CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

THE CLIFFORD CONSTITUTION OF 1922

MAIN FEATURES:
1. Secretary of state for colonies:
2. The head of state
3. The Executive council:
4. The Legislative council
5. Proclamation
6. Elective principles
7. Political activities
8. Establishment of newspapers
9. New legislative council:

MERITS OF CLIFFORD CONSTITUTION

1. Political activities: This constitution created a conducive atmosphere for political activities and
formation of political parties in Lagos and Calabar e.g. the NNDP of Herbert Macaulay.
2. Newspapers: These were established to further popularize the increased political activities.
3. Elective principle: This constitution made it possible for the elective representation of Nigerians into
the legislative council.
4. New legislative council: This constitution established a new legislative council for the colony and
protectorate of Southern Nigeria (excluding the northern protectorate)
5. Inspiration: The constitution gave inspiration to nationalist activities in the country which acted as a
preparatory ground for self-government.
6. Legislative council: More Africans were allowed into the legislative council.
7. Written constitution: Clifford constitution was the first written constitution for Nigeria
8. Constitutional agreement: It established a constitutional government in Nigeria as opposed to
government by statutory instrument or orders.

Demerit
1. Disenfranchisement: Only 4 of the members were to be elected by an adult male suffrage with
residential qualification of one year and a gross income of £100 per annum.
The majority of Nigerians were
disenfranchised.
1. Legislative counci: Europeans dominated this council
2. Executive council: It was also dominated and controlled by the Europeans.
3. Elective principle: Those elected were only for the legislative council and were unofficial. 1 his
franchise was not extended to the executive council.
4. Dominated by illiterates: Illiterates who were in an unofficial capacity dominated the legislative
council.
5. Veto power: the governor had veto power over issues both in the legislative and executive councils.
6. Sectionalism: Clifford's Constitution was accused of sectionalism by its definition. It was a
constitution for the south only, the north was excluded.
7. Nomination: Majority of the members of the legislative council were nominated and not elected

THE RICHARDS
CONSTITUTION OF 1946
The Governor of Nigeria at the outbreak of the Second World War (1939-45) was Sir Bourdillon. He was in
office between 1939 and [Link] 1939, the Northern and southern protectorates were made provinces.
Northern Nigeria remained a province and Southern Nigeria was broken into two; eastern and western
provinces. At the time of Bourdillon's concluded the retirement in 1944, he had almost concluded the new
constitution, where he proposed regionalism. So sir Richard of 1946 replaced the Clifford constitution of 1922.
The new constitution was published to promote the unity of Nigeria and enhance greater participation of
Nigeria in their own affairs.

Features of the 1946 Richards

Constitution of Nigeria
1. The Executive Council: The central executive council of Richards was dominated by Europeans as in
the Clifford Constitution of 1922. Richards was the president of the council.
2. The Nigerian Legislative Council (Central legislative Council): The membership was 44. Sixteen were
official and 28 unofficial members. The governor, (Richards), Chiet Secretary to the government, the
three Chief Commissioners of the provinces were official members. Four were to be elected - three for
Lagos and one for Calabar in a franchise of 100 and 20 respectively. Under the new constitution, these
four would be selected by the regional Councils and to be set up in each region. Another 4 nominated
were to represent banking, shipping and commerce were official members. Others were nominated to
represent the East, West and North as unofficial members.
3. Creation of Houses of Assembly or Regional Houses of Assembly: the Assembly members were to be
elected by the native authorities while the Regional Assembly members were to elect members of the
central legislative council (through electoral colleges)
4. Bi-cameral legislature: The constitution granted the North bicameral egislature - Regional Assembly
and the Regional House of Chieis. members by right. All first class chiefs were
5. Legislative powers: The regional assemblies were given limited powers to legislate on minor matters
subject to the governor s reserved powers.
6.
7. Composition of the Houses

Northern Regional Assembly - 19Officials and 20 unofficials(1)

Eastern Regional Assembly - 13Officials and 14 unofficials

Western Regional Assembly - 14. Officials and 15 unofficials.

Note: Eastern and Western regions had unicameral legislature.

6. Elective Principle: The constitution still retained the elective principle with limited franchise.
three representatives were elected for Lagos and 1 for Calabar.
7. Regionalism: Regions were created out of the former three provinces - Easter, Western and Northern
regions.

THE MACPHERSON
CONSTITUTION OF 1951
Sir John Macpherson, became the new Governor of Nigeria after Richards and he made adequate arrangement
not to repeat the mistake that led to the opposition and criticism that greeted Richards Constitution. So, in
March, 1949, a select committee of the legislative council was set up to examine problems that may likely
face the introduction of a new constitution.
The committee agreed that a wide measure of consultation with the people right from the village level. should
be followed. Also, this was to be followed by general conference, membership
which would involve of all unoffical members of the legislative council and representatives of each regional
council. Macpherson Constitution was assumed to be home made.

MAIN FEATURES OF MACPHER-SON CONSTITUTION

1. The central legislature: A House of Representative was created and also known as the central legislature.
Membership was 148 and 136 of them were to be elected by the Nigerian members of the Regional legislature.
68 representatives from the North, representatives each from the Eastern and Western Houses of Assembly.
members were to be appointed by the governor to represent those
not properly represented and the other 6 lieutenant. would be ex-officio members the three governors, the chief
secretary, the Financial secretary, and the Attorney-general. Laws made must be assented to by the governor
before they could become [Link], this House had limited powers. It had no power over bills relating to
public service and public revenue and this was because the governor possessed wide reserved powers.

1. Council of ministers: The governor was the president of this council, others were 6 official members
charged with issues relating to civil service, defence, legal matters, etc, and 12 minister, 4 representing
each region and to come from House of Representatives. Each minister was not executive head of any
department, but responsibility was given to each over initiating discussion of policy in the council.
2. The Regional legislature: The Northern and Western Regions each had a bi-cameral legislature -
Houses of Assembly and Chiefs. The Eastern Region had only a House of Assembly. Each regional
legislature had the power to make laws on some specific matters, e.g. local matters, cooperative
societies, social welfare, local government, native courts and health.
3. Regional Executive Council: Each region was provided with an executive council, with the lieutenant-
governor as the president. The council advised the governor, but he could reject or accept such advice.
4. The three provinces: The three provinces were renamed, Western, Eastern and Northern Regions.
5. The Colony of Lagos: The colony of Lagos was part of Western Region.

THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONFERENCE OF 1953

The need for a new constitution arose as a result of the defects of the McPherson Constitution which led to its
breakdown. The secretary of state for the colonies, Oliver Littleton confirmed the change of Macpherson’s
Constitution when he announced on May 21, 1953 on the floor of the British House of Commons that her
majesty had decided that the Nigerian Constitution would have to be redrawn so as to provide for greater
autonomy.
The conference which sat between July 30 and August 22, 1953, reached the following agreements
 That a federal system of government should be established.
 That the regional Lieutenant-governor of Nigeria be called governors, while the governor of Nigeria
should be called Governor-General.
 That legislative power should be shared between the federal, state and the federating units.
 That Lagos should be separated from the Western region and made a neutral federal territory.
 That a conference to be held in Lagos in 1954 should ratify a separate regional administration in the
Cameroons if the people of the territory expressed their desires through a referendum.

LAGOS CONSTITUTIONAL CONFERENCE OF 1954

On January 19, 1954, the Constitutional Conference re-converged in Lagos to discuss some issues that were
not attended to at the previous constitutional conference. The following agreements were reached
 Financial resources were to be allocated to the federal and regional government based on the principle
of derivation.
 The commission recommended that autonomy should be granted the southern Cameroon.
 That the judiciary should be regionalized.
 That the police force should be regionalized.
 That though southern Cameroons should remain part of Nigeria federation as a quasi-federal territory,
it should have a legislature of its own.

LyTTLETON CONSTITUTION of 1954

The resultant defects of MacPherson’s constitution gave rise to two constitutional conferences in 1953 and
1954, the first in London and the other in Lagos. Far reaching conclusions were agreed on concerning the
structuring of Nigeria federation, the status of Lagos as a Natural Federal Unit.
In October 1954 Lyttleton’s Constitution came into effect and the main features and important changes made
by it were as follows;
 It was the first federal constitution adopted by Nigeria.
 The lieutenant governors of the various regions became known as Governors.
 The governor was known as Governor-General of the federation of Nigeria.
 Establishment of the office of the speakers and Deputy speaker of the regional legislatures except the
North.
 Regionalization of the public service, marketing boards and the judiciary.
 Establishment of the office of the regional premier.
 Regional legislatures were given law making powers.
 Reduction in numbers of both officials and appointed members in both central and regional
legislatures and the executive council.
 No provision was made for the office of the prime minister.
 Division of powers between the central and the regions.

CHAPTER
Foreign policy
Foreign policy refers to the decisions and actions taken by a state to pursue her interests within the global
system. The ability of a nation to influence the decisions and actions of other nations within the comity of
nations is of great importance.
*Nigeria's foreign policy can be defined as the totality of Nigeria's interaction within the international system.
In defining and planning their foreign policies, governments, most essentially, consider the enhancement of
national interests at international level. National or domestic interest is a major factor in foreign policy
formulation.
Nigeria, maintains relations with other nations of the world and maintains many diplomatic missions, ie,
embassies, high commissions and consulates abroad.
Nigeria also plays host to many foreign missions in Nigeria.

NIGERIA'S FOREIGN POLICY SINCE INDEPENDENCE

Since independence, there has been a
succession of military and civilian administrations whose foreign policies differed greatly in terms of ideology,
style, substance and even the personality of the leaders, Also the dynamics of foreign Poles itself demands our
est must eci proportion to the necessary demands and global obligations of the actors. Nigeria's foreign policy,
therefore, should be examined
differently.
A former foreign affairs minister of Nigeria, Major-General Ike Nwachukwu(rtd) grouped Nigeria's foreign
policy since independence into different phases:
1. The Balewa era -(1960-66)
Crises and civil war period(Gowon period, 1960-70)
2. Post-war era of Gowon (1970 - 75):
Re-construction, Reconciliation and Rehabilitation.
3. The Muritala/Obasanjo era (1975-79)
 4. The Second Republic era (1979-83)
5. The Buhari/Idiagbon era (1983-85)
6. The Babangida era (1985-93)
7. The Shonekan/Abacha era (1993-Jun 98)
8. The Abubakar era (June 1998-Ma
1999).

FACTORSTHAT CAN AFFECT NIGERIA'S FOREIGN

POLICY
The following factors can influence or affect Nigeria's foreign policy formulation.
1. Human resource/size: The Human resources/the size and quality of the population of Nigeria affect
her foreign policy formulation.
2. The economic resources: The economic resources available help to shape and formulate her foreign
policy objectives.
3. Previous commitments of the government: Commitments of previous governments in the areas of
signing or entering into treaties, pacts or agreements among others with other countries.
4. Ideological disposition of the rulers: If the leaders are capitalist or socialist oriented, any of these can
affect the country s foreign policy.
5. The military strength of Nigeria: The strength of the army, airforce and navy can affect her foreign
policy.
6. The industrial/technologica strength: The industrial an technological strength of Nigeria has the
capacity to affect her foreign polis formulation.
7. Public opinion: Opinion of the peop on issues of national importance can influence Nigeria's foreign
policy. For example, the demonstration University of Ibadan students against the Anglo-Nigeria
Defence Pact in 1961; rejection of IMF loan in 1985.

FORMULATION OF NIGERIA'S
FOREIGN POLICY
1. Formulation: The formulation of Nigeria's foreign policy is technically the responsibility of the
president of the country.
2. Consultations: Consultations are made with Nigeria's diplomats or representatives abroad, experts in
the universities, the business community, leaders of thought, etc before taking decisions.
3. The minister and the Ministry of External Affairs: The presidency is assisted in policy formulation by
the minister and officials of the Ministry of External Affairs as well as experts at Nigeria's Institute of
International Affairs. This ministry has the sole responsibility of coordinating and deliberating on
issues as they relate with Nigeria and the international community.

MAJOR FEATURES OF
NIGE-RIA'S FOREIGN POLICY
1. Friendship and co-operation: The country maintains friendship and cooperation with other nations of
the world that respect her territorial sovereignty.
2. Non-alignment: 1o remain nonaligned with any of the power blocs, i.e, Western or Eastern blocs.
West representing capitalism and East communism.
3. Clear and practical policies: Adoption of clear and practical policies regarding Africa with a view to
bringing about co-operation and progress to all independent African states.
4. Independence of African states: Helping non-independent African states to achieve total
independence, confirming the statement that, Africa is the centrepiece of Nigeria's foreign policy.
5. Respect for territorial integrity: Nigeria has respect for other states in Africa based on the principle of
non-interference in the internal affairs of other states.
6. Peaceful resolution of crises: Joining other states to find peaceful resolution to crisis as in ECOMOG
troops in Liberia, Sierra-Leone etc.
 CHAPTER
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
OAU
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
The Organization oF Arran Unity (OAU) was founded on may 25, 1963 at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Thirty
independent African states attended the inaugural meeting. The organization was intended to unite all African
states against the forces of colonialism and imperialism and work towards the resolution of African
socioeconomic and political problems.

The OAU is made up of all independent African states. Before the emergence of OAU as a regional body,
three different groups with different ideologies and goals existed. This did not augur well for unity. OAU is a
better organization than the former blocs it replaced.
1. Casablanca group: Ghana, Egypt, 1. Morocco, Guinea, Mali and Algeria.
2. Brazzaville or African and Malagasy group: Cameron, Congo Brazzaville, Ivory Coast, senegal, Niger
Republic etc.
3. Monrovia Group: Nigeria, Liberia, Sierra leone, Ethiopia etc. At the signing of the charter in Addis
Ababa, the existing three blocs were present but only Monrovia and Casablanca were dissolved while
the Brazzaville or African and Malagasy group continued to exist. Therefore, OAU as a body came
into existence on May 25, 1963.
4. The headquarters is in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Currently, about 53 countries make up the body and
they are all independent states. Eritrea was admitted as the 52nd member of the organisation at the
summit of Heads of State and Government in June, 1993 after obtaining its independence from
Ethiopia on may 24, 1993. South Africa was equally re-admitted as the 53rd member of OAU after
apartheid was dismantled.

Points to note:
1. Casablanca Group: It was a radical group that called for the immediate political integration of Africa.
2. Monrovia Group:It was a moderate bloc that demanded for a gradual political integration of African
states.

AIMSAND OBJECTIVES OF OAU

1. Promotion of unity: It has the aims of promoting unity and solidarity among
African states.
2. Living condition: To ensure good living standard for the people
3. Common defense: Member states agreed that they should jointly and cooperatively defend their
territories against external aggression.
4. Eradication of colonialism: They agreed to work towards the eradication of all forms of colonialism
and imperialism on the continent
5. Promotion of international peace:
Member states agreed to work together with other organisations, e.g. U.N.O. to promote international
peace.
6. United front: To have a united front on issues of global importance.

PRINCIPLES OFOAU
1. Sovereignty: All member states are sovereign, none should be under the control of any other state.
Respect for sovereignty of states to be a major principle.
2. Settlement of disputes: They agreed in principle that all disputes among member states should be
settled peacefully.
 3. Emancipation of African territories:
Working co-operatively to free the entire continent from colonial rule.
4. Equality of states: No state should dominate others. Equal rights should be granted to all member
states.
5. Policy of non-interference: No member state has the right to interfere in the internal affairs of other
member states.
6. Policy of non-alignment: Members have faith in the policy of non-alignment, and are expected to
discuss and assess international issues objectively.

ORGANS OR INSTITUTIONS OF
OAU
The following are the organs of OAU:
1. The Assembly of Heads of state and Government
2. The Council of Ministers.
3. The General Secretariat.
4. The Commission of Mediation, Conciliation andArbitration.
5. The Liberation Committee.

ACHIEVEMENTS OFTHE
OAU
1. Served as a forum: The organization served as a forum for African leaders to discuss African affairs.
2. United stand at the U.N. The organization has allowed the African states to take united stand at the
U.N.O.
3. Attainment of independence: The Liberation Committee of OAU had supported nationalist
movements in countries fighting for independence; e.g. Angola, Namibia Mozambique.
4. Settlement of disputes: It contributed to the settlement of many disputes among African states. For
example, OAU played a useful role during the Nigerian civil war.
5. Regional economic co-operation: The Organization of African Unity has encouraged regional and
economic cooperation in A frica, e.g. ECOWAS.

THE AFRICAN UNION (AU)

Historical perspective

The 37th summit of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) held between the 9th
-13th of July, 2001 was the last summit of the 38-year-old organization. It also marked the birth of a new
organization, known as the African Union (AU) which was adopted by 50 of the 53 member countries.
Consequently, on Monday, 8th July, 2002, African leaders formally marked the end of the Organization of
African Unity and the birth of African Union in its place. Forty of the continent's ho naredentatheads in
Bournan, band Africa, to inaugurate the new union.
Characteristics:
1. The new union is to be people-oriented.
2. The union's anthem called, Unity Afrika was composed by veteran award-winning South African
musicians, Caiphus Semeny and Jonas Gwangwa
3. Thabo Mbeki, the president of South Africa, became the first A.U. Chairman.

Charter of the AU
1. The draft act for the A.U. provides for the right of member states to request intervention in order to
restore peace and security.
 2. The proposed charter for AU also gives the Union the right to "intervene in a member state pursuant to
a decision of the Assembly in respect of grave circumstances namely war crimes, genocide and crimes
against humanity".
3. The draft charter also provides "that any member state that fails to comply with the decisions and
policies of the union may be subject to sanctions"

COMMON WEALTH
THE ORIGIN OFTHE
COMMON WEALTH
1. The origin of Commonwealth could be traced to 1907 when representatives of governments of the five
countries, Austria, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand and South Africa met for the first time.
2. The Association was formerly known as British Commonwealth of Nations.
3. The modern Commonwealth began in 1931 when British parliament created statue of West Minister.
4. Commonwealth is composed of 54 countries now.

HISTORICALBACKGROUND
The former British empire comprised territories or colonies acquired by Britain in different parts of the world.
e.g. In 19th century, the former British colonies of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, Ireland, etc,
had partial representative governments but had Governors that (represented the Queen) administered these
colonies. So, the link was there with Britain. However, they were autonomous within the British empire.
Therefore, commonwealth of nations replaced the old imperial system of the British Empire, the crown
colonies, mandates, trust territories and protectorates, and dependences. A new system of partnership,
involving sovereign and states (dominion and republics) that are of equal basis.

The name commonwealth was adopted in 1951.

However, Ireland ceased to be a member in 1949, South Africa in 1961, Burma left in 1948, etc.
The headquarters of the commonwealth is London. Meetings of this organisation are held once every two
years, attended by Heads of states and governments of member-states.

THE OUEEN AS THE HEAD OF THE COMMONWEALTH

TheQueen as the Head of the commonwealth was adopted in 1949 ,when the proposal for making India a
republic within the Commonwealth was adopted and accepted. It was accepted because paying allegiance or
being submissive to the crown should not be the basis for a
of the
continued membership of the Commonwealth and that a republic can coexist with monarchy without
jeopardising the benefits of membership. Her office was separated from the headship of the republic.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE COMMONWEALTH

1. Common Understanding: Promotion of common understanding among the
members.
2. Solution to problems: in education, trade, science, medicine, agriculture, sports, etc.
3. Territorial integrity: Respecting this and the sovereignty of members and non-member states.
4. Promotion of sporting activities: This is held every four years to foster the spirit of friendship and
love.
5. Discussion of problems: To come together to discuss problems as it affects member states.
6. U.N. Charter: To work within the frame work of U.N. Charter and for the promotion of international
peace and security.
ORGANS OFTHE COMMON-WEALTH
1. The Prime Minister Conference:
This is the paramount organ of the Commonwealth. Membership has to do with the Heads of state and
governments of member-states or their accredited representatives. This conference at the kingston's
prime ministers conference in 1964, agreed to establish a Commonwealth secretariat and it became a
reality in 1965.
2. The Secretariat: The Secretariat is headed by a Secretary-General and is located in London. This organ
was established after the prime ministers' conference in Kingston, Jamaica, in 1965. Arnold Smith
(1965-1975), was the first Secretary-General and is from Canada, followed by Sir Shridath Ramphal
(1975-1990) from Guyana. He was succeeded by Chief Emeka Anyaoku from Nigeria as the next
Secretary-General 1992 - 2005). He was in turn replaced by Mr. Don Mckinnon.

PROBLEMS FACING THE COMMONWEALTH

1. Foreign policies: Differences in foreign policies pursued by member states is a problem facing the
organization
2. The issues of EEC: Another problem is Britain joining the European Economic Community (EEC).
3. Regional or sub-regional groupings: e.g. the A.U., , ECOWAS and EEC. Much attention is now paid
to these regional or sub-regional groupings than the Commonwealth.
4. Problem of south Africa: It created differences among members. Britain's support for apatheid policy
and the then British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher's insistence on non-sanction.
5. No common currency: Previously, member states have their currencies in pound sterling, but now the
case is different.
6. Compliance with decision: Member states cannot be compelled to comply with its decisions like the
U.N.O. There is nobody or agency that can enforce compliance to it's decisions.

CHAPTER
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION II

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Attempts made by nations to establish international organization were not sufficient enough to see them
through.
Besides, there was no political organization with the intention of bringing nations together, settling disputes
and averting wars of a critical dimension.
The League of Nations was established in 1919 to prevent an outbreak of another war after the 1* World war,
(1914 - 18) to remove some of the defects and causes of wars, and achieve international co-operation through
the promotion of peace and security.

REASONS UNDERLINING THE ESTABLISHMENT OF LEAGUE OF NATIONS.

1. To remove Causes of Wars: This was made possible by reducing procurement of national armaments
to the barest minimum so as to be in line with national safety. Nations agreed to respect and to
preserve, as against external aggression, the political independence as well as the territorial integrity
of members of the league.
2. Dispute Between Nations: In the event of disputes procedures were in place to prevent such leading to
war and that such disputes if capable of producing war should be submitted to arbitration or to judicial
settlement or to inquiry by the league council.
3. Keeping the Arrangement: If a member should go to war, provision was made to help the member
state that did not break the promises. Those states that broke the arrangement should face trade or
financial sanction.
 4. Protection of the Covenants: Similarly, the League Council should recommend to states the
contribution to be made in terms of armed forces so as to protect the covenants of the League.

PERMANENT
INSTITUTIONS OF THE LEAGUE )F NATIONS.
hese institutions were to be created to fulfill the objects of the League.
There was to be in place:
1. An Assembly
2. A Council
3. A Secretariat
4. A Court of International Justice
5. International Labour Officer

UNO
ORIGIN OF U.N.O.
The United Nations Organisation came into existence in 1945. This was as a result of the failure of the League
of Nations. formed in 1919, after the First World War(1914-18), to prevent the outbreak of another war e.g. the
Second World War of (1939-45). U.S.A., Britain, China, Soviet Union and France and about 50 other states
came together to draw a charter on 24 october I945, at San Francisco in U.S.A.
The essence of this charter was the desire to maintain peace and security among
Nations of the world. Admission into U.N.O is open and currently there are about 193 Nations making up the
body. Nigeria was the 99th member and was admitted after her Independence. It is open to all peace loving
nations of the world.

THE PRINCIPLES OF U.N.O

1. Settlement of disputes: International disputes are to be settled by peaceful means and it must be done
in such a way as to avoid endangering international peace and security.
2. Principle of sovereign equality: United Nations Organisation is based on the principle of sovereign
equality of member states.
3. Military Assistance: The organization has the capacity to provide military assistance when it is called
to do so.
4. Speaking with one voice: Members of the body has to agree in good faith to fulfill the obligation as
obtained in the charter.
5. Unity and cooperation among
6. Nations: This is to be harmonized in the areas of solving international problems, eradication of threats
and causes of wars.
7. Promotion of democratic principles:
8. Democratic principles should be promoted through observing elections held in member states,
donation of election materials, and military rule to be discouraged in its entirety.

AIMSANDOBJECTIVES OF
THE UNO
1. To maintain international peace and security.
2. To promote and encourage respect for Human Rights and fundamental freedom for all races
internationally.
3. To promote economic and social advancement of all people.
4. To develop friendly relations among states based on mutual respect, equal rights and self-
determination of people.
5. To encourage and achieve international cooperation in solving international problems economic,
social, cultural and humanitarian.
6. To accelerate the independence of trust territories.
 7. To settle disputes: Disputes must be settled among member states by peaceful means.
8. Total respect: Total respect to the Sovereignty of members state must be put in place.

THE ORGANS OF THE UNO

The following are the main organs of U.N.O.
1. The General Assembly
2. The Security Council
3. The Secretariat
4. The Trusteeship Council
5. The International Court of Justice.
6. The Economic and Social Council.

SPECIALISED AGENCIES OF U.N.O.

These are agencies that are autonomous and are existing under the banner or umbrella of the U.N.O. The
existence of these organisations are mostly based on agreements and cooperation among a good number of
states. Membership varies from one agency to another. Most of the activities of these agencies are coordinated
by the Economic and social council.
Examples of these specialized Agencies
are:
1. I.L.O--- International Labour Organization
2. FAO----- Food and Agricultural Organization
3. WHO_ World Health Organization
4. IBRD-----International Bank for Reconstruction and Development(World Bank)
5. UNESCO---United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization
6. UPU-. Universal Postal Union
7. UNICEr...United Nations International Children Emergency Fund.
8. IMF... International Monetary Fund

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE UNO.

1. Settlement of disputes: The World Court, an organ of U.N.O. has settled disputes among nations. e.g.
Libya and Chad. The case involving Nigeria and Cameron was settled in favour of Cameron.
2. Prevention of another world war: The U.N.O. as an organisation and since its formation, has been able
to prevent the outbreak of a 3rd world war. For e.g. the annexation of Kuwait by rag was quickly
contained by the major powers by collectively expelling Iraq from Kuwait.
3. The Trusteeship council: This council has helped some territories that have not gained independence
to do so. For example Namibia got her independence through the efforts of the U.N.O.
4. UNESCO: Member nations of U.N.O. have benefited immeusely from UNESCO in the areas of
education, science, etc. UNESCO, is one of the specialised agencies of U.N.O.

ECOWAS
FORMATION
The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was founded on 28th May, 1975 in Lagos,
Nigeria. It comprised all the 16 independent nations of West Africa.
Abuja is the administrative head-quartres of the community and Lome, the fund headquartres. Nigeria, under
the leadership of General Yakubu Gowon and Togo under president Eyadema, initiated the formation of the
sub-regional economic grouping. Nigeria, Ghana, The Gambia, Sierra-Leone and Liberia are the English
speaking or Anglophone countries. Senegal, Guinea, Togo, Mali, Benin Republic, Burkina Faso, Cote de
I'vorie, Mauritania and Niger Republic are French speaking or Francophone countries, making up the body
while Cape Verde and Guinea Bissau are Busophone (Portuguese speaking)
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF
ECOWAS
1. Co-operation and developments: One of the aims of ECOWAS is to promote cooperation and
development in all fields of economic activities e.g transport, energy, agriculture, telecommunication,
etc, among the member states making up the organisation.
2. Standard of living: To promote and raise the standard of living of the people through cooperation
within the sub-region.
3. Economic stability: To increase and maintain economic stability within the community.
4. To foster closer relations: This would be achieved by encouraging free movement of citizens, goods
and services.
5. Development of African Continent:
It is also aimed at encouraging the progress and development of the African continent.

ORGANS OFECOWAS
The following are the organs established by the organisation:
1. The Authority of Heads of State and Governments: This is the foremost, the highest authority of the
organisation. It is made up of Heads of state and government within the sub-region. This organ is
headed by a chairman, who holds office for one year.
2. The Council of Ministers: This council consists of two ministers or representatives from each member
state and it meets twice in a year. Voting on issues is based on simple majority.
3. The Executive Secretariat: The Executive Secretariat is the administrative organ of ECO WAS. It is
located in Abuja. The Secretary-General is the head of the secretariat. He is the principal executive
officer of the community and responsible for the general administration of the community. He is
assisted by two deputy executive secretaries. The office is for a period of four years and may be re-
elected for another term.

Note:
The first executive secretary.
ECOWAS was Abubakar Quattara of Cote d' Ivoire (1975 - 82). His successors were Momodu Munu of
Sierra-Leone (1985 -89),Abbas Bundu of Sierra-Leone (1989 -93), Benjamin Edourd of Guinea (1993-97) and
Lanscina Kansana Kouyate of Guinea (1997).

1. The Fund for Co-operation, Compensation and Development: The headquarters of this Fund is Lome,
Togo. It is headed by a Managing Director, who is appointed by the Council of Ministers.
2. The Community Tribunal: This tribunal settles disputes among member states making up the
organisation on matters affecting the interpretation of the treaties that established ECOWAS.
3. The Technical and Specalised Commission: ECOWAS has four technical and specialised
commissions

1. The Industry, Agriculture and Natural Resources Commission

2. The Trade, Customs, Immigration, Monetary and Payments Commission
3. The Transport, Telecommunications and Energy Commission
4. The Social and Cultural Affairs Commission.

PROBLEMSOR
WEAKNESSES OFECOWAS
1. Colonial masters: The political economy of member states is tied to that of their respective former
colonial masters.
2. Language barriers: Official languages of member countries are foreign and varied: English, French,
Portuguese thus complicating the communication problem.
 3. Free movement: The free movement as provided by the charter of ECOWAS is no more automatic
because of its Soc1o-economic implications fo member states.
4. Ideological differences: This also hampers the cohesiveness of the community.
5. Common currency problem: Foreign currencies and dollar like, franc, pound sterling determine the
stability of currency of member states and there no common currency for members states.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF ECOWAS
1. The removal o customs duties: Customs duties that may come up in areas of exportation and
importation of goods are removed.
2. Elimination of obstacles: There is the elimination of obstacles to movements of persons, services and
capital.
3. The elimination of administrative restrictions: These and other restrictions on trade within the
subregion are removed.
4. Establishment of funds: The funds are established for co-operation, compensation and development.
5. Mediation: Member states mediate in disputes among states, e.g. Nigeria and Chad, Liberia, Sierra -
Leone etc.

OPEC
ORIGIN OFOPEC
The formation of OPEC Was essentially a reaction to the exploitative tendencies of multi-national companies
in 1960, involved in oil exploration. So, in 1960, some oil producing countries came together as a way of
protecting their interest and formed OPEC. Some countries later joined the cartel to increase membership e.g.
Libya 1962, Algeria 1962, Nigeria 1971, Qatar 1961. The founding nations were rag, ran, Saudi Arabia,
Kuwait, and Venezuela.
Currently, there are 13 member states of the organisation - Iraq, Iran, Saudi,Iran,Saudi
Arabia, Kuwait, Nigeria, Venezuela,Kuwait,
Gabon, Ecuador, Libya, Algeria, Qatar, United Arab Emirate and Indonesia.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF ОРЕС

1. To coordinate and unify: OPEC was formed to coordinate the petroleum policies of member states.
2. To remove price fluctuations: OPEC is also aimed at stabilizing the price of oil in the international
market and thereby eliminate price fluctuations.
3. Steady income: OPEC is set up to ensure steady income to oil producing countries.
4. Efficient and uninterrupted supply of petroleum: OPEC was also formed to ensure an efficient and
uninterrupted supply of petroleum to consuming nations.
5. Quota: It was to fix or allocate production quota to member - states.
6. Protection of member states: It was also to find ways of protecting the interests of the members by
ensuring that the involvement of multi - national companies in oil exploration does not threaten the
interest of member nations.

ORGANS OF OPEC
1. The Conference
2. The board of Governors
3. The Secretariat.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF OPEC
1. Common fund: This fund has helped to alleviate the financial problems of the members at one time or
the other.
 2. Forum: this organisation has created a forum whereby problems contronting the member - states of
OPEC can be resolved amicably.
3. Activities of multi - national companies: Some activities of these companies have been put to check
and they are also being monitored.
4. Regulation of production and price: OPEC to some extent, has succeeded in regulating production and
in raising the price of oil in recent times. Even the activities of multinational corporations are equally
regulated.
5. Encouragement: Member states have been encouraged to participate in oil exploration

PROBLEMS OR FAILURES OF OPEC

1. Threat to price stabilization: The discovery of and marketing of North sea oil and the competition
posed by such is a threat to price stabilization.
2. The issue of quota: Member states often disagree and do not always cooperate on oil quota. Some of
them produce more than the quota allocated to them.
3. Low level of loyalty: Some members expressed lack of loyalty in the area of decisions made and
disregards its implementation.
4. Economic depression or recession worldwide: This has the capacity of bringing down the price of oil.
5. Research: Some advanced countries are constantly into research, trying to find an alternative to oil. By
this move, the price of oil is negatively affected.