me, she asked me) if I smoked.
3 2. The day was sunny but a little cool. (It was, Was) the perfect day to run a
marathon.
3. (Are several art galleries, There are several art galleries) in Florence, Italy.
4. The box (is containing, contains) a beautiful necklace.
5. Unless you take your foot off the brake, the car will not (be gone, go).
6. Most basketball players (very tall, are very tall).
7. Many people (enjoy to spend, enjoy spending) a day in the city.
8. The township committee (plans voting, plans to vote) on the new proposal
Tuesday.
9. Some old men in my neighborhood (play cards, they play cards) every
afternoon.
10. When I am happy, I feel like (to sing, singing).

Underline the correct form in parentheses.

Activity
1. My grandparents (are, they are) in their nineties.
4 2. The pizza is two days old. (Is, It is) dry and stale.
3. (Is, There is) no excuse for not seeking tutoring at our college; the learning
center is open 18 hours a day.
4. The manager (owns, is owning) two SUVs: a Honda and a Ford.
5. The package will not (be arrived, arrive) until Friday morning.
6. During World War II, (there were, were) many countries that declared their
neutrality.
7. Most adults need (to sleep, sleeping) at least seven hours each night.
8. Our new puppy (wants to be chewing, wants to chew) all the furniture in our
apartment.
 Chapter 45 ESL Pointers 635

9. On their wedding day, the bride and groom (they seemed, seemed) very
happy.
10. Whenever she hears music, Sara feels like (to dance, dancing).

Adjectives
Following the Order of Adjectives in English
Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. In English, an adjective usually comes
directly before the word it describes or after a linking verb (a form of be or a
“sense” verb such as look, seem, and taste), in which case it modifies the subject.
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

In each of the following two sentences, the adjective is boldfaced and the noun it
describes is italicized.
That is a false story.
The story is false.
When more than one adjective modifies the same noun, the adjectives are usu-
ally stated in a certain order, though there are often exceptions. Following is the
typical order of English adjectives:

Typical Order of Adjectives in a Series

1. Article or other noun marker: a, an, the, Lee’s, this, three, your
2. Opinion adjective: dull, handsome, unfair, useful
3. Size: big, huge, little, tiny
4. Shape: long, short, round, square
5. Age: ancient, medieval, old, new, young
6. Color: blue, green, scarlet, white
7. Nationality: Italian, Korean, Mexican, Vietnamese
8. Religion: Buddhist, Catholic, Jewish, Muslim
9. Material: cardboard, gold, marble, silk
10. Noun used as an adjective: house (as in house call), tea (as in tea
bag), wall (as in wall hanging)

Here are some examples of the above order:

a long cotton scarf
the beautiful little silver cup
636 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

your new lavender evening gown

Ana’s sweet Mexican grandmother
In general, use no more than two or three adjectives after the article or another
noun marker. Numerous adjectives in a series can be awkward: the beautiful big
new blue cotton sweater.

Using the Present and Past Participles as Adjectives

The present participle ends in -ing. Past participles of regular verbs end in -ed or
-d; a list of the past participles of many common irregular verbs appears on pages
495–497. Both types of participles may be used as adjectives. A participle used as
an adjective may precede the word it describes: That was an exciting ball game. It
may also follow a linking verb and describe the subject of the sentence: The ball
game was exciting.
While both present and past participles of a particular verb may be used as
adjectives, their meanings differ. Use the present participle to describe whoever or
whatever causes a feeling: an embarrassing incident (the incident is what causes
the embarrassment). Use the past participle to describe whoever or whatever
experiences the feeling: the embarrassed parents (the parents are the ones who
are embarrassed).
The long day of holiday shopping was tiring.
The shoppers were tired.
Following are pairs of present and past participles with similar distinctions:
annoying ⁄ annoyed exhausting ⁄ exhausted
boring ⁄ bored fascinating ⁄ fascinated
confusing ⁄ confused frightening ⁄ frightened
depressing ⁄ depressed surprising ⁄ surprised
exciting ⁄ excited

Underline the correct form in parentheses.

Activity
1. The Renaissance was an era in which Europeans made (intellectual
5 significant, significant intellectual) advances.
2. Mr. Kim runs a (popular Korean, Korean popular) restaurant.
3. For her party, the little girl asked if her mother would buy her a (beautiful
long velvet, beautiful velvet long) dress.
4. The audience became (exciting, excited) when the president was announced.
5. In the center of the city is a church with (three enormous colorful stained-
glass, three stained-glass colorful enormous) windows.
 Chapter 45 ESL Pointers 637

Underline the correct form in parentheses.

Activity
1. My mother is an (excellent public, public excellent) speaker.
2. The creek is spanned by (an old wooden, a wooden old) bridge. 6
3. The ancient Maya of Central America built (large stone, stone large) temples
that can still be seen today.
4. Many people find public speaking a (terrifying, terrified) experience.
5. The museum acquired (an ancient marble, a marble ancient) statue from Greece.

Prepositions Used for Time and Place

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

The use of prepositions in English is often idiomatic—a word that means “peculiar
to a certain language”—and there are many exceptions to general rules. Therefore,
correct preposition use must be learned gradually through experience. Following
is a chart showing how three of the most common prepositions are used in some
customary references to time and place:

Use of on, in, and at to Refer

to Time and Place
Time
On a specific day: on Monday, on January 1, on your anniversary
In a part of a day: in the morning, in the daytime (but at night)
In a month or a year: in December, in 1776
In a period of time: in an hour, in a few days, in a while
At a specific time: at 10:00 A.M., at midnight, at sunset, at dinnertime
Place
On a surface: on the desk, on the counter, on a ceiling
In a place that is enclosed: in my room, in the office, in the box
At a specific location: at the mall, at his house, at the ballpark

Underline the correct preposition in parentheses.

Activity
1. Can you babysit for my children (on, at) Thursday?
2. Please come to my office (on, at) 3:00. 7
3. You will find some computer disks (in, on) the desk drawer.
4. Miguel will begin his new job (in, at) two weeks.
5. A fight broke out between two groups of friends (on, at) the park.
638 Part 4 Handbook of Sentence Skills

Underline the correct preposition in parentheses.

Activity
1. Tina’s husband always sends her flowers (on, at) her birthday.
8 2. The patients (at, in) the waiting room at the dentist’s office all looked uneasy.
3. Let’s meet (on, at) the coffee shop after work.
4. The bank is open (in, on) Thursday evenings, but only until six.
5. The Great Depression began when the stock market crashed (in, at) 1929.

Review Test 1
Underline the correct form in parentheses.
1. During the storm, I was startled by the loud (thunder, thunders).
2. The people (on, in) my community (are often working, often work) together
to keep our streams, rivers, and lakes clean.
3. The ending of the movie was very (surprised, surprising).
4. Many animals that sleep all day are active (at, in) night.
5. (The people, People) in the photograph are my mother’s relatives.
6. The city streets were full of (big yellow, yellow big) taxis.
7. Between the end of World War II and the fall of communism, (there were,
were) two Germanys.
8. In the West, New Year’s Day is celebrated (in, on) January 1.
9. If I were in London right now, I would certainly (consider, consider to)
visiting the British Museum.
10. Most (cheese, cheeses) are made from cow’s milk, but others are made from
the milk of sheep or goats.

Review Test 2
Underline the correct form in parentheses.

1. (The computers, Computers) have revolutionized our society.

2. (There was, Was) hardly anything left to do after the children cleaned up the
kichen and swept the floor.
3. The instructions for the new computer were very (confused, confusing).
4. The snow began to fall (in, at) dawn and continued all day.