Rivers:

● Attrition is when rocks bang against each other chipping away the rock and
making it smaller and rounder
● Abrasion is when rocks grind against the rivers wall and bed in a
sandpapering motion breaking it into smaller rocks/pebbles
● Hydraulic action is when the force of the river smashes against the cliff
trapping air into the cracks and when the waves retreat the air bursts and the
cracks become wider and eventually breaking the rock apart
● ‘Solution’ is when the weak acid in the river dissolves the minerals in the rocks

Transportation

● Traction is when large boulders of rock are rolled along the river’s bed
● Solution is when the weak acid in the river dissolves the minerals in the rock
● Saltation is when small pebbles/rocks are bounced along the river’s bed
● Suspension is when light particles like soil and rocks float on the river and are
carried along

Destructive waves

- Destructive waves have a high frequency and their backwash is stronger than
their swash. Results in erosion and the removal of coastal material

Constructive waves

- Constructive waves have a low frequency and their swash is stronger than
their backwash. Results in deposition and built-up of coasts

Mechanical weathering: e.g freeze-thaw

Water enters the cracks in the rocks. The water freezes and expands, putting
pressure on the rock. The ice thaws, releasing pressure. Repeated freezing and
thawing causes the rocks to break apart.

Chemical weathering

Some rocks react to water because of the minerals they contain. Minerals react with
acid in water. The chemical compound breaks down the rock over time
Mass movement

- Sliding - material slides quickly downwards in a relatively straight line

- Slumping - material slides with a rotation over a curved slip plane
- Rockfall - rock breaks apart often as a result of freeze-thaw weathering

Soft engineering - works with nature and does not involve drastic environmental
changes. It's less expensive but also less effective

Hard engineering - When expensive artificial structures are used for protection. They
are effective but they don’t blend in with nature

Dams and Reservoirs: HARD ENGINEERING

Advantage:

1. Attract tourists
2. Promotes new habitat
3. Source of drinking water

Disadvantage:

1. Expensive to build
2. Dams trap sediments which means the reservoir can hold less water
3. Concrete dams interfere with the path of migrating fish

Sea Wall: HARD ENGINEERING

Advantage:

1. Gives a sense of security

2. It can last for many years
3. Can provide seating or cycle path

Disadvantages:

1. It can destroy habitats and can look ugly

2. Restrict access to the beach
3. Expensive £500 per metre to repair
Groynes: HARD ENGINEERING

Wooden or stone structure built at a right angle(perpendicular to the coast)

Advantage:

1. It can last 40 yrs

2. Fishing or viewing point for people
3. £5000 which is relatively inexpensive

Disadvantage:

1. dangerous
2. Ineffective in storms
3. Difficult to climb over, impedes walking

Beach nourishment: SOFT ENGINEERING

Replacement of lost sediments. It absorbs wave energy and reduces the rate of
erosion

Advantage:

1. Blends in with the environment

2. A wider beach. More room for activities
3. Protects property

Disadvantage:

1. It needs to be redone regularly

2. The area is restricted during the process
3. The cost of hiring equipment is high

Sand Dune

Advantage:

1. Picnic areas once established

2. Helps maintain habitat for species
3. Costs are minimal, volunteer planter

Disadvantage:

1. No guarantee they will remain

 2. Has to be regularly checked
3. Areas of limit to people

Constructive wave: low energy and have stronger swashes than backwashes -
deposition

Destructive waves: have stronger backwashes than swashes - erosion

Tributary: Smaller rivers join

Source: Starting point of the river a main one

Confluence: Point where two rivers meet

Floodplain: The land that may get flooded when a river overflows

Mouth: Where the river flows into a lake with all the water fees into the main

Deposition: where a river drops its load of sediments

Spit Formation:

A spit is a long narrow strip of land which is formed due to deposition. Longshore
drift occurs along the coastline but as the waves lose energy (normally due to going
into a sheltered area such as behind a headland) they deposit their sediment. Over
time this creates a spit. This continues over time, extending further out to sea.

Waterfall Formation:

The hard rock is laid horizontally. The water will fall from the hard rock and break
pieces of the soft rocks, not hard rocks because soft rocks are easier to break. The
splash causes hydraulic action to weaken the rock behind the fall of the water. Some
rocks sink into the bed, creating a plunge pool. The unsupported hard rock break
down and undercutting continues creating an overhang.

A waterfall is formed when erosion takes place over a layer of hard rock and soft
rock. When a river flows over the hard and soft rock, hydraulic action and abrasion
take place which causes the soft rock to erode more quickly than the hard rock. Over
time as the soft rock is undercut, an overhanging layer of hard rock is left. Because
nothing is supporting the layer of hard rock hanging it eventually breaks and falls
into the plunge pool. The force and weight of the rock falling cause the plunge pool
to deepen and widen, and abrasion takes place. Then over time, the land retreats
and leaves a steep-sided gorge.

Oxbow Lake:

Erosion takes place outside the river causing the shape of the meander to become
wider and closer. The river then takes the faster route cutting straight through the
old meander. Then depositon takes place and the original meander is cut off leaving
an ox bow lake separated from the main river.
During high flow(flood) conditions, the meander neck is broken through. The river
now adopts the shorter route passing through the old meander. Deposition occurs
at the edge of the new straight section, effectively cutting off the old meander. The
old meander now forms an oxbow lake separated from the main river.

Levee Formation:

Levees form when there is repeated flooding. When a river bursts its bank, deposition
takes place. Heavy sediments are deposited close to the river’s bank. Over time as
flooding continuously takes place sediments build up, raising the river’s channel.

Longshore drift:

Waves approach the coastline at a right-angle, due to the prevailing winds. The
swash takes material up the beach, and the backwash runs back into the sea and
takes the material down the beach under the force of gravity. When this repeats the
particles move further up the beach.

Wave cut platform:

Concordant coastline: - same type of rock

Discordant Coastline: Headland and Bay(perpendicular to the coast)

Characteristics of Bay:

- Made of soft rocks

- Constructive waves
- Headland on either side

Bay: A crescent-shaped body of water partly surrounded by land

Headland: a cliff that juts out into the sea so it is surrounded by water on three sides.

Soft rocks: Clay and sand erodes easily to create bays

Hard rocks: Limestone/ chalk are more resistant to erosion creating headlands
Explain how geology influences the formation of headlands and bays (4 marks)

Headlands and bays result from coastlines that are formed of alternate sections of
hard and soft rock. The areas of soft rock are more easily and quickly eroded
whereas the harder rock is more resistant to processes of weathering and erosion.
Where harder rock is present, headlands occur and where softer rock is being
eroded, bays are formed. The processes of erosion that take part in this can be
hydraulic action, attrition and different types of weathering. Constant attacking of
the waves and material from the sea on the cliff face causes erosion of soft rock,
leaving bits of land 'jutting out'.

Headlands→Caves→arch→Stack→Stump

Blow hole: a hole in the ground that connects to an underground, partially

submerged ocean cave.

A spit forms where longshore drift occurs:

- Hooked shape
- The prevailing wind has transported and deposited sediments to extend the
past coastline
- Salt marshes form behind the spit

Ecosystem: a natural system made up of living(biotic) and non-living (abiotic)

components

Primary producer → Primary consumer→ Secondary consumer→ Tertiary consumer

Biomass: The total weight of a group of organisms

Biomes: A large plant and animal community covering a large area of the earth’s
surface

Cause #1: Logging

Timber companies sell trees to other countries to make furniture. But the
consequence of this is heavy machinery compacts soil and makes it more
vulnerable to erosion.

Cause #2: Mineral Extraction

The minerals that developed countries need are beneath tropical rainforests. The
rainforest suffers badly as it is cut down(trees).

Cause #3: Energy Development

The supply of water needs dams to generate hydroelectric power. This involves
flooding vast areas of the rainforest. This eventually rots the forest.

Cause #4: Commercial Farming - cattle

Large areas of rainforest are cleared to make way for livestock. The quality of soil
eventually declines. Farmers move on to destroy more forests.

Cause #5: Commercial Farming - crops

The forest is cleared to make room for vast plantations. The cultivation of soybeans
had caused so much clearance in the Amazon. Soil doesn’t sustain for long.

Cause #6: Road Building

Cause #7: Settlement and population growth

Deforestation requires workers and workers need homes so they clear forests to
build homes for people to live in.

Adaptation: A mutation(special feature) or genetic change, that helps an organism,

such as a plant or animal, survive in an environment.

Leaves:

Some leaves have flexible bases and they rotate to face the sun for photosynthesis.
Some leaves have triangular tips that allow rain to drip off the leaves.

Poison Dart Frog:

They are brightly coloured to warn predators away. Their poison serves as a
chemical defence against predators.

Buttresses:

They stand above the ground and support the trees. They help transport water
towards the roots.

Three-toed Sloth:
They have claws that allow them to hang upside down with little effort. This means
they use less energy while being in the right place: Leaves. Fur for camouflage.

Cold environment adaptation

Polar bear:

- White fur to camouflage in snow and surrounding

- Paws with sharp claws, used for digging the snow and hunting
- Black nose and footpad to absorb sunlight
- Sharp jagged teeth treat through the flesh of seals
- They hibernate during the winter

Arctic Poppy

- They have cup-shaped flowers that face the to capture as much sunlight as
possible
- They have shallow roots because of the permafrost
- Their leaves are small to capture heat
- They grow close together and near the ground to trap pockets of warmer air

Alaska Case Study

Opportunities in Alaska

● Fishing
● Mining
● Tourism
● Oil drilling
● Geothermal energy

Challenges In Alaska

● Melting permafrost - houses collapse

● Accessibility - frozen lakes and rivers in the winter
● Oil spill
● Climate change
● Snow and ice make roads unusable
 ● Landslides and mudslides take place in the summer

How are they overcoming the challenges?

- Roads are built on 1-2 m of gravel

- Airport runways are painted white to reflect sunlight and stop it from getting
warming up too much on sunny days

How to reduce the risk of natural hazards?

- Avoid building in areas at high risk
- Less urbanisation
- Warning system
- Floodplain zoning- most valuable building farther away from high-risk areas

How do humans increase flooding risk?

Disappearing gardens - Gardens are paved over or new homes are built which
means there is less soil for water to be absorbed which increases the risk of flooding.

Deforestation- As there are fewer trees it means there are fewer roots to soak up the
water which also increases the risk of flooding

Harvested crops leave the ground bare.