GEOMETRIC MODELLING

Geometric modelling; is the process of generating 3D objects for analysis, design, drafting
and manufacture. It creates a database which is used to display the object to prepare
drawings of the object with different views to prepared data for analysis and design.
In CAD, geometric modelling is concerned with the computer compatible mathematical
description of the geometry of an object i.e. graphical representations on the shape and size
of the physical objects.
The geometric models can be broadly categorized into two types;
Two-dimensional
Two-and-a-half-dimensional
Three-dimensional
Two-dimensional or 2D CAD:
Early in the 1970s, 2D CAD, the industry’s first CAD program, was created. At that time, large
aerospace, automotive, and other engineering businesses developed internal technologies to
automate repetitive drafting tasks. To make flat drawings, 2D CAD uses fundamental
geometric shapes like lines, rectangles, circles, etc.
This is the earliest iteration of CAD that most people are familiar with. The use of text,
dimensions, leaders, and tables as annotations on drawings is another feature of 2D CAD
software. 2D CAD is used to design, plan, section, elevation views, and detail structures in the
built environment. Additionally, they convey how various components work together to
form assemblies and offer crucial inspection locations.
A library of geometric images, the capacity to design Bezier curves, splines, and polylines,
the ability to specify hatching patterns, and the ability to generate a bill of materials are all
standard features of 2D CAD systems. AutoCAD, CADkey, CATIA v4, and Medusa are some of
the well-known 2D CAD applications.
The early version of CAD that most of us are aware of. These are 2-dimensional drawings on
a flat sheet with dimensions, layouts, and other information needed to manufacture the
object. The 2D CAD objects consist of lines, ovals, circles, ovals, curves, and slots. 2D CAD
platforms generally come with a library of geometric images and the ability to create Bezier
curves, polylines, and splines. They are also capable of generating a bill of materials (BOM).

2.5D CAD:
The 2.5 D CAD are prismatic, which means they represent the depth of an object. They fall
between 2D and 3D CAD, and the objects consist of geometric patterns like in 2D CAD.

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2.5-D CAD is a medium-level CAD between 2D and 3D. Because they depict the depth of the
objects, the prismatic models are produced by this kind of CAD. These items’ components
are geometric shapes, just like in 2D CAD. Even if the object is three-dimensional, there
cannot be any overhanging parts, which is what is meant when a surface is described as 2.5D.
The height of the item (i.e., thickness or depth) at each place is commonly depicted for objects
of this type using a contour map. Although they are on solitary planes, Z levels do exist.
Three-dimensional or 3D CAD:
The purpose of both 2D and 3D models is the same. But what sets 3D models apart is their
ability to present more excellent details about the individual component and assembly by
projecting it as a full-scale 3-dimensional object. 3D CAD offers a realistic portrayal of the
CAD model. 3D models can be viewed and rotated in X, Y, or Z axes. It also shows how two
objects can fit and operate, which is impossible with 2D CAD.
3D models can be further classified into three categories:
Classification of 3D modelling
1. Wireframe modelling
Is the simplest of the three models. These are generated by continuing the line segments. The
points and lines generate the object and then translation, rotation or scaling is carried out.
The wireframe models define the edges and surface of 3D objects. All the objects are formed
of polygon meshes. These models carry 3D wireframe surface.

2. Surface modelling
A surface model is constructed from surfaces such as planes, curved surfaces and even very
complex surfaces such as Bezier curve and B – splines. These models are capable of
completely representing the solid from manufacturing point of view. However, a surface

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model does not give any information regarding the interior of the solid required for
generating the numerical control (NC) cutter data.

3. Solid modelling
Is the most powerful method for the three-dimensional solid representation. In this
technique, models are represented as solids thus there is less risk of mis-interpretation. By
adding color to these drawings, they just become realistic.

There are two types of solid modelling; constructive solid geometry and boundary
representation (B – rep)

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 (a) Constructive Solid Geometry
The constructive solid geometry approach is a very powerful technique for representing
fairly complex jobs with relative ease. This technique is based on the topological notation
that an object can be divided into a set of primitives (basic elements or shapes), which can
be combined again to form the object by following a set of Boolean operations. Some
commonly used primitives in solid modelling are; block, pyramid, cylinder, cone, frustrum of
cone, hemisphere, sphere, torus. There are two main methods of geometric constructions;
Linear extrusion (translational sweep) and rotational sweep
In linear extrusion, a 3D solid is generated by linearly sweeping a 2D surface along a
straight line. The sweeping does not need to be a straight line, it can be in any 3D space curve
for generating reasonably complex geometry.

In rotational sweep, the planer 2D point set is rotated about an axis of rotation by a given
angle for sweeping helical or spiral object. An additional axial or radial offset can be
provided. Rotational sweep can only be used for axi-symmetric components.

(b) Boundary representation (B – rep)

Is one of the most popularly used techniques of solid modelling. A B-rep model is represented
as a volume contained in a set of faces together with topological information about the
relationship between the faces. A B-rep solid is bounded by its surface which separates
points inside from points outside of the solid. Because of this, a b-rep solid is represented as
a closed space in 3D space. The geometry of a b-rep solid is described by its vertices, edges

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and surfaces. An edge is bounded by vertices and a face is bounded by edges. Faces of solid
can be formed by either straight lines or curved segments. A b-rep of an object consists of;
vertex, edge, face, loop, handle, body.

COMPARISON BETWEEN 2D AND 3D models

2D Models 3D Models
Used to represent simple 2D objects Used in representing complex 3D objects
Requires only one global coordinate system May require several user-defined
coordinate systems to create features on
various faces of the part
It is difficult to reconstruct 3D images Along with 3D images, 2D views and even
pictorial views can be generated easily
Ends of lines are represented by x,y Ends of lines are represented by x,y,z
coordinates coordinates
Curves are represented by circles, ellipse, Circles are represented by suitably spaced
splines generators
To correctly represent a complex object, an Using hidden lines/surfaces eliminations
additional view, sectional views are complex components can be interpreted
required. correctly

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