LICENCIATURA EN LA ENSEÑANZA DEL INGLÉS

BUAP
2024

ENSEÑANZA DEL INGLES A PRE-ESCOLAR Y

PRIMARIA .

Mtro. Victor Guzmán

 1 Teaching English
to Young Learners
around the World:
An Introduction
Getting Started
This chapter will introduce you to teaching English to young learners (TEYL).
You will learn about the growth of English as a global language, the advantages
of early language learning, the various kinds of program models used around
the world, some of the problems associated with TEYL, and various teaching
practices that have been found to be effective in teaching English to young
learners. You will have the opportunity to reflect on the readings and discuss
key questions related to the chapter. To help you apply new knowledge, you
will respond to written journal prompts and complete hands-on activities. You
will hear the voices of teachers
in the field who share their
experiences teaching English to
young learners.
Blue Jean Images/Alamy

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 Think about your own experiences studying English. How old were
Think About It you when you began studying English? What challenges did you face?
What would have happened if you had started at an earlier age?
Now think about any experiences you have had observing young
learner classes or talking with children who are learning another
language. What are their experiences? Do they enjoy their language
classes? If so, why?
Over the past decade, the age of compulsory English education
has been lowered in many countries. Why do you think this has
occurred? Has the age of English education been lowered in your
country? If yes, why do you think that has happened? If not, why do
you think that is?

T-Chart of Benefits and Challenges

Discovery Activity In the T-chart below, write down what you think are the benefits and
challenges facing English language programs for young learners.

PLUS + MINUS –
Benefits of early language learning Challenges of early English language
programs programs

Theory, Planning and Application

Reasons for an Early Start
Although there are various points of view about the best time to begin English
language instruction (see the discussion below), and minor differences in student
age and program categories, the fact is that in most countries, children are learning
English at younger and younger ages. In many countries, English is a compulsory
subject in the early primary grades (Nikolov, 2009; Pinter, 2006). In a recent survey
of EYL teachers from 55 countries around the world, Shin and Crandall (2011)
2 Teaching Young Learners English
found that more than 50 percent of these countries introduced compulsory English
language courses by third grade. Even in countries where families may choose the
foreign language for their children to study, English is “overwhelmingly the first
choice” (Garton, Copland, & Burns, 2011, p. 5). The growing demand for English,
plus parents’ belief that English skills provide their children with a better education
and better employment opportunities, have led to an increase in the number of
EYL programs (Enever & Moon, 2009; Gimenez, 2009).
There are two major reasons for an early start in English:

■■ The value of English for education and employment

■■ The benefits of early language learning

The Value of English for Education and Employment Today,

an estimated one billion or more people speak some English (Crystal, 2012). The
number of people who are studying English increases every year, beginning at
younger and younger ages.
About 400 million people have learned English as a first or native language
and use English on a regular basis (Crystal, 2012). Most live in countries that
Kachru (1990) calls “Inner Circle” countries, such as the United States, United
Kingdom, ­Ireland, Canada, Australia, or New Zealand, where English is the
dominant l­anguage of education, government, and other institutions.
Another 300–500 million people live in “Outer Circle” countries (Crystal, 2012).
“in which English has a long history and serves a variety of functions in ­education,
­government, literature, and popular culture” (McKay, 2002, p. 133). In the 70+
countries of the Outer Circle, which include India, Pakistan, the Philippines, ­Kenya,
Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, and Fiji, the populations have learned ­English as a
second language (ESL) and have developed their own varieties of English.
But the largest number, estimated at 500 million to a billion English speakers
(Crystal, 2012), live in what Kachru calls the “Expanding Circle.” In these coun-
tries, such as China, Korea, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, Germany, Sweden,
Chile, ­Brazil, or Mexico, English has no official function and opportunities to use
English are usually only with those who do not share the same mother tongue.
People in these Expanding Circle countries are studying English as a foreign lan-
guage (EFL) or as an international language (EIL) because of the importance of
English as a “lingua franca” or link language (a common language used by people
who speak different languages) for business, media and communication, air and
sea travel, and science and technology. English is increasingly used as a medium
of instruction in higher education, and with international ­sporting events like the
Olympics and the World Cup, English has become a ­major ­medium for tourism.
1 Teaching English to Young Learners 3
 Expanding circle

Outer circle

Inner circle
320–380 millon

300–500 millon

500–1000 millon

In all, according to Crystal (2012), there are three times as many n

­ onnative
speakers as there are native speakers of English. There are at least 350 m ­ illion
speakers of English in Asia alone—almost the combined populations of the
United States, Canada, and Great Britain. At least 25 percent of the world’s
­population can communicate to some degree in English (Crystal, 2012, p. 69).
It is truly a global language.
As English becomes the world’s lingua franca, countries all over the world
have adopted English language instruction as part of their education system.
Many countries begin at the primary level, and students are studying the lan-
guage at younger and younger ages (Jenkins, 2009). New English-medium uni-
versities are being established in many countries to enable students and faculty
to study the latest research and textbooks, which are often written in English.
This requires students to develop academic English proficiency during their
primary and secondary schooling. The global role of English differentiates
the teaching of English as an international language from that of other foreign
languages.

The Benefits of Early Language Learning Early studies of second or

foreign language learning argued that there was a “critical period” (Lenneberg, 1967;
Penfield & Roberts, 1959), or a “critical” or “sensitive period” (Oyama, 1976), prior to
puberty in which children could acquire native-like proficiency in a foreign language.
That perspective found ready acceptance among adults who thought children could
“pick up” a language easily, often remembering their own frustration at not having
mastered another language. While there is evidence for the benefits of acquiring
another language naturally (for example, when two parents each speak a different
language to a child), there is little evidence to support the critical period hypothesis for
learning a foreign language (Garton, Copland, & Burns, 2011; Nikolov & Mihaljevic
Djigunovic, 2011; Pinter, 2006; Read, 2003). A recent review of research on the
4 Teaching Young Learners English
critical period (Marinova-Todd, Marshall, & Snow, 2000, p. 10) concluded that
adolescent learners are more efficient language learners (they have already acquired
their mother tongue) and that they can learn a second language “to a very high level
and that introducing foreign languages to very young learners cannot be justified on
grounds of biological readiness to learn languages” (see also McLaughlin, 1984/1985).
However, a number of “language policy documents explicitly state the
­advantages of early language learning” (Nikolov & Mihaljevic Djigunovic, 2011,
p. 98). For example, the European Commission identifies “better l­anguage
skills” and “favorable attitudes to other languages, people and cultures” as
­benefits of early language learning, if conditions such as trained teachers and
small classes are in place (Nikolov & Mihaljevic Djigunovic, 2011, p. 98).
As Rixon (1999) points out, what matters more than the optimal age
are the conditions under which young learner programs are offered. These
­include c­ onditions outside the classroom (for example, the social, cultural, and
­economic value of the language) and inside the classroom. Read (2003) suggests
that younger is better when learning is:
■■ Natural
■■ Contextualized and part of a real event
■■ Interesting and enjoyable
■■ Relevant
■■ Social
■■ Belongs to the child
■■ Has a purpose for the child
■■ Builds on things the child knows but also challenges the child
■■ Supported appropriately
■■ Part of a coherent whole
■■ Multisensory
■■ Active and experiential
■■ Memorable
■■ Designed to provide for personal, divergent responses and multiple intelligences
■■ Offered in a relaxed and warm learning atmosphere

(Adapted from Read, 2003, p. 7)

In addition, it can create a “sense of achievement” (Read, 2003, p. 7).
With these optimal conditions in mind, then, there are a number of reasons
for starting language learning early. These include:
1. The value of increased time
2. The possibility of better pronunciation and fluency
1 Teaching English to Young Learners 5
 3. The possibility of greater global awareness and intercultural competence
4. The value of bilingualism

1. The value of increased time One reason for starting English in the primary
grades is the amount of time that children will have to learn the language. As
noted above, although some researchers believe that adolescents are more efficient
language learners, younger learners simply have more time to learn the language,
and time is an important factor in overall attainment (Carroll, 1975), as any adult
who has tried to learn another language has discovered. As Curtain and Dahlberg
(2010) state, “When language learning begins earlier, it can go on longer and
provide more practice and experience, leading ultimately to greater fluency and
effectiveness” (p. 428). However, duration is not enough. Intensity also matters.
Children need the opportunity to learn English for more than two 30-minute periods
a week.

2. The possibility of better pronunciation and fluency Moreover, some

researchers have concluded that young learners are more likely to attain native-like
pronunciation (Scovel, 1988), greater confidence in speaking the language, and
better oral proficiency (Harley, 1998). These studies do not refute the possibility that
older language learners can achieve native-like pronunciation or proficiency, but
they suggest that younger learners may have an advantage. If children begin learning
another language before age 11 or 12, and they are given appropriate instruction and
input, they “are more likely to acquire English to native levels without an accent”
(Pinter, 2006, p. 29). “Appropriate instruction” requires well-trained teachers with
good English proficiency who can foster the creativity and imagination of young
learners, taking advantage of children’s willingness to imitate or mimic what they
hear and to repeat the language, especially if the activity is fun.
3. The possibility of greater global awareness and intercultural
competence As the world gets smaller and more interconnected through the
Internet and international travel, children have the opportunity to become global
citizens. Through learning another language, children can gain an appreciation for
other languages and cultures. The experience can also make them more aware and
reflective of their own language and culture.
Many years ago, while evaluating a bilingual program in its first year, we
talked with some children in the program and we will never forget when one
little boy said, “I used to think that [another child] talked funny, but now I
know that he’s Spanish.” That kind of cultural understanding may be the most
­important benefit of early language learning.

6 Teaching Young Learners English

 4. The value of bilingualism: mental flexibility Being bilingual provides
many cognitive advantages. Even when children are only using one of their two
(or more) languages, they have access to the other language(s) and to those neural
networks (Bialystok, 1999). For young learners, especially, being able to speak
another language provides a number of advantages such as mental flexibility, the
ability to see a problem from different perspectives. It can also increase a child’s self-
awareness. As Marsh (2000) explains, “What we need to realize is that the ability
to use different languages, even to a modest extent, can have a positive impact on
the youngster’s thinking processes. Being able to see the same phenomenon from
different angles, as though looking through different language ‘spectacles’, can have a
very interesting impact on our ability to think and understand” (p. 3).

Planning for Success in EYL Programs

A number of factors can affect the success of an EYL program. As Pinter (2006)
points out, these include the status of English in the country or region, the goals
of English education, and the motivation for learning English. Perhaps the most
important factors are:

■■ Effective EYL program models

■■ Appropriately trained EYL teachers
■■ Culturally appropriate materials
■■ Continuity of curriculum between primary and secondary English

Effective EYL Program Models Although starting a language in early

grades has many advantages, we cannot rely on an early start alone to increase the
levels of English language proficiency of our students, nor even the selection of an
appropriate program model. As Nunan (1999, p. 3) has reminded us, programs to
teach English to young learners need to be “carefully planned, adequately supported
and resourced, and closely monitored and evaluated.”
Young learner programs may begin in any primary grade, and the number of
classes and the number of hours per week may also vary. Some programs meet
for 20–30 minutes, once a week. Others may meet every day for 30 m ­ inutes.
In still other EYL programs, children are taught subjects such as science or
­mathematics in English for as much as a full day, every day. With these different
amounts of time for study and use of English, children’s proficiency in English
will vary. Children who have 30 minutes of English once or twice a week, even if

1 Teaching English to Young Learners 7

 they begin at age 6 or 7, are not likely to become bilingual by age 12. Those who
use English as a medium of instruction for some of their school subjects will
­attain much deeper proficiency.
EYL programs can also take many forms, with different goals or objectives,
depending on national and local ­educational policy, available resources, ­cultural
preferences, attitudes toward English and the role of various languages in the
country, and the language(s) spoken by children in the home. Consider the need
for different program models in countries like India or Kenya, where English
becomes the medium of instruction in later grades, and in countries like J­ apan
or Brazil, where E­ nglish is a ­foreign or international language.
Whatever the model, effective EYL programs are those that encourage
­interaction, provide engaging activities, and build positive attitudes toward
­English language learning. Some program models in the United States that are
also adapted and used in other countries are described below. These include:

1. FLEX programs
2. FLES programs
3. Immersion programs
4. Dual-language or two-way immersion programs
5. Transitional and maintenance bilingual programs

1. FLEX programs FLEX (foreign language exploratory or experience)

programs introduce children to different languages and cultures. Children receive
short sessions in which they learn basic words or phrases in one or more languages,
sometimes in a before- or after-school program. Through music, songs, and stories,
they may learn the numbers, colors, and greetings in a foreign language, but the
major goal of a FLEX program is to increase children’s awareness of other languages
and cultures and thus of their own. The focus is on exploring or experiencing
languages, rather than developing proficiency in these languages (Met, 1991). FLEX
programs can also create a high level of interest and motivate children to want to
study a language.
2. FLES programs In FLES (foreign language in the elementary school)
programs, children study one language as a regular school subject for up to
45 minutes a day, several times a week. The goal of a FLES program is to help
children develop listening and speaking skills in another language, as well as some
proficiency in reading and writing the language, especially in the later primary
grades (4–6). Developing an appreciation of other cultures is also a typical goal of
a FLES program. While there are a number of different FLES programs, all expect

8 Teaching Young Learners English

children to study a language for at least two years, often throughout the primary
grades. Through extended exposure to the language, children can develop some
proficiency and also develop “basic language-learning skills” that will help them as
they continue to study the language in secondary school (Haas, 1998, p. 44).
In content-based FLES or content-enriched FLES programs, content from
other subjects from the school curriculum (mathematics, science, social stud-
ies) is taught in the foreign language. By focusing on both language and con-
tent, these programs (referred to more generally as content-based instruction,
CBI, or content and language integrated learning, CLIL) offer the opportunity
for learners to develop academic language and thinking skills in a meaning-
ful context (Crandall, 2012). These programs usually also provide more time
for language learning. Because of this increased time and the enriched content,
learners in content-based FLES programs usually attain a higher level of lan-
guage proficiency than learners in regular FLES programs (Reeves, 1989).

3. Immersion programs Language immersion programs, as the name suggests,

immerse children in another language by using that language as the medium of
instruction, at least for part of the school day. Unlike the programs discussed above,
where English is a school subject, in immersion programs, English is the language
of instruction for at least some courses. However, in effective (often referred to as
additive) immersion programs, students retain their native language, and literacy in
the native language is never abandoned or discarded.
In a total English immersion program, children study all of their subjects (ex-
cept their own language) through English. In partial immersion programs, they
may take half of their subjects in their own language and the other half in
a foreign language. Some partial immersion programs begin with only a few
subjects or hours of instruction in the foreign language and then gradually
increase the number of subjects and the time in the foreign language in later
grades. Some try to provide children with the opportunity to learn mathematics,
science, and social studies in both the local and foreign language over the course
of the six years. In some programs, children continue in an immersion program
in secondary school. Additive immersion programs can begin at any age, even
as late as secondary school, but most begin in the primary grades (Faulkner-
Bond et al., 2011).
The goal of these immersion programs is for children to develop functional
proficiency in another language (Curtain & Dahlberg, 2010) without loss of the
native language. Additive immersion students, especially those who participate
in “early” foreign language immersion (beginning at ages 5–7) can become very
good at listening and reading in another language, and they do this without any
1 Teaching English to Young Learners 9
 harm to their own language. As Harley (1998, pp. 29–30) says, “Studies have
shown that immersion students, without detriment to their [first language] and
subject matter learning, develop excellent listening and reading comprehension
skills,” as well as very strong speaking and writing skills. As might be expected,
the children who begin earlier generally achieve better listening and speaking
skills.
4. Dual-language or two-way immersion programs In dual-language
programs (also referred to as two-way bilingual programs), equal (or nearly equal)
numbers of children who speak one language (for example, Spanish) and those who
speak another language (for example, English) take some of their instruction through
each language. Some programs begin with using one language 90 percent of the
time in K–1, then gradually move to using each language 50 percent of the time in
grades 2–6; others start using 50 percent of each and continue with that distribution
throughout the program. The program may involve two teachers, each speaking one
of the languages, or one teacher who carefully uses only the required language during
each part of the school day. The goal of these programs is additive bilingualism,
wherein children become bilingual, bicultural, and biliterate and retain their home or
heritage language while they are learning another (Faulkner-Bond et al., 2011).
5. Transitional and maintenance bilingual programs The goal of a transitional
bilingual program (also referred to as early-exit) is to help children transition
from their first language into the language of schooling, usually after three years
of bilingual instruction. Children begin with more instructional time in their first
language, learning to read in that language, while they are also learning the new
language. They also receive instruction in major subjects through both languages
over time, helping to establish basic concepts in the first language, but also preparing
for the switch to the language of instruction in upper grades. This program model
does not support continued literacy or development of the native language after
the initial years of native language use. It is subtractive in nature, in that continued
development of literacy and academic learning in the native language is not a goal or
expectation.
Unlike transitional bilingual programs, maintenance (also referred to as de-
velopmental or late-exit) programs continue to provide instruction through the
first language for several (usually six) years of school. The goal of a maintenance
bilingual program (as the name suggests) is to develop deep literacy and aca-
demic learning in the first language, while also providing increasing amounts of
instruction through the second, so that by secondary school, children can make
the transition to another language, though they may continue to study their

10 Teaching Young Learners English

first or heritage language as a subject in secondary school (Faulkner-Bond et al.,
2011; Met, 1991).

Appropriately Trained EYL Teachers Educational research continually

reminds us that the most important factor in any child’s education is the teacher.
Effective EYL programs have well-trained teachers with adequate proficiency in
English to help their children learn English. Effective EYL teachers have appropriate
training in teaching young learners, in teaching English, and in teaching through
English (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, 2009). But with
the growing number of EYL programs in the world, a major challenge is finding
enough teachers or teacher training programs to prepare these teachers (Hu, 2005;
Kirkgöz, 2009). Too often, EYL teachers have taught English to adolescents, but
find themselves teaching young learners with no special training on how to teach
children. Other times, EYL teachers are regular elementary classroom teachers
and are assigned the added responsibility of teaching English, even if they do not feel
comfortable using English (Curtain & Pesola, 2000; Garton, Copland, & Burns, 2011).
Most EYL programs are fortunate in having nonnative English-speaking
teachers (NNESTs) who share the cultural backgrounds and educational expec-
tations of their students and understand the contexts in which English is used
in their communities and countries. Teachers who share their young learners’
language and culture will understand the ways that children learn in that country
and will also be able to make connections between what is learned in the EYL
class and what is learned in the children’s other classes. Some programs also have
native English-speaking teachers (NESTs) who can complement the teaching
of the NNESTs through their access to more English resources, a wider English
­vocabulary, and greater comfort in using the language in a range of contexts.

Culturally Appropriate Materials If English is an international

language, does that affect how we should teach English to young learners? What
should be our goals in teaching an international language? We will be considering
this throughout the book, but first and foremost, the purpose of teaching English to
young learners is not to expect them to speak American or British English. What we
want is for them to be understood by other speakers of English as an international
language. Nor do we want them to learn only about the cultures of countries in the
Inner Circle. Because English is an international and intercultural language, we
should also include materials from many cultures around the world. The children
we teach will most likely use English with other EIL speakers, and what they really
need is an appreciation of different cultures. We also want to include the students’
home culture. This will help students to talk about their own culture in English

1 Teaching English to Young Learners 11

 (McKay, 2002) and develop what Kramsch and Sullivan (1996) call a “sphere of
interculturality” in the classroom, one that promotes a healthy process of learning
about cultural differences through reflection on one’s own culture.

Jade Albert Studio, Inc./Getty Images

Continuity of Curriculum Between Primary and Secondary
English When countries adopt early language programs, they also need to think
about how those programs impact the language programs for older learners at
secondary school (Curtain & Pesola, 2000; Gilzow, 2002; Read, 2003). According to
Cameron (2003, p. 105), secondary school language teachers will likely have to “cope
with classes of mixed levels of language skills and knowledge” and also with “the
task of maintaining or restoring motivation over long periods of language learning.”
She continues, “English language programs in the secondary school “may look quite
different from earlier models that served a system in which language learning began
around 11 years of age” (p. 106). Curricula need to be aligned to promote a smooth
transition for students and to help teachers meet the needs of former young learners.

Pitfalls to Avoid in EYL Programs Curtain and Pesola (2000) identify

some “common pitfalls” of early foreign language programs that need to be
considered in developing effective EYL programs:

■■ Scheduling language classes too infrequently or in sessions that are too short
■■ Treating foreign languages differently from other subjects, rather than as “valid
academic subjects”
■■ Implementing a new program in all grades at the same time
■■ Failing to create program cohesion from primary to secondary grades
■■ Planning and scheduling foreign languages in isolation from the general curriculum

12 Teaching Young Learners English

 To these we could add:

■■ Providing insufficient professional development for EYL teachers

■■ Supplying inadequate or inequitable resources, especially access to technology,
with urban and private schools having greater access to both print and digital
materials (Butler, 2009; Enever and Moon, 2009).

Common Features of Effective EYL Programs Nikolov and Curtain

(2000), in An Early Start: Young Learners and Modern Languages in Europe and Beyond,
identified the following characteristics of effective YL programs from 20 countries.
These programs:

■■ Focused on meaning
■■ Integrated language instruction with mainstream curriculum
■■ Used task-based and content-based approaches
■■ Provided fun in the classroom
■■ Set up children for success
■■ Fostered learner autonomy
■■ Set realistic expectations and assessment
■■ Provided continuity between primary and secondary school language programs

Additionally, according to Gilzow (2002), in some contents, effective young

learner programs:
■■ Used technology appropriately
■■ Had adequate funding
■■ Provided professional development
■■ Advocated for the program
■■ Used a standards-based curriculum

We will be discussing many of these characteristics in the following chapters.

Teacher to Teacher
English Education Profiles
Below are three profiles of English education written by teachers in an online
professional development course from Myanmar, Madagascar, and Romania.
The English education profiles were written to provide information about each
country’s education policy and requirements for teaching English. In addition, the
writers included descriptions of the classroom environment, as well as materials

1 Teaching English to Young Learners 13

 and resources available. The student profile included provides information about
the students’ age, gender, level of proficiency, and the level of exposure they may
receive outside of the EFL classroom. These examples will show how three different
countries have applied the teaching of English to young learners.
As you read these profiles, consider the following:

■■ What factors of effective programs do you see in these profiles?

■■ What challenges do these teachers face?
■■ What are the similarities between these educational contexts and your own
context?
■■ What did you learn from the policy or the teachers’ classes that you can adopt
in your own teaching?

“[Link] local school in Myanmar began a FLES program in 1970–1971 school

It is designed for students in 5th standard through 10th standard and
is offered as a special program at some high schools in Yangon, Myanmar.
Continuity is offered at another big city like Mandalay two years after. In the
1990s, the government implemented a new education system to develop
standards for foreign language education from kindergarten through
grade 11. The educators and curriculum designers drew well-designed and
standardized curriculum and assessment for students learning effectively. The
goal of education policy for teaching foreign language in primary school is by
using English, students can build up the developed nation to stand shoulder
to shoulder with the other countries in the world. In the late 1990s, there
were a few private schools that offered Immersion programs in their school to
attract the rich families and their children starting from primary level.

In general, students in Myanmar are taught English as a regular school

subject since they are in kindergarten to grade 11 (from 5 years to 16 years)
in local schools. Students are taught English 4 times a week and 45 minutes
in each session. There are more than 50 students in a class. The class has
chairs and desks, a white board, wall posters and a computer, though
some students in other schools are cramped in the room and use table and
benches and blackboard in the classroom, and some classes have more than
70 students.

My Grade 3 Class
I teach in a private school called “Crane International School” located
in Sanchaung Township, Yangon. My class is Grade 3 and there are
20 multinational students aged between 7–10 years. In my school, we teach
in an Immersion program; all subjects are taught in English. We teach English
starting at the age of 3 (in nursery) and they continue to learn it until Grade 12
(at the age of 17–18 years). Children in my school have eight English lessons
per week and 50 minutes in each lesson. My class is not very spacious for

14 Teaching Young Learners English

students to move around to do the activities but there is enough room for
teachers to walk around in the class. Each student uses a moveable chair with
desk; we have a white board, a cupboard to keep classroom materials; register,
dictionaries, students’ homework books, a television set and a CD cassette
player. We have a library that has lots of books relevant to students’ level and
teachers’ needs. Every class has to go to the library once a week to borrow a
book and write a book report. We have a computer lab where students can go
once a week and have Internet access. Every student has a colorful textbook
that includes vocabulary, spelling, pronunciation, comprehension check
questions and grammar workbook.

There are 20 students in my class, varying in background. The majority of them

are from Myanmar; I also have three Japanese students, two Indian students,
two Korean students and one Australian student. The number of boys is two
times more than girls. Because they are all of different ages, ranging from 7 to
10, and their cultural backgrounds, and different learning experiences, they
have different learning styles and preferences, but all are motivated, curious,
and active. One new learner has only studied English for two months; another
uses English as his native language. Some prefer working in pairs, working
individually, working in groups, playing games, copying from the board,
and repeating after the teacher. Two boys prefer working by themselves,
whereas, the rest enjoy playing games and working in groups. On the whole,
the students’ goal is to improve their use of the language as a means to
communicate with other people and to move to an English speaking country
for their further studies.”
—Sanda Than Pe, Primary English Teacher, Myanmar

“withThetheeducation policy for English in this public primary school falls in line
national education policy for English In Primary (EIP) established
by the Ministry of Education of Madagascar in 2002. This school is one of
the first 42 pilot schools around the country where English education was
introduced in the Malagasy primary education system, beginning in the
4th grade. Before 2002, English instruction began in secondary schools
only, from 6th grade on. The school is currently using the national 4th grade
curriculum, which was revised and finalized by the Ministry of Education
in 2006 for all the pilot programs. The Ministry of Education of Madagascar
provided the following description of its national curriculum for primary
school: ‘This curriculum provides classroom material through 5 thematic units
based on topics which are relevant to Malagasy children’s lives at this age,
falling in line with the Competency Approach that all other school subjects
are to follow. This curriculum is based mainly on listening and speaking skills
and thus features such activities as songs, dialogues and games, which are
also used to promote motivation and interest in children. The objectives of
introducing English at the fourth grade include the possibilities of exposing
children at an early age to the language so that they can obtain better

1 Teaching English to Young Learners 15

 proficiency and fluency before adolescence, preparing them for entrance to
the secondary school or CEG (College d’Enseignement Général), and finally
preparing them for international communication, business, tourism, and
travel.’ At this initial familiarization stage, EFL is introduced in an enjoyable
way and neither assessments nor grades are required. English is taught as
a separate regular school subject and is time-tabled for two hours a week,
spread out into 20 minutes of instruction a day during the 9-month school
year. There is only one teacher—Marie Rose, a former primary school teacher
who was one of the 42 pilot primary school teachers to be trained to use the
curriculum and to teach the lessons via the Communicative Approach, with
the objective of learning English for communication.

Marie Rose’s 4th Grade Class

Marie Rose’s 4th grade FLES class is made up of 40 nine- and ten-year-old boys
and girls. These children do not have much literacy in English and do not seem
to have much exposure to the language outside the EFL classroom either, as
English is not widely spoken yet and such media forms as newspapers, TV and
radios are mostly in Malagasy and French.

Marie Rose’s fourth graders learn English in a typical concrete-floored

classroom which is quite spacious though basic as it comes equipped with
only a small cassette player, a large chalkboard, a teacher desk, and 20 wooden
student desks. The students sit in pairs on the wooden desks arranged in
5 rows of 4 desks that can be moved easily. Unlike the students and teachers
in primary schools in the US and Europe who have access to audiovisual
equipment, textbooks, a library, a computer lab and to the Internet, Marie
Rose and her students do not in the Analamahitsy EPP. The only resources
available to her are the curriculum accompanied by supporting materials such
as sample lesson plans and pictures provided by the Ministry of Education and
the materials provided by the Teacher Resource Center (TRC) in the downtown
area. As for her students, they do not have any textbooks or workbooks for
reading and writing. They only have copybooks in which they are to keep the
handouts Marie Rose gives them. These are handouts of the songs and chants
they learn and perform in class as well as of pictures they can color at home
and that illustrate vocabulary and grammar covered in class. ”
—Laingo Ramanantoanina, English Teacher, Madagascar

“promoting
Ever since I was a student myself, the Romanian education system has been
foreign language studies. Back then, students started learning the
first foreign language in the 5th grade (at the age of 11) and the second one in
the 6th grade (at the age of 12). Nowadays, the national curriculum introduces the
first compulsory foreign language in the 3rd grade (at the age of 9) and the
second in the 5th grade. All the teachers of English in state schools have to follow
the common national program designed by the Ministry of Education. They
are free to use any of the ministry-approved textbooks which they find suitable

16 Teaching Young Learners English

for their needs or their students’ profile. Students are assessed according to the
common criteria; therefore, at the end of each year of study they have to be
assessed according to the competencies mentioned in the national program.
According to the Common European Frame of Reference for Language (CEFR,
2001), by the end of high school students should have reached the B2 level.

Most Romanian schools choose English either as the first or the second
compulsory foreign language. If students start learning English in primary
school, they usually have the same specialist teacher from the 3rd grade until
they are in the 8th grade, when they finish secondary school. During primary
and secondary school years, foreign language studies are allotted 2, maximum
3 hours a week for expanding or improving linguistic competencies. In high
school the number of hours per week stays the same, except for the special
philology classes, which can have 4 up to 5 English lessons per week and have
a special test every semester.

My Class
I teach English as a separate school subject to primary and secondary school
learners at a public school located in the largest university town in eastern
Romania. My school is a state school with 755 primary and secondary level pupils,
built in the first decade of the 20th century, and located in the centre of the
town. It is a very old, but impressive building, with 15 large, tall classrooms. Some
classrooms have individual desks; others have desks for two or three children.
Each of them has a chalkboard and a teacher’s desk in front of it. Every classroom
is shared by two classes of children, as primary school children have lessons in the
morning, and secondary school learners study in the afternoon. All teachers have
at their disposal a CD player, a whiteboard, a laptop and two OHPs. Nevertheless,
the Internet connection is not available in all the rooms. Moreover, because of its
low budget, the school cannot afford to make photocopies of written materials
for students, and teachers have to make them at their own expense.

The school management team has decided to have English as the first
foreign language and French as the second one. Both languages are taught
as separate school subjects in a FLES program, with 2 or 3 lessons a week.
There are three teachers of English (including myself ) working with both
primary and secondary level students, and a teacher of French. All through
the school year the committee has special activities such as open lessons and
presentations of new teaching materials. It also organizes language contests
and celebrations (such as the Foreign Languages Day, Halloween, Christmas,
or Europe’s Day). Every semester we have meetings with all teachers of English
in the region where matters such as effective planning or teaching methods
and materials are discussed.

The children’s environment is favorable to learning English. Their families

encourage them to learn the language, either because they consider it useful
to be proficient in a global language, or because they have older relatives who
study English. They also listen to modern international and Romanian music

1 Teaching English to Young Learners 17

 extensively, and these days most Romanian dancing songs are in English, so
children are curious about what the lyrics mean. In addition, most pupils in
this class have personal computers and Internet connection at home. Thus,
they are exposed to lots of information or games in English.

To conclude, I could say that I think of my work with the children as a continuous
challenge, but their enthusiastic, inventive and playful nature has won me over.
Therefore, I try to make their experience with English as pleasant as possible,
even if I am aware of the fact there is always room for improvement. ”
—Simona Balan, Primary and Secondary English Teacher, Romania

Chapter Summary
To Conclude
Reasons for an early start to English language learning Because of the role of
English as a global language and its potential for providing education and employment
advantages to English speakers, English is being introduced at earlier and earlier ages
around the world. Many children now start English as early as age 6 (or first grade).

While there are many points of view about the best time to start learning another
language, there are potential benefits to an early start, especially if optimal
conditions occur within the language classroom. EYL programs can provide
more time to learn the language and can lead to better pronunciation and fluency,
enhanced intercultural competence, and mental flexibility.

Factors affecting success of an EYL program A number of factors affect the

success of an EYL program. These include the choice of the EYL program model,
the presence of appropriately trained teachers, the availability of culturally and
linguistically appropriate materials, and the continuity of the English curriculum
from primary to secondary school.

Models of effective EYL programs There are a number of models of effective EYL
programs. These include FLEX, FLES (including content-based or content-enriched
FLES), immersion, dual-language, and transitional and maintenance bilingual
programs. Another way to look at program models is in terms of their topics and
amount of time for instruction. Programs can develop their curricula around
traditional topics found in student language textbooks, topics drawn from other
subjects, community-based topics, or actually teaching part of the curriculum in
English.

18 Teaching Young Learners English

 Need for appropriately trained EYL teachers Appropriately trained EYL teachers
know how to develop engaging, motivating activities and have adequate English
proficiency to help their young learners in learning English. Unfortunately, the
growth in demand for EYL classes has outstripped the capacity of many countries to
provide appropriate TEYL training. There are few specialized training programs or
courses for EYL teachers.

Need for culturally and linguistically appropriate materials and curricula

Materials and curricula need to be culturally and linguistically appropriate. The
local and national culture and cultures of other countries, including the cultures
of the traditional, Inner Circle countries, all need to be included to help children
develop intercultural competence and grow in understanding of their own culture.

Need for continuity of primary and secondary school English curriculum The
primary and secondary school curricula need to be aligned so that students make
a smooth transition in their language learning. Children who have participated in
EYL programs will need higher-level English classes in secondary school than those
who begin at the secondary school level.

Additional factors affecting EYL program success There are a number of

additional factors that programs need to consider if they are to be effective. These
include scheduling, integrating the English class into the overall school curriculum,
and gradually introducing young learner classes, when teachers and materials are
available, as well as providing appropriate resources and professional development
for current EYL teachers.

Over to You
1. What are some reasons why more people around the world
are learning English? What is the main reason your program or
Discussion ­programs in your country were developed?
Questions
2. What are some differences in studying or teaching English in
­countries in the Inner, Outer, and Expanding Circles? In which
­“Circle” are you teaching English?
3. What are some goals of teaching English as an international
­language? What are your program goals or the goals of programs
in your country?

1 Teaching English to Young Learners 19

 4. What are some benefits of learning English at a young age? Have
you seen these advantages in your students?
5. What are some of the pitfalls of TEYL? Have you experienced any of
these?
6. What are some program models for EYL and the differences in their
goals and objectives?
7. Discuss how your views apply to the various program models. Would
a FLEX or FLES program be a better fit for your context? Or would a
bilingual program be better? Why?
8. What kind of program do you teach in or will you teach in? Do you
see similarities in your program to the kinds of programs discussed
in this chapter?
9. Do you identify with any of the teachers whose story is told? If so, how?
English  ow that you have read about different countries and their uses and policies about
N
Education English, think about your own country. Use the English Education Profile on pg. 388 to
Profile describe the English education profile of your country, region, local school system, and
classroom.
Write Reflection on policies toward English in your country: Write a 1–2 page reflective
About It essay using the prompts below. Explain your views and provide examples for support
based on your own teaching context:
• Has the age of compulsory English education in your country been lowered?
Why or why not?
• What do you think are some benefits of starting English language instruction
early? Are there any disadvantages of an early start?
• What do you think are the most important factors for improving the conditions
for English language learning for children?
• What are some things that teachers, teacher supervisors, teacher trainers, and
curriculum developers can do to create an optimum English language learning
environment for children?

Resources and References

Print Publications
Enever, J., Moon, J., & Raman, U. (2009). Young learner English Garton, S., Copland, F., & Burns, A. (2011). Investigating global
Language policy and implementation: International perspectives. ­practices in teaching English to young learners. Aston University,
Reading, UK: Garnet Education. UK: British Council.

20 Teaching Young Learners English

Genesee, F., Paradis, J., & Crago, M. B. (2011). Dual language devel- McKay, S. L. (2002). Teaching English as an international language:
opment and disorders: A handbook on bilingualism and second Rethinking goals and approaches. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
language learning. ­Baltimore, MD: Brooks Publishing. Press.
Marinova-Todd, S. H., Marshall, D. B., & Snow, C. E. (2000). Three
misconceptions about age and L2 learning. TESOL Quarterly,
34(1), 9–34.

Useful Web Sites

American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages: Center for Applied Linguistics: [Link]/resources/digest
[Link] Nandu Early Language Web site: [Link]/earlylang
British Council: [Link] National Network for Early Language Learning: [Link]

References
Bialystok, E. (1999). Cognitive complexity and attentional control in Garton, S., Copland, F., & Burns, A. (2011). Investigating global
the bilingual mind. Child Development, 70(3), 636–644. practices in teaching English to young learners. London, UK:
Butler, Y. G. (2009). Teaching English to young learners: The British Council and Aston University.
influence of global and local factors. In J. Enever, J. Moon, Gilzow, D. F. (2002). Model early foreign language programs: Key
& U. Raman (Eds.), Young learner English language policy elements. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
and implementation: International perspectives (pp. 23–29). Available at [Link]
Reading, UK: Garnet Education. Gimenez, T. (2009). English at primary school in Brazil: Challenges
Cameron, L. (2003). Challenges for ELT from the expansion in and perspectives. In J. Enever, J. Moon, & U. Raman (Eds.), Young
teaching children. ELT Journal, 57(2), 105–112. learner English language policy and implementation: International
Carroll, J. B. (1975). The teaching of French as a foreign language in perspectives (pp. 45–51). Reading, UK: Garnet Education.
eight countries. New York, NY: John Wiley. Haas, M. (1998). Early vs. late: The practitioner’s perspective. In
Crandall, J. A. (2012). Content based instruction and content M. Met (Ed.), Critical issues in early second language learning.
and language integrated learning. In J. Richards & A. Burns Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman, Addison-Wesley.
(Eds.), Cambridge guide to pedagogy and practice in second Harley, B. (1998). The outcomes of early and later language learning.
language teaching, 2nd ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge In M. Met (Ed.) Critical issues in early second language learning.
University Press. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman, Addison-Wesley.
Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language, 2nd ed. Cambridge, Hu, G. (2005). English language education in China: Policies,
UK: Cambridge University Press. progress and problems. Language Policy, 4, 5–24.
Curtain, H., & Dahlberg, C. A. (2010). Languages and children— Jenkins, J. (2009). World Englishes: A resource book for students,
Making the match: New languages for young learners, 4th ed. 2nd ed. London, UK: Routledge.
New York, NY: Pearson. Johnstone, R. (2009). An early start: What are the key conditions for
Curtain, H., & Pesola, C. A. (2000). Planning for success: Common pitfalls generalized success? In J. Enever, J. Moon, & U. Raman (Eds.), Young
in the planning of early foreign language programs. ERIC Digest learner English language policy and implementation: International
EDO-FL-11. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. perspectives (pp. 31–42). Reading, UK: Garnet Education.
[Link] Kachru, B. B. (1990). The alchemy of English: The spread, functions
Enever, J., & Moon, J. (2009). New global contexts for teaching and models of non-native Englishes. Chicago, IL: University of
primary ELT: Change and challenge. In J. Enever, J. Moon, & Illinois Press.
U. Raman (Eds.), Young learner English language policy and Kirkgöz, Y. (2009). English language teaching in Turkish primary
implementation: International perspectives (pp. 5–21). Reading, education. In J. Enever, J. Moon, & U. Raman (Eds.), Young
UK: Garnet Education. learner English language policy and implementation: International
Faulkner-Bond, M., Waring, S., Forte, E., Crenshaw, R., & Tindle, perspectives (pp. 189–195). Reading,
K. (2011). Language instruction educational programs (LIEPs): UK: Garnet Education.
Lessons from the research and profiles of promising practices. Kramsch, C. (2002). In search of the intercultural. Journal of
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Sociolinguistics, 6(1), 275–285.
Planning, Evaluation, and Policy Development, Policy and Kramsch, C., & Sullivan, P. (1996). Appropriate pedagogy. ELT
Program Studies Service. Journal, 50, 199–212.

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Lenneberg, E. (1967). Biological foundations of language. New York, Nunan, D. C. (2003). The impact of English as a global language on
NY: Wiley. educational policies and practices in the Asia-Pacific region.
Marinova-Todd, S. H., Marshall, D. M. & Snow, C. E. (2000). Three TESOL Quarterly, 37(4), 589–613.
misconceptions about age and L2 learning. TESOL Quarterly, Oyama, S. (1976). A sensitive period in the acquisition of a non-
34(1), 9–34. native phonological system. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research,
Marsh, D. (2002). Using languages to learn and learning to use 5, 261–285.
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Available at [Link] Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
McCloskey, M. L., Orr, J., & Dolitsky, M. (2006). Teaching English as Pinter, A. (2006). Teaching young language learners. Oxford, UK:
a foreign language in primary school. Alexandria, VA: TESOL. Oxford University Press.
McKay, S. L. (2002). Teaching English as an international language: Read, C. (2003). Is younger better? English Teaching Professional,
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McLaughlin, B. (1984/1985). Second language acquisition in childhood, Rixon, S. (1999). Young learners of English: Some research
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Met, M. (1991). Elementary school foreign languages: What research Reeves, J. (1989). Elementary school foreign language programs.
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foreign language instruction (pp. 63–79). New York, NY: Garland [Link]
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Nikolov, M., & Curtain, H. (Eds.). (2000). An early start: Young learner programs, policies, and teachers. Unpublished MS.
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color: An overview of early teaching and learning of foreign (pp. 1–29). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
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Nunan, D. C. (1999). President’s message. TESOL Matters, 9(3), 1–3. statement on teaching English as a foreign or additional language
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22 Teaching Young Learners English

Preschool English Learners
Principles and Practices to Promote
Language, Literacy, and Learning

A Resource Guide
Second Edition

California Department of Education • Sacramento, 2009

Preschool English Learners
Principles and Practices to Promote
Language, Literacy, and Learning
A Resource Guide
Second Edition
 Publishing Information
Preschool English Learners: Principles and Practices to Promote
Language, Literacy, and Learning—A Resource Guide (Second Edition)
was developed by WestEd’s Center for Child and Family Studies
for the Child Development Division, California Department of
Education. It was prepared for printing by the staff of CDE Press
under the direction of Tom Mays. It was edited by Faye Ong,
working in cooperation with Sy Dang Nguyen, Consultant, Child
Development Division. The cover and interior were designed by
Cheryl McDonald; typesetting was done by Jeannette Reyes. It
was published by the Department, 1430 N Street, Sacramento, CA
95814-5901. It was distributed under the provisions of the Library
Distribution Act and Government Code Section 11096.

© 2009 by the California Department of Education

All rights reserved

ISBN 978-0-8011-1703-9

Ordering Information
Copies of this publication are available for sale from the
California Department of Education. For prices and ordering
information, please visit the Department Web site at [Link]
[Link]/re/pn or call the CDE Press Sales Office at (800) 995­
4099. An illustrated Educational Resources Catalog describing
publications, videos, and other instructional media available from
the Department can be obtained without charge by writing to
the CDE Press Sales Office, California Department of Education,
1430 N Street, Suite 3207, Sacramento, CA 95814-5901; FAX (916)
323-0823 or by calling the CDE Press Sales Office at the telephone
number shown above.

Notice
The guidance in Preschool English Learners: Principles and Practices to
Promote Language, Literacy, and Learning—A Resource Guide (Second
Edition) is not binding on local educational agencies or other enti­
ties. Except for the statutes, regulations, and court decisions that
are referenced herein, the document is exemplary, and compliance
with it is not mandatory. (See Education Code Section 33308.5.)

ii
Contents

A Message from the State Superintendent of Public Instruction ............... v

Acknowledgments .......................................................................................... vi

Chapter One: Introduction to the Resource Guide .......... 1

What You Will Find in This Guide ........................................ 2
Core Beliefs ............................................................................ 3
Principles and Practices: Children as Active Learners ........... 4
Summary of the Guide by Chapter ....................................... 5
Continued Professional Development................................... 6

Chapter Two: Preschool English Learners,

Their Families, and Their Communities ........................... 9
The Children ........................................................................ 10
The Role of Families in Language and Literacy
Development.................................................................... 13
The Diversity of the Immigration Experience ..................... 14
Connecting School and the Home Language ...................... 14
Varieties of Language ........................................................... 17

Chapter Three: Connecting First

and Second Languages ...................................................... 19
Children and Their Language Development ....................... 20
The Components of Language............................................. 22
A Wide Range of Language Practices ................................... 25
Awareness of How Language Works .................................... 29
The Influence of Peers on Language Development ............. 30

Chapter Four: Paths to Bilingualism ............................... 33

Theoretical Basis for Supporting Bilingualism..................... 34
Simultaneous Bilingualism .................................................. 36
Early Phase (Birth to Three Years) .................................... 37
Middle Phase (Three to Four Years) ................................. 38
Later Phase (Five to Six Years) .......................................... 39
Successive Bilingualism ........................................................ 41
Receptive Bilingualism ......................................................... 42

iii
 Chapter Five: Stages and Strategies
in Second-Language Acquisition ..................................... 45
Stages of Learning a Second Language ................................ 46
The Use of the Home Language to Communicate .......... 47
The Observational and Listening Period ......................... 47
Telegraphic and Formulaic Speech .................................. 48
Fluid Language Use .......................................................... 50
Strategies in Second-Language Acquisition ......................... 52

Chapter Six: Code Switching

and Language Loss ............................................................ 57
Code Switching .................................................................... 58
Language Loss ...................................................................... 60

Chapter Seven: English Learners with Disabilities

or Other Special Needs ...................................................... 63
A Language Disorder Versus a Language Difference............ 64
Special Education Programs and English Learners .............. 65
Coordinating Language and Communication Goals .......... 68

Chapter Eight: Recommended Early Literacy

Practices ............................................................................. 71
Defining Early Literacy ........................................................ 72
Connecting Home and School Literacy Practices................ 73
Teaching Through Language ............................................... 76
Reading Books Aloud to English Learners ........................... 77
Writing as a Part of Early Literacy........................................ 80
Making Stories Come Alive .................................................. 81
Literacy Strategies for English Learners
with Special Needs ........................................................... 83
Appendixes
A. Principles for Promoting Language, Literacy,
and Learning for Preschool English Learners ................. 93
B. Prekindergarten Learning and Development
Guidelines ....................................................................... 94
C. Desired Results for Children and Families...................... 99
D. California Preschool Learning Foundations ................. 102
E. Transition to Kindergarten or Elementary School ........ 114
Glossary ............................................................................ 124
Works Cited ..................................................................... 129

iv
A Message from the State Superintendent
of Public Instruction

F amilies, teachers, and policymakers have become increasingly aware of

the need to address the linguistic diversity of California’s preschool stu­
dents, many of whom are experiencing formal schooling for the first time.
The teachers of preschool children have long been sensitive to the cultural
backgrounds of the students and their families. Now they seek guidance as
to how best to educate children from homes in which a language other than
English is spoken and to prepare these English learners for their transition
into kindergarten or elementary school.
This resource guide, Preschool English Learners: Principles and Practices to
Promote Language, Literacy, and Learning (Second Edition), provides teachers
with the knowledge and tools they seek to educate preschool English learners
most effectively. It was developed by a group of experts who collectively
brought strong practical, academic, and research backgrounds to the topic
of educating young English learners. In their work the group demonstrated
its steadfast commitment to assisting such children enrolled in California’s
schools and their families.
This document builds on the foundation laid by an earlier version titled
Fostering the Development of a First and a Second Language in Early Childhood,
published in 1998. In addition, companion materials, including a video, a
Web site, and materials for statewide training, will be developed to supple­
ment the information contained in the guide. This guide is meant to be used
in conjunction with Appendix B, “Prekindergarten Learning and Develop­
ment Guidelines”; Appendix C, “Desired Results for Children and Families”;
Appendix D, “California Preschool Learning Foundations”; and Appendix E,
“Transition to Kindergarten or Elementary School”; which can be found at
the back of this publication.
I hope that teachers will find this resource guide useful as they work to
provide high-quality preschool programs for all children. Thank you for your
efforts on behalf of our children.

Jack O’Connell
State Superintendent of Public Instruction

v
 Acknowledgments

T his publication was developed for the California Department of

Education, Child Development Division, under the direction of
Rebeca Valdivia, Director of the English Language Learning for
Preschoolers Project, WestEd’s Center for Child and Family Studies. Sadly,
Rebeca, the lead writer of this document, lost a courageous battle with
cancer on October 21, 2008. The CDE dedicates this publication to Rebeca
for her countless contributions to the lives of young children, especially
young English learners and children with special needs. This undertaking
would not have been possible without the expertise and contributions of
the many talented people who deserve our sincerest gratitude for their time,
energy, and dedication. They include a panel of experts, staff from the
California Department of Education’s Child Development Division, staff
from WestEd’s Center for Child and Family Studies, and 50 focus-group
participants from around the state representing the various audiences that
the guide is designed to reach.

Panel of Experts
The panel of experts provided academic and practical perspectives affecting
all aspects of the guide. Contributions to the contents, principles and prac­
tices, and updated research were generated by the panel during the 2003-04
contract year. Panel members and their job titles and locations are listed as
follows:
Patricia Baquedano-Lopez, Associate Professor, Graduate School of
Education, Language and Literacy, Society and Culture, University of
California, Berkeley
Maria Fátima Castro, Coordinator, Central California Migrant Head Start,
Santa Cruz County Office of Education, Capitola
Ruth Chao, Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, University
of California, Riverside
Anna Eunhee Chee, Associate Professor, Charter College of Education,
California State University, Los Angeles
Kris Gutierrez, Professor, Graduate School of Education, University
of California, Los Angeles
J. Ronald Lally, Co-Director, Center for Child and Family Studies, WestEd,
Sausalito
Peter Mangione, Co-Director, Center for Child and Family Studies,
WestEd, Sausalito
Sy Dang Nguyen, Consultant, Child Development Division, California
Department of Education, Sacramento

vi
 Joyce Palacio, Principal, El Sereno Early Education Center, Los Angeles
Unified School District
James L. Rodriguez, Associate Professor, College of Education, San Diego
State University

California Department of Education

Thanks are also extended to the following members of the Department’s
Child Development Division: Michael Jett, Director, whose vision and
leadership inspired the development of the project; Gwen Stephens,
Assistant Director, Quality Improvement and Capacity Building; and
Sy Dang Nguyen, Consultant, for ongoing revisions and recommendations.

Project Staff
The writing, editing, and reviewing involved in any project cannot be
completed without the tireless work of dedicated staff. The contributions
of the following staff members from WestEd’s Center for Child and Family
Studies are gratefully acknowledged: Peter Mangione, for writing a
considerable amount of the contents throughout the guide, editing multiple
drafts, and providing administrative support, guidance, and oversight;
Carrie Parente, for design, editorial, formatting, and administrative
assistance; Sara Webb, for helping with the design and layout; and
J. Ronald Lally and Catherine Tsao, Director, National and International
Training, for proofreading.

Special Contributions
Special thanks go to Marilyn Astore, member of the Executive Committee,
California Preschool Instructional Network. She reviewed several drafts of the
guide, provided important recommendations concerning the presentation of
content, especially in the chapter on early literacy, and contributed sugges­
tions for resources and references.
Special thanks also go to Joyce Palacio, a member of the panel of experts,
and Norma Quan Ong, an independent early childhood consultant in San
Francisco. They contributed vignettes taken directly from children, families,
and staff in early childhood settings.

Focus Groups
Four focus groups were assembled by WestEd in San Diego, San Francisco,
El Centro, and Los Angeles. The 50 participants were preschool teachers,
program directors from early childhood education programs, trainers, consul­
tants, and parents. They examined an earlier draft of the guide and provided
crucial feedback for improving its readability and accessibility for the target
audience.

vii
 Editors
Rosario Diaz Greenberg, Associate Professor, California State University,
San Marcos, and James Rodriguez, a member of the panel of experts, provid­
ed invaluable expertise during the extensive revision and editing process.

Photographs
The photographs in this guide came from two sources. Julie Espinosa and
families in Pasadena, California, graciously contributed photographs. About
half of the photographs were taken by Lang and Associates at the Educational
Enrichment Systems, Inc./Linda Vista Child Development Center in San
Diego. Many thanks are extended to Mark Lang, photographer, Director
Jennifer Anthony, and the children, staff, and families at the center.

viii
 1
Introduction to the
Resource Guide

T
ucked away in one of the many multicultural
communities in California is a state-funded child
development program. There are 15 children in
the class from Spanish-speaking, English-speaking,
Vietnamese-speaking, Chinese-speaking, Farsi-speaking, and
Russian-speaking homes. Many of the children have grown
up together in this early care and education setting from
the time they were infants. The lead teacher is bilingual
in English and Farsi. Two assistants are bilingual in English
and Spanish. There are also some roving staff members who
are bilingual in Vietnamese and English and some who are
bilingual in Chinese and English.

1
Chapter 1
Introduction
Engaged in a variety of activities, the children participate
to the Resource
Guide in small-group and whole-class instruction, individual
projects, and adult-child interactions. Student needs,
learning goals, and forms of assistance for each child are
some of the factors the teacher has considered in plan­
ning the day’s activities. The children use their home
language and English to learn and to communicate in
social interactions. The director and teacher explain
that program planning has not been easy but that the
ongoing attention to the children’s language and literacy
development in both their home language and English
has been a key factor in the children’s progressing in all
areas of development as they move on to the class for
four-year-olds in the following year.

What You Will Find in This Guide

T his guide is designed to help the reader understand the preschool

English learner more fully. Each chapter provides important infor­
mation about the development, abilities, and everyday experiences of
the preschool English learner that is based on current and rigorously
conducted research. The preschool English learner is (1) a child whose
first language is other than English and as a result is learning English as
a second language; or (2) a child who is developing two or more lan­
guages, one of which may be English. During the preschool years from
birth through five years of age, most children are still acquiring the
basic knowledge of their home language, even when that language is
English. The purpose of this guide is to enrich the reader’s understand­
ing of the language and literacy development of young English learners.
The primary audience for this guide is preschool teachers. The term
teacher includes preschool classroom teachers, child development center
teachers, and child care providers. Most of the information applies to
family child care providers working with preschool English learners.
This guide should be a starting point for you, the reader, to expand on
what you already know about preschool children and gain insights into
the unique strengths and needs of preschool English learners.


Core Beliefs Chapter 1
Introduction

T he following list of core beliefs should be considered as informa­ to the Resource

Guide
tion is being presented in this guide. These beliefs stem from
research and reflect an understanding of the challenges of educating
preschool-age children, particularly English learners. Careful consider­
ation of the beliefs will help preschool teachers focus on each child’s
experiences and circumstances as that child begins the journey toward
the acquisition of academic English. Familiarity with these beliefs will
also help teachers implement the information, principles, and practices
presented in this guide. It is important to recognize that these beliefs
are not mutually exclusive and that, in most instances, they overlap.
• Understanding the English learner requires gathering as much information
as possible about the child and his or her family and community. Chil­
dren grow and learn in the contexts of family, school, and commu­
nity that often influence one another dynamically and interactively.
Preschool educators can learn much from their observations of
children’s experiences in the multiple contexts of childhood
(Bronfenbrenner 1979; Harrison and others 1990).
• There is an important relationship between language, culture, and learn­
ing. As children grow older, they become more proficient in the use
of language, more culturally knowledgeable, and more competent in
learning. Language allows children to learn more about their family’s
culture and the world. At the same time culture provides children
with a lens that influences how they experience the world and how
they learn (Gutierrez and Rogoff 2003; Vasquez, Pease-Alvarez, and
Shannon 1994).
• Language is a tool for learning. Children’s language is an essential tool
enabling them to learn about the world around them. Home lan­
guage and English are tools children use to learn everything from the
cultural practices within the home to the academic content of the
classroom (Gutierrez and Rogoff 2003).
• There are multiple paths to childhood bilingualism. Just as children’s
everyday experiences may differ from one another, children may
follow different paths to developing more than one language. There
is not a single best path to bilingualism. This diversity in achieving
bilingualism reflects overall development whereby children may
develop specific abilities at different times and at different rates
(Hakuta 1986).


Chapter 1 • Language development and learning are shaped by children’s experiences.
Introduction Children acquire skills and strategies and ways of doing things from
to the Resource the people around them as the children carry out everyday tasks and
Guide
activities. They learn the appropriate use of language and literacy from
experts (adults and other competent children) in their communities.
• Second-language acquisition is a complex process. Children take differ­
ent paths, go through certain stages at different rates, and use various
strategies in acquiring more than one language.
• Acquiring oral language fluency in English differs from acquiring academic
English, the formal language of the school. Children use English within
different contexts for different purposes. As a result children may use
different varieties of English in the home, in the classroom, and on
the playground. Academic English used in formal schooling may take
longer to acquire than English used with other children in social
circumstances, such as on the playground.
• Being able to communicate in more than one language empowers children
in a multicultural society. Bilingualism is a valuable skill that allows
children to use more than one language to experience the world and
learn about it (Valdés 2003).

Principles and Practices: Children

as Active Learners

I n addition to the core beliefs that provide a foundation for this guide,
a series of principles and practices is introduced throughout to pro­
mote language development, literacy, and learning among preschool
English learners, including English learners with disabilities or other
special needs. The use of the information, principles, and practices
described will increase opportunities for growth and learning among
English learners. These opportunities are vital to promoting the
children’s success in school and in life.
Throughout the guide the expansion of the English learner’s acquisi­
tion of learning practices and abilities is emphasized. Achieving academ­
ic success in school includes developing a knowledge and mastery
of formal schooling practices in addition to building on one’s home
or community language practices. All children can have high levels of
achievement if provided with a rich, challenging curriculum and
appropriate forms of assistance. When implemented, the information
contained in this resource guide will help preschool English learners
reach their fullest potential.


 The core beliefs introduced earlier in this chapter are extended to Chapter 1
principles and practices that incorporate the wide range of ways in Introduction
which children can participate in numerous activities in their homes, to the Resource
Guide
schools, and communities. As with all other children, the development
of English learners depends on a number of factors and influences
that exist within those settings. For English learners in particular, such
factors and influences would include the status given to their home
language, the extent to which their communities and school programs
embrace bilingualism, and the supports available to continue develop­
ing their first language as they develop fluency in English.
Children use a wide range of skills, strategies, and behaviors daily
to develop linguistic, academic, and social competencies that facilitate
the children’s emerging ability to participate in the activities of their
families, schools, neighborhoods, and communities. Variation among
these contexts leads to variation in the language, literacy, and learning
tools that children acquire and bring to the preschool context.
The more preschool teachers know about how children learn, the
better prepared the teachers will be to develop rich learning contexts.
As preschool educators continue through this guide, they should think
of children as active learners who draw on their previous knowledge
and experiences to make sense of their world.

Summary of the Guide by Chapter

A central goal of this resource guide is to emphasize the importance

of understanding the dynamic forces that shape development and
learning among preschool English learners. In this chapter a set of core
beliefs has been presented for consideration in implementing the
principles and practices introduced throughout the guide. An overall
theme that runs through these core beliefs is that developing a fuller
understanding of the English learner is an important first step in
thinking about and creating effective learning contexts that maximize
children’s language and literacy learning. A summary of the central
points of each of the remaining chapters in the guide is presented as
follows:
• Chapter Two describes English learners in California and discusses the
crucial role that family members play in the language and literacy
development of English learners. The ways in which home, school,
and community contexts influence language development and
literacy practices are also explained.


Chapter 1 • Chapter Three continues to explore the various factors that often
Introduction affect language development and literacy among English learners.
to the Resource Among those factors are the literacy skills children bring from their
Guide
home language and the kinds of literacy practices in which they
participate.
• Chapter Four describes the various paths to bilingualism, and Chapter
Five provides an overview of how second-language acquisition
occurs. The role that language plays in the process of learning is
emphasized. Children acquire and use language as a tool to partici­
pate with others in their everyday activities across many contexts.
• Chapter Six presents the concept of code switching, by which a
child can move back and forth between two or more languages. The
chapter once again highlights the finding that children’s language
and literacy development is influenced by factors within the child’s
family, school, and community.
• Chapter Seven discusses working with English learners who have
disabilities or other special needs, although most of the strategies
suggested in other chapters can also be effective with this popula­
tion. The reverse is also true; that is, many of the strategies for
children with disabilities or other special needs are effective with
English learners and preschoolers in general.
• Chapter Eight presents a set of recommended literacy practices for
English learners. Because, like all other children, English learners
have a range of interests and are motivated to participate in many
different kinds of learning activities, they should be assigned literacy
activities that allow them to learn about many different topics across
a number of contexts. Being able to read influences a child’s ability
to write and vice versa, and literacy activities that allow young
children to take on roles as both emergent readers and writers
increase literacy development significantly.

Continued Professional Development

A lthough this guide provides an up-to-date, comprehensive discus­

sion of preschool English learners, information on this topic is
continually expanding and changing. Books have been written on the
topics covered in each of the chapters. The guide provides references,
resources, and thought-provoking questions to support continued
professional development and a foundation for building on current


 Chapter 1
Introduction
to the Resource
Guide

knowledge. To understand and serve the preschool English learner

more fully, teachers should engage in intensive professional develop­
ment, including coaching and mentoring.

Key to the Resource Guide

Throughout this guide various categories are used to present
information in a different yet accessible manner. Each category has
a different purpose and is represented by the following icons:

Research Highlights. Current research related to key topics being

presented and discussed. One or more references for additional
information are provided.

Principles and Practices. Instructional strategies teachers can

implement in their classrooms and with families to educate
the preschool English learner more effectively. Each principle
provides the rationale for the practices that follow.

Voices from the Preschool Classroom. Voices of teachers, children,

and families that exemplify the concept or idea being discussed.

Research to Practice. Examples of curriculum and instructional

practices derived directly from research.


Chapter 1
Introduction Ask Yourself
to the Resource
Guide 1. Do I look at each of my students as an individual who brings
competencies to the learning situation or as a member of
a group or category, such as English learners?
2. Am I familiar with how our program applies proven
approaches on first- and second-language development
and learning?

Additional References
Early Childhood Head Start Task Force, U.S. Department of Education
and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2002. Teaching
Our Youngest: A Guide for Preschool Teachers and Child Care and
Family Providers. [Link]
Eastern Stream Center on Resources and Training. 2003. Help! They
Don’t Speak English Starter Kit: A Resource Guide for Educators of
Limited English Proficient Migrant Students, Grades Pre-K–6.
Oneonta, N.Y. Available at 1-800-451-8058. [Link]
Starting Points for Educators of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse
Children 3 to 8 (video training series). Program 1: “I Don’t Know
Where to Start” (2002), Program 2: “Getting Your Message Across”
(2002), and Program 3: “Bringing Language Alive!” (2003).
Beaverton, Ore.: Educational Productions.
Note: See pages 129–42 for a list of works cited in this publication.


 2
Preschool English Learners,
Their Families,
and Their Communities

W
hen asked how he successfully communicates
with two- and three-year-old children who
have had limited exposure to English, a
monolingual English-speaking teacher
replied: “It’s all about relationships. Children respond to a
calm voice and a comforting hug. I’ve learned a few simple
phrases in Spanish to reassure children that they are safe
while at our center. I also ask for help from the children who
are learning English. In no time at all, I don’t have to ask,
for they automatically translate for the younger children.
Translating for the teacher makes them feel special and
makes learning two languages take on greater significance.”

9
Chapter 2
The Children
Preschool

R
English Learners, ecent demographic trends have far-reaching implications for
Their Families,
early childhood educators. By the year 2030 children of European
and Their
Communities American families will make up less than 50 percent of the population
under age five (Shonkoff and Phillips 2000).1 Like many of the other
states, California is becoming increasingly culturally, ethnically, and
linguistically diverse. Latinos make up nearly 30 percent of the state’s
population; Asians, 9.1 percent; and African Americans, 7 percent
(U.S. Bureau of the Census 2004).
For the 2005-06 school year, California school districts reported a
total of more than 1.5 million English learners enrolled in kindergar­
ten through grade twelve. That figure represents about 25 percent of
California’s 6.3 million students (California Department of Education
2006). However, the representation of English learners is even greater
in the lower grades, including preschool, where more than one-third
of all children attending public school speak a language other than
English at home. As general public school enrollment has risen by at
least 50 percent in the last two decades in California, the number of
English learners has increased six times as much, as illustrated in
Figure 1. As stated in Shonkoff and Phillips (2000, 65), “The changing
1
The term European American is used in this publication to designate families of European
origin living in the United States. Other designations found in the literature that are some­
times used interchangeably are Caucasian, white, and, occasionally, mainstream.

FIGURE 1. K–12 Enrollment and Percentage of English Learners in California, 1981–2006

7,000,000
100%
Total number of students enrolled

6,000,000 Total enrollment

Percentage of English learners

Percentage of
English learners
5,000,000 75%

4,000,000
50%
3,000,000

2,000,000
25%
1,000,000

0 0
431,449 567,564 986,462 1,323,767 1,511,299 1,591,525
1981-82 1985-86 1990-91 1995-96 2000-01 2005-06
Source: California Department of Education.

10
demographics of the early childhood population in the United States Chapter 2
present both the opportunity and the challenge of a great social Preschool
experiment.” English Learners,
Their Families,
Because 40 percent of the nation’s immigrant children (i.e., those and Their
under eighteen years of age) reside in California (U.S. Bureau of the Communities
Census 2003), a dramatic increase in culturally and linguistically
diverse children attending California preschool programs has occurred.
Figure 2 shows the number of preschool children ages three to five in
California who were not enrolled in kindergarten, and Figure 3 shows
the number of preschool children enrolled in public preschool and
nursery programs.

FIGURE 2. Number of California Children Ages Three to Five Not Enrolled in Kindergarten, 2000

AFRICAN AmERICAN
74,314 (6%)
WhITE
AsIAN ANd
390,878 (34%)
PACIFIC IsLANdER
105,331 (9%)

LATINo
534,870 (46%)
NATIvE AmERICAN
5,740 (0.5%)

TWo oR moRE RACEs

52,164 (4%)
oThER
2,815 (0.2%)
Source: California Research Bureau, California State Library, using the IPUMS 2000 (5% sample).

FIGURE 3. Number of California Children Ages Three to Five Enrolled in Public Preschool
and Nursery Programs, 2000

AFRICAN AmERICAN
AsIAN ANd 27,217 (9%)
PACIFIC IsLANdER
TWo oR moRE RACEs
21,144 (7%)
12,791 (4%)

LATINo
WhITE
148,902 (51%)
80,664 (28%)

Source: California Research Bureau, California State Library, using the IPUMS 2000 (5% sample).

11
Chapter 2 The California Department of Education collects data on 56 lan­
Preschool guages spoken by children and their families in the state (California
English Learners, Department of Education 2006). The most prevalent languages besides
Their Families,
and Their English are Spanish, Vietnamese, Cantonese, Hmong, Pilipino (Taga­
Communities log), and Korean, as shown in Table 1.

TAbLE 1. most Prevalent Non-English Languages and Number of K–12

students speaking Those Languages in California, 1980–2006

Rank 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2005-06

sPANIsh sPANIsh sPANIsh sPANIsh

1 285,567 755,359 1,259,954 1,341,369

vIETNAmEsE vIETNAmEsE vIETNAmEsE vIETNAmEsE

2 22,826 40,477 37,978 34,263

3 CANToNEsE CANToNEsE hmoNG CANToNEsE

14,196 21,498 27,124 22,756

KoREAN hmoNG CANToNEsE hmoNG

4
7,508 21,060 25,089 21,907

PILIPINo KhmER PILIPINo PILIPINo

5 (TagaLog) (CaMBoDIan) (TagaLog) (TagaLog)
6,752 20,055 18,157 20,556

LAo PILIPINo KoREAN KoREAN

6 5,586 (TagaLog) 16,874 16,091
18,146
Source: California Department of Education.

To find out what language or languages a child is learning, the

questioner must determine what language is spoken in the home and
whether more than one language is spoken. Making assumptions based
on the child’s last name does not always determine accurately the
child’s home language. For example, a Spanish last name may not
indicate that Spanish is the language spoken in the home. Some
children and families that have Spanish last names may speak only
English. On the other hand many immigrants come to the U.S. from
indigenous populations in Latin America and have Spanish last names
but may speak indigenous languages rather than Spanish. Among the
most common languages spoken in California by children of these
immigrants are Zapotec, Mixtec, Quechua, and a number of Mayan
languages. Still other families come from different countries formerly
under Spanish rule, such as the Philippines, and may have Spanish last
names but speak other languages, such as Tagalog, French, or Creole.

12
The Role of Families in Language Chapter 2
Preschool
and Literacy Development English Learners,
Their Families,

J ust as there is widespread diversity in the children attending pre­

school programs, so is there diversity in their families. Families differ
in the configuration of members, language dominance, values, goals,
and Their
Communities

and childrearing practices as well as immigration, migration, and

acculturation experiences.
Researchers have demonstrated the positive effects of parental
involvement on children’s achievement in school (Booth and Dunn
1996). Much of that research has been centered on European American
families. Now there is a growing interest in examining which practices
are best suited for culturally and linguistically diverse families, includ­
ing those who have recently immigrated to this country (Buriel and
De Ment 1997; Valdés 1996). Today, teachers, programs, and commu­
nities are continually exploring ways to partner with families because
they recognize that families have a wealth of knowledge and experi­
ences that can serve as valuable resources in their children’s education.
Some families of preschool children have been in the United States
for several generations, and other families may have older children
who have been part of the school system for several years. Both may be
quite familiar with their roles as partners in their children’s education.
Teachers and family members may experience differences in
language and culture that lead to challenges in forming effective part­
nerships. Different expectations
regarding the role of parents and
teachers in children’s education,
unfamiliarity with the school
system, and prior experiences with
school staff can lead to misunder­
standings between teachers and
families. For instance, parents are
sometimes baffled when asked to
give their opinion about what is
happening in the classroom.
They feel that such matters are the responsibility not of the parents
but of the teachers. Some immigrant parents may also feel intimidated
by their lack of knowledge of the school system. Addressing these
potential differences carefully and respectfully can greatly improve
home-school partnerships.

13
Chapter 2
The Diversity of the Immigration
Preschool
English Learners, Experience
Their Families,
and Their
Communities T he experience of leaving one’s home country and moving to a new
country is referred to as a family’s immigration experience. This
process can be exciting and positive for some families and a difficult
and challenging one for others, with many families encountering both
positive and negative experiences as part of their immigration to the
United States. The preschool teacher can be more sensitive to a child’s
adjustment and performance in the classroom by learning about the
family’s journey (Igoa 1995).
Some families that come to the United States as immigrants have
had time to plan for their move. For example, a child’s parents may
have arranged for a secure job on arrival. Or a family may have moved
to a community with an established base of support for immigrants,
possibly even relatives, from their country or region. Those families
will likely adjust to their new surroundings more easily than will
families that lack such support.
Families that have to leave their country of origin suddenly and
involuntarily do not have the luxury of preparing for the move. They
are missing the needed emotional preparation of imagining life in their
new country (Suarez-Orozco and Suarez-Orozco 2001). Perhaps a family
had to flee suddenly under traumatic circumstances or had to live in
refugee camps or crowded, makeshift shelters. Or a family may have
had to separate, with some members going to the child’s current city
of residence and others to a different location or country. Having
arrived in the United States, they may face the anxiety of searching
for employment and experiencing isolation.
In short, many factors play a role in a family’s immigration to the
United States, and those factors often affect the immigration experi­
ence and the transition to life in this country. A key part of the transi­
tion for many immigrant children and their families is the acquisition
of a new language and adjustment to school.

Connecting School and the Home Language

S ome families may be well informed about language development

and bilingualism and have definite language goals for their chil­
dren. Consequently, they enroll their children in preschool programs
that reinforce the family’s home language or are designed as bilingual
preschool programs.

14
 Other families may enroll their children in local language classes Chapter 2
(e.g., in Saturday schools in many Asian communities) to develop or Preschool
maintain their home language (Fishman 2001). Other settings that English Learners,
Their Families,
support the maintenance of the home language include participation and Their
in religious activities and services, community events and festivals, Communities
and other children’s programs and activities.
Other families may not have given much thought to language
acquisition before enrolling their children in preschool programs. For
example, families with children who have identified disabilities may
still be trying to understand their children’s diagnoses, the workings of
special education, and the different types of programs available. They
may also be sorting out how the disabilities will affect the children’s
language development. In any case, conversations with each family
regarding language learning, language goals, language resources, and a
program’s philosophy of language will be a valuable and necessary part
of their children’s success in school and at home.
Children’s learning improves when they can communicate at home
what they have learned at school. When children are given the tools
to do so, teachers are fostering closer communication between home
and school. Children need to master the words of both the school
language and the home language to explain school activities. Because
the amount of home language used at school may differ from program
to program and from classroom to classroom, children should, when­
ever possible, be helped to develop a working vocabulary in the home
language so that they can discuss school activities in which English
has been spoken.

TEAChER
At conference time I like children to show their
journals to their parents. It is a great way for young
children to share their own work and progress,
over time, with their families. It is rewarding, for
both me and the parents, to see the dictation move
from the child’s home language to English. I hear
children ‘reading’ the English dictation to their
parent and then translating so their parent will
understand. This is also the beginning of what we
hope will be a lifelong dialogue between parent
and child about school, homework, and learning.

15
 1
Chapter 2
Preschool PRINCIPLE
English Learners,
Their Families, The education of English learners is enhanced when preschool
and Their programs and families form meaningful partnerships.
PRINCIPLEs ANd PRACTICEs

Communities
Family (parent) involvement and participation are improved when
families are valued contributors as planners, trainers, and evaluators of their
children’s educational programs. Teachers should recognize and respect
families’ language beliefs and practices to develop a more comprehensive
understanding of the language development of English learners.

PRACTICEs
• Determine how language learning, home language support, and
communication goals will be addressed in your setting for all students,
including students with disabilities.
• acknowledge the many responsibilities that parents and families
discharge daily.
• Highlight the many ways in which families are already involved in their
children’s education.
• Provide options for home-based activities that can support what children
are learning at school.
• Share and model the belief that the involvement of parents in their
children’s education, accompanied by high educational expectations,
results in better long-term academic and social-emotional development.
• Provide opportunities for parents and family members to share their
skills with staff, the children in the program, and other families.
• allow family members to determine how they would like to be
supported and generate ideas for ways in which they can both lead
and implement those supports.
• Provide specific information regarding program expectations, academic
standards, and transition to kindergarten.
• Hold an open house or potluck dinner for families in the program.

16
Varieties of Language Chapter 2
Preschool

L ongitudinal studies of children growing up in bilingual communi­ English Learners,

Their Families,
ties support the notion that young children use language for
and Their
different social and cognitive purposes and learn not just languages but Communities
different registers of those languages. Language registers are the differ­
ent forms of the same language used with certain people or in certain
situations. For example, children may use the formal register to speak
to parents, elders, or teachers and child care providers and the infor­
mal register in other social settings, such as at the playground, with
siblings, and with other children at a child care center. They may also
address individuals entirely in one language or register but not in the
other.
Children live in language-rich environments where they commu­
nicate with their parents, siblings, peers, and other caregivers. Those
environments might include both the home language (formal and
informal registers) and English. A variety of English, academic English,
is the language of books used at school and that spoken by teachers,
administrators, and many students.
Given the vast number of opportunities to come into contact
with other varieties of English—at the playground or at stores, for
example—children may have been exposed to those forms of English
and may have already incorporated words or forms from these variet­
ies into their language repertoires. Each variety of English or any other
language has its purpose and is preferred in certain contexts. Therefore,
it is important to communicate to children that their proficiency in
English other than academic English is useful in many situations.

REsEARCh HIGhLIGhTs
Zentella’s 1997 study of Puerto Rican children growing up in new York City
provides an example of the varieties of registers that children can employ creatively
in response to their communities’ historical experiences of migration and language
contact. In her analysis of children’s speech, Zentella identifies a number of
varieties of Spanish and English used by the children. Language development in
this community reflected the social setting in which children lived. Contact with
members from other cultural and linguistic groups (for example, african american
English speakers) also influenced the language repertoires of these young bilingual
children.

17
Chapter 2 Explaining the value of knowing more than one register or language
Preschool can be done in a developmentally appropriate manner, just as teachers
English Learners, explain equity, skin color, and disability to young children. Learning
Their Families,
and Their academic English will lead to improved success in school and other
Communities formal contexts.

Ask Yourself
1. What can I do to become more aware of a student’s previous
experiences?
2. For those students who are immigrants, how much awareness
do I have of their immigrant experience?
3. How can I provide a nurturing environment where children
from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds can feel
safe to practice new words or use a new language?
4. How do I show the children and their families that I value
their home language?
5. How familiar am I with the many language and literacy
practices of my students and their families?

Additional References
Alma, A., and C. Baker. 2001. Guía Para Padres y Maestros de Niños
Bilingües. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
Ballanger, C. 1999. Teaching Other People’s Children: Literacy and Learning
in a Bilingual Classroom. New York: Teachers College Press.
Lee, S. 2006. “Using Children’s Texts to Communicate with Parents of
English-Language Learners,” Young Children, Vol. 61, No. 5, 18–25.
Note: See pages 129–42 for a list of works cited in this publication.

18
 3
Connecting First
and Second Languages
T eacher: “Jorge, can you tell me your story in English
or Spanish because you’re bilingual?”
Jorge: “What is bilingual?”
Teacher: “Bilingual is when you are able to speak in two
languages.”
Jorge: “I can speak two languages. I’m bilingual!”
Second child: “Teacher, teacher, I’m bilingual too! I speak
English and Spanish!”
Jorge: “I want to speak three languages! I want to learn
Chinese so I can talk to my friend next door to my house.”
Teacher: “People who speak three languages are trilingual.
Let’s ask Mrs. Cheung if she’ll teach us some words in
Chinese.”

19
Chapter 3
Children and Their Language Development
Connecting

T
First and Second he purpose of language is to communicate needs, thoughts, and
Languages
feelings and to share meaning with others, as demonstrated in the
teacher-student dialogue just quoted. Even before they can say their
first words, infants are immersed in a world of language and communi­
cate nonverbally through facial expressions, tone of voice, volume,
and gestures. For instance, infants who hold up both arms may be
communicating nonverbally that they want to be picked up.
Toward the end of the first year, infants start responding to spoken
word cues and try to play “peek-a-boo” or “pat-a-cake” and may wave
“bye-bye.” They are taking in more and more language. As they begin
to comprehend, they are preparing the way for speech. But before they
can speak the names of things, they alter their gaze or hand things to
others to show that they understand the names.
A child’s first words help the child obtain things and cause adults
to act in various ways. Naming things becomes a game, and the child
echoes and repeats words. Sometimes it is difficult to understand just
what the child is trying to say. Adults need to listen closely, watching
for nonverbal signs and guessing to understand the child and to
respond correctly.
Young children’s early speech is telegraphic, meaning that, as with
telegrams, which are abbreviated communications, children omit many
words because of their limited ability to express and remember large
pieces of information. Young children include the most important
words in their telegraphic phrases, as in “Mommy shoe.” However, it
may be difficult to guess exactly what is missing. Is it “I want Mommy’s
shoe?” Or is it “Mommy’s shoe is on the floor?” As their intellectual
capacities increase, children eventually learn to add more words to
clarify the meaning of their expressions.
As children grow older, their use of language becomes increasingly
creative. The word “no,” for example, occurs with persistent frequency.
For some children “no” initially indicates that something or someone
is not present or does not exist. “No dada” means that daddy is not
home or not in the room where the child can see him. Soon, “no” may
come to mean rejection or denial. A child using three or more words
together may say, “No want eat peas.” Eventually, “no” is inserted in
the sentence but perhaps not where it belongs, as in “Johnny want
no go bath.” The last stage is proper usage, as in “No, I do not want
a book.”

20
 During the preschool years children are continually developing their Chapter 3
language. A particularly interesting aspect of first-language acquisition Connecting
is the similarity in that development from child to child. For example, First and Second
Languages
as children learn to form noun and verb endings in English, most go
through a stage in which they say “foots” instead of “feet,” “goed”
instead of “went,” and “mines” instead of “mine.” These creative uses
of language are a part of normal language development and show that
the children are trying to figure out the patterns or rules that govern
language. The expressions are called overgeneralizations; that is, children
are applying a rule or pattern too broadly, such as forming a plural by
adding “s” so that “foot” becomes “foots.”
Most three-year-old children throughout the world can:
• Communicate effectively their needs to others around them.
• Produce talk that follows the grammatical patterns of the
languages spoken around them.
• Articulate most of the sounds of their language(s) and put those
sounds together according to the rules of the language(s).
• Use a large vocabulary that may contain words from each of the
languages they hear.
• Continue to learn new words at an amazing rate.
• Understand the purposes of language, make statements,
ask questions, issue demands, and make requests.
• Use language in socially appropriate situations.
• Use language creatively and productively to convey original
thoughts and ideas.
• Engage in language activities that are valued in their cultural
groups (e.g., greeting, storytelling, teasing, singing, debating).
• Be exposed to and have a number of learning experiences in using
their home language and quite possibly other language varieties
spoken around them.
Although the process of learning a language is similar for most
children, each child progresses at his or her own rate. Some children
do not say their first words until they are two years old; others at the
same age are putting together two, three, or more words. However, as
discussed earlier, all children have many ways to communicate, such
as babbling, gesturing, changing facial expressions, offering toys and
objects, and changing their tone of voice or pitch of their cry, even
when they may not yet be able to express themselves in words.

21
Chapter 3
The Components of Language
Connecting

B
First and Second abies are born with a capacity to learn any language. That capacity
Languages
does not decrease as they fine-tune their home language on the
way to mastering it. Young children experiment with language much
as scientists do. They hypothesize and make predictions, draw conclu­
sions based on patterns or rules of language from their understanding,
and try out their findings. In learning to talk, children accomplish a
great many things. Principally, they learn the following:
• The Sound System (Phonology). The rule system within a language by
which phonemes or units of sound are connected to make words is
known as phonology. Babies are born with the capacity to make the
sounds in any of the world’s languages. It takes time for children to
learn how to make the sounds of their language correctly and for
the muscles used in speech to mature. For that reason a young child
whose home language is English may say “pway” instead of “play.”
Gradually, the child’s speech becomes increasingly adult-like.
• The Structure of Words (Morphology). Morphology refers to the rules for
how meaningful units of language are put together to form syllables
and words. Young children learning English as their first language
start out with simple morpheme or syllable combinations, such as
“da-da,” “ma-ma,” or “ne-ne.” Later, they use more adult-like
pronunciations, such as “daddy,” “mommy,” and “Nelly.”

Parts of Oral and Sign Language System

The Structure
The Sound System
of Words
(Phonology)
(Morphology)

Language Use in Social

The Rules Meaning and
Context (Pragmatics/
of Grammar Vocabulary
Communicative
(Syntax) (Semantics)
Competence)

Adapted from “Even Start Research-based Early Childhood and Parenting Education
Professional Development, 2003,” California Department of Education, Sacramento.

22
• The Rules of Grammar (Syntax). All languages have rules for how Chapter 3
words are put together to form sentences, otherwise known as syntax. Connecting
Children learn to follow the rules of their home language gradually First and Second
Languages
and at times may apply them incorrectly. A two-year-old English
speaker might say, “I no want candy.” But in time such language
usage no longer occurs.
• Meaning and Vocabulary (Semantics). The study of the meanings of
words and phrases is known as semantics. Learning the various mean­
ings that can be expressed in a language is a lifetime task. Children
learn to label objects and to develop concepts through verbal and
nonverbal interactions with persons around them. As they mature,
their understanding of concepts becomes more refined. For example,
at one point “doggie” might refer to a horse, a cow, or a dog because
all are four-footed. Eventually, “doggie” takes on the meaning
understood by older persons.
• Language Use in Social Context (Pragmatics/Communicative Competence).
The system of rules and conventions, both unstated and stated, for
using spoken language, along with forms of nonverbal communica­
tion appropriate within different social contexts, has been referred
to as pragmatics and more recently as communicative competence.
Children have to learn the ways in which language is used in many
different situations. In developing their communicative competence,
children realize that language can have many functions. Some of
the major functions of language by which children demonstrate
communicative competence are the following (Hamayan and
Perlman 1990; Kasper and Rose 2003; LoCastro 2003):
1. Imparting and seeking factual information
a. Identifying things
b. Reporting about things, using description or narrative
c. Asking for or correcting factual information

ReSearch HighLightS
Learning the meanings of concepts and objects takes longer than learning labels
for them. For example, learning that a cute furry animal is called a “cat” takes
longer and is more difficult than recognizing that the word “cat” and “gato”
(Spanish for cat) refer to the same thing (Peynircioglu and Durgunoglu 1993;
Peynircioglu and Tekcan 1993).

23
Chapter 3 2. Expressing and finding out intellectual attitudes
Connecting a. Expressing agreement and disagreement
First and Second
Languages
b. Accepting or declining an offer or invitation
c. Stating whether one knows or does not know something
or someone
d. Giving and seeking permission to do something
3. Expressing and finding out emotional attitudes
a. Expressing wants, desires, likes, interests, preferences,
intentions (and their opposites, such as dislikes)
b. Expressing surprise, hope, satisfaction, fear, worry, sympathy,
and disappointment
4. Expressing and finding out moral attitudes
a. Forgiving and apologizing
b. Expressing approval or disapproval
c. Expressing appreciation, regret, or indifference
5. Getting things done
a. Suggesting a course of action
b. Asking, inviting, advising, instructing, or directing others
to do or not to do something
c. Offering or requesting help
6. Socializing
a. Meeting, greeting, and saying goodbye to people
b. Attracting attention
c. Congratulating
d. Beginning a meal

As children mature, they learn how to use language differently with

different people in school and in their home environments. They learn
how commands, requests, and statements with subtle differences in
structure, such as “We haven’t been to the park for a long time now,”
can be more effective in certain situations than “I want to go to the
park,” according to content and intention. When children employ a
different phrase to achieve a particular goal with a certain person at a
specific point in time, they are showing fairly advanced knowledge of
social interaction and communication.
In schools, however, the focus of the curriculum tends to be prima­
rily on imparting and seeking factual information. As a result, teachers
may unintentionally be overlooking children’s many other language
and communication skills.

24
A Wide Range of Language Practices Chapter 3
Connecting

I n addition to finding individual differences in the rate of learning First and Second
Languages
language, researchers have identified cultural differences in the way
in which language is acquired and used. For some children language
development is assisted through interactions with props, such as books,
toys, and stuffed animals. Even before children can talk, adults in
some families often question the children and interact with them
orally, labeling and describing what is happening:
“But this baby wants to go to
sleep, doesn’t he?”
“Yes. See those little eyes are
getting heavy.”
This interaction does not
happen in all cultures or
even in all segments of our
society. A poor community
in South Carolina studied
by Heath (1983) provides
an example of an Ameri­
can community in which
children live in an environment without language-teaching props.
Although these children were surrounded by a rich, constant stream of
speech, Heath found that little attention was given to their attempts
to verbalize. Cooing and babbling noises were ignored, and no attempt
was made to interpret the children’s early sounds. Yet the development
of speech in these children occurred at the same rate as that of middle-
class children. The children in the study simply followed a different
route. They learned to speak by imitating the ends of overheard phrases
or sentences, gradually building up longer speech patterns until they
could get attention and enter into conversation.
Mother (talking to neighbor with child nearby): “But they won’t call
back. Won’t happen.”
Child: “Call back.”
Neighbor: “Sam’s going over there Saturday; he’ll pick up a form.”
Child: “Pick up ‘on, pick up ‘on.”

25
Chapter 3
Connecting ReSearch HighLightS
First and Second
Languages Research across language and cultural groups indicates that throughout
the world family and community members interact with babies and young
children in many different ways:
• Among European-American families “motherese” or “parentese” is
commonly heard among adults interacting with very young children.
• In other communities children are sometimes not seen as full-fledged
conversational partners and may not often be spoken to directly
(Ochs and Schieffelin 1984).
• Among the Kaluli of New Guinea, parents are very conscious of
language development and deliberately try to teach young children
to speak. They use direct instruction, telling children appropriate things
to say in specific circumstances. The speech they use—and expect
children to use—is normal adult speech (Schieffelin 1979).

Because not all children have had the same experiences in learn­
ing how to talk, they may have different expectations about how they
should interact with adults or other children. The “Research to Practice:
The Use of Questions” that follows demonstrates why it is important
for teachers to become familiar with the different experiences and
practices of their students.
Although some similarities within a cultural or language group may
occur in childrearing and communication practices, the manner in
which those practices occur may vary significantly among individuals
and families.
Preschool programs in the United States are typically structured to
operate according to a well-established school culture. In their class­
rooms children from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds may
experience cultural conflicts because the children are accustomed to
different ways of learning and communicating.

26
 Chapter 3
the Use of Questions Connecting
In schools across America teachers may ask known-answer First and Second
Languages
reSearch tO Practice

questions. For example, a teacher may ask a student what

color the student’s blouse is. The answer is already known.
The student knows that her blouse is red in color. An example
of an unknown-answer question would be for the teacher to
ask what the student had for dinner the previous night because
the teacher had not dined with the student.
Heath (1983) found that children used to being asked unknown-
answer questions at home were baffled as to why teachers
would ask known-answer questions when the response was
usually so obvious and as result participated less in class.
Cazden (1988) suggests a way to apply this knowledge to a
social studies lesson titled “Our Community”:
• Use photographs of different sections of the local community;
public buildings of the town and surrounding areas, such as
the countryside; beaches; and so forth.
• Ask the children such questions as the following:
“What’s happening here?”
“Have you ever been here?”
“Tell me what you did when you were there.”
“What’s this like (pointing to a scene or item in a scene)?”
As a result of using these types of questions, teachers may get
more active and assertive and complete responses than if they
had asked the students only the following:
“What kind of building is this?”
“Where is this located?”

27
 2
Chapter 3
Connecting PrinciPLe
First and Second children benefit when their teachers understand cultural
Languages
differences in language use and incorporate them into the
PrinciPLeS anD PracticeS

daily routine.
Culturally responsive teaching practices in the preschool classroom create
a positive learning environment. They incorporate the linguistic and
cultural resources that children bring with them and thereby promote
their learning and overall growth.

PracticeS
• Structure activities so that children can engage in telling stories or
recounting events by expressing themselves through various means,
such as speech, pantomime, pointing, and role-playing.
• Remember that children benefit from experiencing different types
of interactions with adults and with peers, including cooperative
and peer-oriented activities as well as more independent activities.
• Inform family members, providers, teachers, and specialists about
different types of language interaction practices used at school and
by the families of the children in your class.
• Accept silence or quiet observation as a proper way for some children
to participate, especially when they first join your class.
• Be aware that ways of expressing feelings, such as excitement, anger,
happiness, frustration, and sadness, differ in various cultures. For
example, children may show excitement by shouting and jumping for
joy, by smiling and offering a coy look, by showing no outward signs
while inwardly experiencing anticipation, or by sharing with a friend
or a trusted adult the fact that they are excited.
• Note that children from different cultural backgrounds may interpret
a single action by the teacher to have contrasting meanings. For
example, a teacher may point to signal where she wants the children
to go. But some children may think she is reprimanding them, singling
them out for some reason, or saying she wants “one” of something
(since she has one finger out).
• Vary wait time, the amount of time you allow children to respond.
Children from certain cultural backgrounds find the pace of verbal
interactions in U.S. schools very different from what they are
accustomed to.
• Make sure that your classroom environment reflects the children’s
cultures and languages in each learning center; on walls, windows,
and bulletin boards; and in educational and play materials.

28
 Chapter 3
• Visit the children’s homes and observe not only how parents interact Connecting
First and Second
with the child but also how other relatives and siblings talk to the child
Languages
and how the child talks to or interacts with them.
• Go to community functions attended by parents and children and
other community members and observe the communication styles of
the people attending those functions.

Awareness of How Language Works

T eachers can call attention to the task of learning a language by

sharing with the children their own experiences in trying to learn
another language. The children should know that learning a second
language can be difficult and that people progress at different rates in
learning both first and second languages. They need opportunities to
verbalize their awareness of language differences and, most important,
to learn that all languages are valuable. By making explicit this aware­
ness of differences in language through conversations, such as the one
found at the beginning of this chapter, teachers will provide children
with concrete examples of the many uses of their language abilities and
the benefits to be gained.
Another reason for children to have an early awareness of language
and language differences is that many young children will become
language brokers for family members and friends (if they have not
already become brokers). As language brokers children can use their
developing bilingual language skills to act as interpreters between
institutions and family members and to assist peers or siblings who
may not know as much English as they do.

cantOneSe-SPeaking granDmOther
i take karen (four and one-half years old) with
me when i go shopping. She helps me because
i don’t speak any english. She translates for me
on the bus and in the market and sometimes
when i pay a bill. Sometimes i’m nervous
when she’s not with me. She is very confident.

29
Chapter 3
Connecting
ReSearch HighLightS
First and Second
Languages A study of students in grades five and six who translated for others illustrated
the many ways in which bilingual children translated or interpreted and
even paraphrased for others throughout their childhood years. These
students used their remarkable everyday interpreting skills in schools,
government offices, and hospitals, to name a few places (Faulstich Orellana
2003).

Children learning English as a second language often have more

opportunities to be exposed to English-dominant environments than
do their parents and older family members. However, in communi­
cating to families what may be sensitive or personal information,
preschool program staff should avoid using young children and rely
instead on bilingual staff members, including trained interpreters.
Further, teachers can avoid pressuring young children inadvertently to
act as language brokers in inappropriate situations by adhering to the
strategies described throughout this guide.

The Influence of Peers on Language

Development

I nteracting with peers in a preschool setting is advantageous for

many developmental reasons, including opportunities to develop
social skills and form identities. In collaborative peer activities
children learn to negotiate goals and the meaning of the activities at
hand. More experi­
enced peers, those
with more advanced
mastery of the lan­
guage, can also be
effective language
models for children
who are newcomers
to the community. In
small-group and large-
group activities with
(Continued on page 32)

30
3
Chapter 3
PrinciPLe
Connecting
Successful practices promote shared experiences in which First and Second
Languages
language is used as a meaningful tool to communicate interests,
PrinciPLeS anD PracticeS

ideas, and emotions.

A positive consequence of culturally responsive teaching practices is that
the teacher’s communication in the classroom is better received when
children can relate to the language and content being presented. The
children’s ability to relate to classroom learning is further strengthened
when the teacher supports the children’s use of the home language
while the children acquire English. By engaging in practices that promote
learning through shared experiences, children become more competent
bilingual-bicultural learners.

PracticeS
• Introduce a vocabulary word by connecting it with related words in
one or more of the children’s languages. If you are not bilingual,
access the bilingual abilities of other colleagues or family members.
For example, after reading a story about the circus, connect the
word circus with el circo (in Spanish) or le cirque (in French) and also
connect circus with the word circle in English.
• Use the sign or picture symbol of a word for children with disabilities.
Also use a voice-output device with a prerecorded label in the child’s
home language and in English.
• Maintain a consistent routine, along with a picture or photo schedule,
so that, with a little observation, English learners (with and without
disabilities) can pick up clues about what to do next.
• Demonstrate how to make requests, how to initiate conversations,
and how to “take the floor.”
• Present new vocabulary in a context that allows the children to
determine the meaning rather than in isolation, as in lists of words.
Note: Language should be learned in the context of the here and now.
Whenever possible, use real items or toy versions, photographs, or
drawings of the items.
• Promote and assist peer interactions to provide opportunities for
English learners, including those with disabilities, to communicate
with peers who are more fluent English speakers and can serve as
language models.
• Keep language a step beyond the child’s current development, but
not too far. As the child’s language develops, adults should gradually
increase the complexity of their language.

31
Chapter 3 their peers, children will benefit from the support in learning
Connecting offered by their teachers. Group activities can be a key supplement
First and Second
to the social and cognitive development of children.
Languages

Ask Yourself
1. What can I do in my classroom to be more proactive about
integrating culturally relevant practices in language use?
2. How can I adapt the curriculum to encourage multiple
opportunities for peer interactions to support each child’s
language development?
3. How am I using the children’s home languages so that the
children can continue to learn concepts as they progress
in learning English?

Additional References
Bowman, B. T.; M. S. Donovan; and M. S. Burns, editors. 2001. Eager
to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, D.C.: National
Academy Press.
Burns, M.S., and others. 1999. Starting Out Right: A Guide to Promoting
Children’s Success. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
“The Child’s Brain: Syllable from Sound.” Program 2, The Secret Life of
the Brain. PBS video series. [Link]
series_desc.html (accessed 12-29-05)
Gopnik, A.; A. Meltzoff; and P. Kuhl. 1999. The Scientist in the Crib:
Minds, Brains, and How Children Learn. New York: William Morrow
and Company.
Note: See pages 129–42 for a list of works cited in this publication.

32
 4
Paths to Bilingualism

K
emin is four years old, and his sister Sofia is three
years old. They were born in Southern California.
Their mother, born in the United States, is of Mexi­
can descent and is fluent in Spanish and English.
Their father was born in China and came to the United States
with his parents and two siblings when he was a teenager. He
is fluent in Mandarin Chinese and in English. Kemin and Sofia
have been learning Spanish from their mother, her extended
family, and their babysitter and Chinese from their father and
his extended family at a school offering instruction in Chinese
on Saturdays. Now they are enrolled in preschool, where the
teacher uses both English and Spanish as languages for instruc­
tion. Their teacher reports that the children’s participation in
her classroom is a reflection of each child’s personality and

33
Chapter 4
Paths to temperament. Kemin is more reserved and prefers to
Bilingualism
stay close to the teacher or her assistant. Sofia is quite
outgoing and assertive and is often leading activities
or talking to friends. At preschool they are both mak­
ing progress in their English and Spanish development
as well as in all other areas of learning.

Most children throughout the world learn to speak two or more

languages (Tucker 1999). Indeed, bilingualism is present in just about
every country in the world, in all classes of society, and in all age
groups (Grosjean 1982). This chapter is about children learning to
speak more than one language.

Theoretical Basis for Supporting

Bilingualism

B eing exposed to more than one language during childhood can

ease the transition from speaking and using the home language
to acquiring a second language, usually English, for school. This transi­
tion is also known as cross-language transfer (August and Hakuta 1997;
Ben-Zeev 1997; Bernhardt 1991; Durgunoglu and Verhoeven 1998).
What research has shown to be successful in teaching older English
learners can help in making decisions on curriculum and instruction
for young English learners. Two major hypotheses that have been de­
veloped to explain the phenomenon of cross-language transfer,
the interdependence hypothesis and the threshold hypothesis, are
described as follows:
• The interdependence hypothesis (Cummins 1981, 1984) maintains that
in developing proficiency in one language, children also develop
underlying cognitive skills and metalinguistic awareness—aware­
ness of the content and meaning of language rather than its external
structure or sound. This universal understanding gained in acquiring
one language facilitates learning and developing proficiency in
a second language or in additional languages.
• A second hypothesis explaining cross-language transfer is the
threshold hypothesis (Cummins and Swain 1986). This hypothesis
maintains that English learners must achieve minimum thresholds

34
 Research Highlights
Chapter 4
Paths to
Bilingualism
There is general agreement that bilingualism leads to multiple advantages
for children and adults. Some of the benefits of knowing more than one
language are listed as follows (August and Hakuta 1997; Baker 2000a):
Communication advantages: wider communication networks; literacy in
two languages; metalinguistic awareness
Cultural advantages: broader enculturation; deeper multiculturalism;
two “language worlds” of experience; greater tolerance; less racism
Cognitive advantages: thinking; memory; brain plasticity
Character advantages: raised self-esteem; security in identity
Curriculum advantages: increased curriculum achievement and ease in
learning a third language or additional languages
Cash and financial advantages: increased employment opportunities;
resulting economic benefits

(levels) of proficiency in both their home language and English before

they can achieve the benefits of bilingualism. Studies indicate that
bilingual students who are proficient in their first language have
higher academic achievement in English and other subjects than do
those students who are not proficient (Thomas and Collier 2003a;
Yeung, Marsh, and Suliman 2000). This finding, which supports the
threshold hypothesis, has prompted researchers to state that a high
level of proficiency in a first language is more likely than not to assist
students in acquiring a second language.
Linguists and psychologists generally agree that children reach profi­
ciency in their first language by the age of five, assuming no identified
risk factors are involved. Children acquire the speech patterns of those
around them, learning the rules of grammar, gaining a large vocabulary,
and learning to use language appropriately in social contexts.
Most children without learning difficulties succeed in acquiring a
first language, but not all children are successful in acquiring a second
language. Mastering a second language depends in great part on the
interaction of external and internal factors. External factors may
include access to speakers of a second language, the frequency with
which children come into contact with and interact with those speakers,
the degree to which the second-language context is emotionally sup­
portive, and the messages and pressures present in school and

35
Chapter 4 society regarding the mastery of the second language. Internal factors
Paths to may include the children’s cognitive abilities and limitations, perceived
Bilingualism need to learn a second language, talent in learning language, and
individual temperaments and social skills. If the children’s home and
school communities value bilingualism, then children will likely learn
and maintain both of their languages at high levels (Winsler and others
1999).
By implementing the many practices included in this guide, pre­
school teachers will be able to honor and value a child’s home language
and culture while English is being introduced. Indeed, the questions of
when and how much English is to be introduced in the preschool years
require a great deal of thought and consultation with family members
and educators knowledgeable about second-language acquisition.
A child becomes bilingual in different ways, primarily through the
simultaneous acquisition of two languages or the successive acquisition
of a second language. Both refer to the child’s exposure to a second
language. For some children exposure begins at a very early age; for
others it occurs later. A rule of thumb is that exposure to two languages
before the age of three may lead to simultaneous bilingualism, which
means that the children are learning two languages at once. Because
children acquire most aspects of oral or spoken language by the age
of three, the introduction of a new language after that age leads to
successive bilingualism. The quality and quantity of exposure to both
languages and the opportunities or tendencies children have to use
both languages, together or separately, lead to different paths for
second-language acquisition.

Simultaneous Bilingualism

S imultaneous bilingualism (also known as simultaneous language

acquisition, simultaneous second-language acquisition, or dual-
language acquisition) applies to children who develop two languages
equally or nearly equally through exposure to both and frequent op­
portunities to use both. Some children in preschool programs have
already been exposed to two languages and use both at developmentally
appropriate levels. For example, some children speak Tagalog with their
parents and older relatives and English with their siblings and friends.
Bilingual children learning two languages at the same time may not
have had the same amount of exposure or opportunities to use each of
the languages. A bilingual person with a perfectly balanced knowledge

36
of both languages is rare, for life experiences in each language are Chapter 4
seldom duplicated. Paths to
Children acquiring two languages simultaneously follow develop­ Bilingualism
mental phases similar to those for children acquiring the languages
separately. (Note: These phases are explained in greater detail in the
following sections.) The rate at which children reach the milestones
of language development varies greatly. Although children differ in
ability, some generalizations may assist preschool teachers in helping
children develop competence in language.

Early Phase (Birth to Three Years)

Before the age of three, children make progress in all of the compo­
nents of language acquisition: phonology, morphology, syntax, and
semantics. (See Chapter Three for an explanation of the components.)
One of the most amazing aspects of language development is how
accurately children use language at this age. For example, bilingual
children may combine elements of one language with those of another.
Such language switching is a natural part of dual-language acquisition
in bilingual children.
(See Chapter Six for a
more in-depth look at
code switching.)
By age three children
have acquired the basic
rules of grammar. Al­
though certain forms
may still cause prob­
lems, the basic elements
of grammar have been
learned. For example, in
English a child might say
“goed” for “went” or “mouses” for “mice.” Three-year-olds’ speech in
both languages is generally understandable, although some children
may have problems in making certain sounds. In English, consonants
in words with several syllables and consonant clusters are especially
difficult to pronounce. At this point in development, the bilingual
child is able to keep the sounds of both languages separate.
At age three children also understand much spoken language. Some
children can understand as many as a thousand words and produce or
say several hundred (Hart and Risley 1995). Bilingual children have this
capability in two languages, although the total number of words these

37
Chapter 4 children use in one of their languages may be fewer than the number
Paths to of words monolingual speakers use in their primary language.
Bilingualism By the age of three, children can respond to what others say, make
requests, issue commands, get attention, and assert their rights. They
may talk to themselves as they play, and language itself may become
a focus of play. Often, they engage in parallel play in which they play
near others but not with them.

Middle Phase (Three to Four Years)

The sound system of both languages is fairly well established when
children reach age four. Pronouncing sounds in English such as “l” and
“r” may still be a problem. “Lizzie” may become “yizzee,” and “rabbit”
may be pronounced “wabbit.” Other sounds may still give difficulty;
but, increasingly, the child’s pronunciation begins to approximate that
of adults.
As bilingual children develop their languages, the length of their
sentences increases. Complex sentences with the conjunctions (con­
necting words) “and” and “but” begin to appear at this time, as do
phrases in which children express their lack of desire to do something:
“I don’t want to!”
At this age children love to ask questions. They begin using “wh”
clauses (“what,” “who,” “where,” “when,” and “why”). By age four
children are able to invert auxiliary verbs to form more advanced
questions, such as, “Why did you do that?” Some equivalents to these
English constructions appear in the children’s second language, and
some different grammatical structures may develop earlier in the
children’s home languages (Escamilla 2000).
Once they have learned how to form questions, the children use
them constantly to test their hypotheses about the world and mean­
ings. A child may ask, “How long do ants live?” The answer, “About
a year,” may not mean much to the child, who may then respond,
“Why?” Children are also exploring such concepts as time, quantity,
and relationships. Their vocabulary grows rapidly, but their under­
standing of words is sometimes quite limited and often literal. When
told, “It is raining cats and dogs,” a child may be confused at not
seeing those animals falling from the sky.
Some children will talk aloud to themselves while engaged in play.
This language practice is called private speech. It may puzzle some adults
because private speech sometimes sounds like an imaginary conversa­
tion. However, private speech is a normal occurrence in the language
development of many children and provides an excellent way for

38
children to practice and refine their language. As children become Chapter 4
older, private speech decreases. Paths to
At this age children can engage in effective, appropriate conversation Bilingualism

with others and can modify their speech if they are not understood.
When they fail to understand what another person says, they often
ask for clarification. And when they role-play and use language for
dramatic play, they change their speech. They also begin to use polite
forms (“May I have some cookies?”) and polite formulas (“Thank you”
and “Please”).

Later Phase (Five to Six Years)

By ages five to six, the bilingual child can use longer and more
complex sentences (more than six words) in both languages. Rela­
tive clauses appear (“the lady who lives across the street”), as do verbs
in the passive voice (“The dog was hit by the car”). Indirect requests
(“Can I help?”) and comparatives (“This is bigger”) also occur.
By age six most children have mastered most of the sounds of their
languages. The six-year-old English-speaking child can usually make
the difficult “v” and “w” sounds. Second-language learners, however,
may find some sounds difficult to pronounce. For example, many na­
tive speakers of Spanish encounter difficulties in saying the English “z”
of “zip” and the “th” of “thin.” The Spanish-speaking child can usually
trill the “r” in Spanish
words, such as rosa (rose)
and arroz (rice).
Vocabulary continues
to develop in both lan­
guages. More multiple
meanings of words are
understood, and children
take words less literally.
Thus the statement
“Mrs. Tran is a very warm
person” is not understood
to mean that Mrs. Tran is
physically warm. At about this age bilingual children are aware that the
meanings of words are arbitrary, an awareness that speakers of a single
language develop later in elementary school (Lee 1996).
By age six most children are quite accomplished in their use of
language. They can use slang with their peers (“Right on, dude”),
show respect when making a request of an adult, and use language to

39
Chapter 4 regulate their social status (know which people to address formally).
Paths to They can adjust their speech to the needs of the listener and know
Bilingualism when to add more details to clarify meaning.
Growing appreciation of the multiple meanings of words is reflected
in children’s humor. Although children’s jokes are based mainly on
sound plays (“I’m going to the potty” for “party”), puns begin to

4 PriNciPle
language development and learning are promoted when preschool
teachers and children creatively and interactively use language.
PriNciPles aND Practices

It is essential that children use language to further develop their social and
academic English. In addition, through the use of the home language and
English, children develop literacy skills that, in turn, enable them to be more
competent learners. Teachers should design and implement activities that
promote language use as children engage in individual and group activities.

Practices
• Draw children into conversations as much as possible by exploring
the meaning of their ideas.
• Be a good listener and promote the children’s talk by smiling, nodding,
and saying “hmm,” “really,” and the like.
• Respond to what the children have said by showing that you understand
and prompt more speech.
• Encourage children to role-play and engage in extended language
activities with one another.
• Let the children talk about their feelings. Model this practice by sharing
your feelings with them.
• Model language by playing imitation games in which the child has
to do or say what the adult or a puppet says. It is important to speak
clearly and to model appropriate language for the children.
• Use puppets and flannel-board stories to encourage children to
participate orally.
• Encourage children to bring objects from home that can be described
and talked about at school. In this way new vocabulary can be tied
to the children’s experiences.
• Verbalize what you are doing as you carry out activities. If the activity
is repetitious, repeat your verbal description. This approach helps the
child link language to the activity.

40
appear (“If you love candy, why don’t you marry it?”). Children at this Chapter 4
age find these word plays enormously funny. Paths to
Bilingual children can achieve all of these stages in two languages Bilingualism

if they have enough exposure and opportunities for use. But, as noted
earlier, not all children progress at the same rate. Being encouraged
to use language to communicate helps children develop skills. The
warmth and responsiveness of preschool teachers can encourage
bilingual children to succeed in developing proficiency in speech in
each of their languages.

Successive Bilingualism

S uccessive bilingualism (also known as successive language acquisi­

tion, successive second-language acquisition, or sequential bilin­
gualism) applies to children who are learning their second language
after their first language has been established. The process of successive
bilingualism will be explained in greater detail in Chapter Five.

5 PriNciPle
experimenting with the use, form, purpose, and intent of the
first and second languages leads to growth in acquiring the
PriNciPles aND Practices

second language.
Children love to play with language. When talking to themselves and
with others, they experiment with phrases and sounds. Correcting their
inaccurate language may hamper their tendency to experiment.

Practices
• Allow trial-and-error speech. Accept mistakes in pronunciation,
vocabulary, and grammar. Children should experiment with the
sounds of the language just as they do with other components.
• Serve as an English-language model for all children, especially those
learning English as a second language. Expand the children’s utter­
ances. Repeat with the correct grammar and vocabulary.
• Encourage the children and model ways to elaborate or expand their
utterances in the home language and in English. These elaborations
can happen during social and instructional conversations, reading
activities, or play.

(Continued on next page)

41
Chapter 4
Principle 5 (Continued)
Paths to
Bilingualism • Celebrate a child’s attempts in using a new language. Learning a new
language is as difficult for a child as it is for an adult. Children need
support. Like adults, they do not enjoy being laughed at when they
make mistakes in the new language.
• Point to objects as you name them and coordinate actions with lan­
guage. Emphasize key words in sentences. Repeat important words in
context.

Receptive Bilingualism

I f children have few opportunities to speak one of the languages,

the result is likely to be receptive bilingualism, a term meaning that
children understand a great deal more of a language than they can
express in words. This experience is probably fairly common for many
children. For example, many English learners experience English as the
language of the larger social
environment but have few
opportunities to use English
before they enter preschool.
Although their home language
may be their dominant lan­
guage and may continue to be
the language of choice, these
children will have experienced
a great amount of receptive ac­
quisition of English before they
enter preschool.
Children who acquire a
second language through
exposure and not through active use have a different bilingual expe­
rience than do children who grow up speaking two languages. The
process of receptive bilingualism differs from that of learning a second
language after a first language has been established. Although the
children are not learning two languages equally because of a strong
imbalance favoring the language being used more often, they should
not be considered as novices because they are experiencing consider­
able exposure to the second language.

42
 The point at which children become receptively bilingual is uncer­ Chapter 4
tain. In the United States many preschoolers who come from homes in Paths to
which English is not spoken are exposed to English through television Bilingualism

and through older siblings who may be learning English in school and
may speak English among themselves. From this exposure children
may acquire some English passively but are not considered bilingual.

6 PriNciPle
continued use and development of the child’s home language
will benefit the child as he or she acquires english.
PriNciPles aND Practices

Learning language is an important part of children’s cognitive develop­

ment. One way in which preschool teachers can help children acquire
English as a second language is to support the continued development
of their home language.

Practices
• Note: Preschool teachers who do not speak a child’s language can
team with family members and other staff who speak that language
to establish ways in which the development of the home language
can be continued.
• Learn how to say “hello” in each of the languages represented in your
classroom. Build this multilingual greeting into arrival or circle time.
Teachers can use the same strategy for any other highlighted vocabu­
lary, such as the word of the week or the month. For example: “How
do you say car in your home language?”
• Share information on the development of first language, second
language, and bilingual language with parents and family members
throughout the year to ensure that they are aware of what they can
do to foster home-language and (when appropriate) second-language
development.
• Share information with families about interaction techniques used in
the preschool program, such as listening, following the child’s lead,
expanding the child’s utterances, and showing interest and attention.
• Encourage family members to read to each other literature that is
valued in their home, including stories of their culture (e.g., parent to
child, sibling to other sibling, child to parents, grandparent to child).
• Have English learners and English-speaking children teach each other
a few phrases in their home language.
(Continued on next page)

43
Chapter 4
Principle 6 (Continued)
Paths to
Bilingualism
• Point out to the children the many advantages of being able to speak
two languages or communicate through more than one system,
such as speech and signing.
• Have classroom objects labeled in English and the children’s home
languages.

Ask Yourself
1. How do I communicate to the children and their families the
importance and benefits of learning more than one language?
2. How have I prepared myself to explain the process of both
first- and second-language development to families when
necessary?

Additional References
Cunningham-Andersson, U., and S. Andersson. 1999. Growing Up with
Two Languages: A Practical Guide. New York: Routledge.
Knowing Other Languages Brings Opportunities (brochure). N.D. New York:
Modern Languages Association. Available by writing to the Office
of Foreign Language Programs, Modern Languages Association.
flbrochure@[Link]
Zelasko, N., and B. Antunez. 2000. If Your Child Learns in Two Languages:
A Parent’s Guide for Improving Educational Opportunities for Children
Acquiring English as a Second Language. Washington, D.C.: National
Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition. Available in English,
Spanish, Vietnamese, Chinese, and Haitian Creole at http://
[Link]/fulltext/[Link] by telephone at
1-800-321-6223; by fax at 1-800-531-9347; or by e-mail at
orders@[Link].

Note: See pages 129–42 for a list of works cited in this publication.

44
 5
Stages and Strategies
in Second-Language
Acquisition

T
eacher: “Heart, an only child, came to preschool
in August fluent in Thai and speaking no English.
At first he spent a great deal of time playing alone,
running around the room, yelling, covering his ears,
and shrugging his shoulders in frustration. As he played, I sat
near him and used lots of gestures paired with words. ‘You can
jump. I can jump.’ As we jumped, he sometimes repeated,
‘I jump.’ By October he would pull me to the book area, take
out a book, and show me with gestures that he was drawing a
dinosaur. In late January he was building with blocks and said

45
Chapter 5
Stages and to me as I approached, ‘I made a house for you. I have
Strategies in
Second-Language
a big house in Thailand. It is up in a tree (using ges­
Acquisition tures to make a tree). You come see me. OK?’ (He puts
his hands together like an airplane).”

Stages of Learning a Second Language

W hat is the experience of children who have learned one

language at home and encounter a second language when
they enter preschool? In our society the second language is typically
English, although in some cases English-speaking children are exposed
to Spanish or another language in the classroom. As noted earlier,
many children in the United States have had some exposure to Eng­
lish before preschool. This chapter focuses on children who have had
little or no exposure to English before entering preschool. They are not
categorized as receptive bilingual because they are learning English as
a second language more or less from scratch. Generally, children
Home acquiring a second language move through the following four
Language stages, the names of some stages having been modified to reflect
Use current thinking (Tabors and Snow 1994).
In the first stage children may attempt to use the home language
to communicate with others who are speaking a different or second
language. In the second stage many pass through a period of observa­
Observational
tion and listening. They next use telegraphic and formulaic speech in
and Listening
the new or second language and finally begin to use the second
Period
language with more fluency.
Not all children go through all stages, and the same children very
often weave in and out of each stage, depending on the situation.
Telegraphic As a result it may be difficult to characterize where a child is at any
and Formulaic particular point. Teachers will want to note the child’s language
Speech skills through his or her performance in a variety of activities
and conversations with many partners throughout the
week. Using what that information reveals and what
Fluid the child’s family knows about the child’s ability to
Language communicate, the teacher may be able to develop
Use a more accurate informal assessment of the child’s
language development in both the first and second
languages.

46
The Use of the Home Language Chapter 5
to Communicate Stages and
Strategies in
Imagine yourself as a young child facing a situation in which many Second-Language
people are speaking a different language. If you want to interact with Acquisition
other children, you can do one of two things—stop talking altogether
and use nonverbal ways to communicate or use your home language,
which may not be understood by the other children or adults. Some
children opt to use their
home language because it
has been their only means
of communication. In a
study Saville-Troike (1989)
noticed that children in a
child-care setting continued
speaking their home lan­
guage to communicate with
other children, who would
in turn reply in their own
language. This form of com­
munication was generally effective when the children were playing.
Communication broke down when the context did not supply enough
information or offer enough environmental cues for meaning to be
understood. Eventually, of course, children abandon using their home
language with those who do not understand it.

The Observational and Listening Period

Previously, this stage was referred to as the silent or nonverbal period
because children tend to be quiet when engaged in challenging school
activities. However, what children are typically doing at this stage is
spending most of their energy listening to make sense of their new
language and observing the gestures and environmental cues associated
with the new language.
During this phase children may prefer to use other means (gestures,
facial expressions, sounds) to communicate rather than talk (speak) to
their teachers. Most children spend only a month or two at this stage.
However, it can take up to six months, as noted by Hakuta (1974) in
his observations of a Japanese girl attending kindergarten in the United
States who did not speak for six months.

47
Chapter 5
Stages and TeacHer
Strategies in I was worried because Sandy and Henry were not
Second-Language
Acquisition saying much even though they had been in my
class for six months. Then I noticed they were
really attending as if to catch every single word
that came out of my mouth. I suddenly realized
they were processing what they were hearing,
getting used to the new sounds in english that
were not there in Vietnamese or Mandarin,
watching where I was pointing to see what
I was labeling. It was soon after that they both
started expressing themselves more in english.

Although children may not be talking at school during this stage,

they are attending to and processing language. Like infants learning
to speak their first language, second-language learners develop their
understanding of the language before they are able to use it to commu­
nicate. In more informal situations they will still use their home lan­
guage and whatever they know of their second language. During this
stage children begin actively to crack the code of the second language.
Children rehearse the second language by repeating in a low voice
what other speakers say and by playing with the sounds of the new
language (Saville-Troike 1989). Repetition seems to be an important
part of this rehearsal process. Typically, young children repeat the
ends of utterances they hear around them. At this stage their speech is
private and not meant as communication but as practice. They seem
to be connecting English words with appropriate objects, actions, and
situations. Like other young children acquiring their first language,
children learning a second language play with the sounds of the
language and gradually decipher the sounds, meanings, and patterns
of the new one.

Telegraphic and Formulaic Speech

The next stage of second-language acquisition involves trying out
the second language—using what is known to communicate. Because
children know so little at this point, they typically resort to the use
of telegraphic speech and formulas. Telegraphic speech refers to the
use of a few content words without functional words or certain

48
grammatical markers that communicate, for example, action, Chapter 5
possession, or location. Young children do the same in acquiring the Stages and
first language. “Mommy milk,” “Daddy shoe,” and “fish water” are Strategies in
Second-Language
examples. Learning a second language often starts with the use of sin­ Acquisition
gle words or two-word utterances to name objects: “car,” “apple juice,”
“sandbox.” Children are beginning to develop a vocabulary of object
names to use in interacting with native speakers.
Formulaic speech, or the use of formulas, is another strategy used by
English learners observed by researchers (McLaughlin 1984; Tabors
1997). The formulas are chunks or phrases of language that children
use without completely understanding their function. Children use
these phrases in certain situations to achieve certain aims because
they have heard other children using the phrases successfully (Wong
Fillmore 1991). Wong Fillmore’s analysis of the children’s use of for­
mulaic expressions indicates that the children were using chunks of
language to engage in activities that promote language learning. That
is, the children were guessing about the conditions under which par­
ticular utterances might appropriately be made. By using the formulas
and receiving feedback telling them whether their guesses were right or
wrong, they were able to test their conclusions. Formulas provided the
tools for the children to learn more about their language.

Examples of formulas or formulaic speech:

“I like ____.” “Gimme (Give me) _____.” “I want/wanna ____.”
“I like milk.” “Gimme book.” “I want/wanna play.”
“I like Bob.” “Gimme juice.” “I want/wanna go.”
“I like mommy.” “Gimme blocks.” “I want/wanna doll.”

Children involved in this process may seem to be regressing in their

ability to use language. The packaged formulas they use are typically
grammatically correct, but the children now may be making grammati­
cal errors. The process is similar to the one the child learning English
as a first language goes through in learning rules for plurals and past
tenses. For example, children may say “runned” instead of “ran.” They
are no longer using memorized forms but instead are moving to a
higher level of language learning by analyzing the language and trying
to make sense of it.
Being young scientists, children make hypotheses about language
forms and their use in specific situations. Because they are continually
testing their hypotheses, they should be provided with rich language

49
Chapter 5 environments that foster spoken language (oral communication or
Stages and talk). Teachers should realize that most of the children’s early attempts
Strategies in with language do not involve grammatical errors made intention­
Second-Language
Acquisition ally but rather constitute developmental phases of language learning.
Consequently, correcting children’s speech at the sound of a perceived
“error” might have negative consequences on the children’s self-esteem
and impede the natural developmental process.

TeacHer
I realized how important it was to allow children
to use formulas and expressions that they have
learned, even when their use was not always
correct. When children used such expressions
as ‘How you do dese bananas?’ or ‘Gimme
that thing,’ I recognized they were interacting
verbally and that this was more important
than my need for grammatical correctness.

Fluid Language Use

As children demonstrate an understanding of the rules of English,
they are able to apply them to achieve increasing control over the
language. At this point they are using the new language much more
creatively and begin to sound more like native speakers. The types
of English used by children at this stage are referred to as (1) social
English; and (2) academic English.
Social English, a variety of English used first by children during this
phase of language development, refers to the use by children of more
fluid speech (language) in the second language. Considered to be
informal and predominantly spoken, it is characterized by short and
simple sentence structures and, therefore, requires a smaller vocabulary
than does academic English (Cummins 1981). Social English is some­
times referred to by educators as conversational English (Shefelbine
1998).
Children use social English most often in interactions with friends
and adults in relaxed or playful situations. Some children may progress
in this stage with incredible speed. Others may take noticeably longer
to use their new language in social contexts, causing some teachers to
be concerned about the children’s lower progress. By drawing on their
knowledge of early childhood development, those teachers should

50
remember that children reach developmental milestones, including Chapter 5
those in first-language and second-language development, at different Stages and
rates. That knowledge will help teachers view the progress of the Strategies in
Second-Language
children with accurate perspective. Acquisition
Although children may feel comfortable in communicating with
others in social situations, they may not be ready to participate effec­
tively in more cognitively demanding situations (Cummins and Swain
1986). Children who use social English to greet their teachers in the
playground or during mealtimes may mislead their teachers into think­
ing that the children can participate fully in all learning activities.
Academic English, in contrast to social English, takes much longer
to learn. Studies have shown that school-age children require five to
seven years to master academic English (Thomas and Collier 2002).
Academic English, more formal than social English, requires the use of
longer, more complex sentence structures. Children also need to master
a larger vocabulary
(Cummins 1981).
Academic English
requires children to
perform in all four
of the language skills
addressed in school:
listening, speaking,
reading, and writing.
Because of the
advanced require­
ments of academic
English and the time
it takes to master it,
the use of a child’s home language as the child masters English will
help the child learn important concepts. Some teachers who are not
proficient in a child’s home language provide academic support in that
language by planning activities to be implemented by family or com­
munity volunteers who speak the language. When no adults in the
classroom speak a child’s home language, the teacher can use other
strategies included in this guide, such as the following, many of which
are common strategies used by preschool teachers to make concepts
meaningful for children.

51
Chapter 5
Strategies in Second-Language Acquisition
Stages and

A
Strategies in number of cognitive and social strategies are used by young
Second-Language
second-language learners (Wong Fillmore 1990; Tabors 1997):
Acquisition

cognitive strategies used Teaching tips to match

by children the strategies

Assume that what people are saying Make sure that your speech matches
is directly relevant to the situation what you are referring to.
at hand or to what they or you are If you hold up a paper pumpkin
experiencing. but talk about Thanksgiving, a
child may think the label for the
pumpkin is Thanksgiving.

Learn and use some expressions you Use speech and phrases that are
understand. predictable and repetitive.
“I want ____ (juice, toy, play, “Let’s ____ (read, play, clean up,
and so on).” “_____ please.” etc.).” “It’s time to ____ (eat, sleep,
go home).”

Make the most of the language you Accept the label that the child uses
have. and model the new descriptor for him
A child may learn the word “dog” or her.
and use that as a general label “I see the dog too. His name is
until he or she learns more refined Spot.”
descriptive words, such as
“puppy,” “terrier,” or “Spot.”

Work on the big things; save the Serve as a total language model.
details for later. Many preschool Refrain from correcting children in
English learners will leave out articles, their attempts to communicate in their
adjectives, and even verbs as they new language since such corrections
are mastering English. might cause them embarrassment.
Yes/No___. (“Yes book” for Child: “I no want chip potato.”
“I’d like to read.” “No food” Teacher: “All right. You are done
for “I’m not hungry.”) with your potato chips.”

52
 Chapter 5
Social strategies used Teaching tips to match
Stages and
by children the strategies Strategies in
Second-Language
Join a group and act as though you When children are engaged in Acquisition
understand what is going on, even if cooperative learning or play, serve
you do not. as an interpreter for both the fluent
The child may nod as a way to English speaker and the child learning
participate in the conversation English.
or repeat a word a peer said. “Sara is building a tunnel. You like
to play with Sara. You pushed your
car through the tunnel.”

Give the impression, with a few Acknowledge the child’s attempt to

well-chosen words, that you can join a conversation and model more
speak the language. advanced language by extending his
Some children pick up on a or her one or two words into more
popular character, fast-food complete sentences.
chain, or theme and refer to “Yes, SuperBurgers sells ham-
it as a way to make friends. burgers. We’re eating hamburgers
for lunch.”

Count on your friends for help. Strategically pair children with helpful
Young English learners will sit peers who can serve as good language
next to or play with a peer who and interactive models.
accepts the way they talk or stay Acknowledge the peer’s friendly
quiet and includes them in the actions and responses.
activity in natural ways.

Some children who acquire a second language quite rapidly apply

such strategies in particular social situations. For example, they seek
out children who speak the language they want to learn and engage in
verbally challenging play, such as dramatic play. They eagerly use what
they know in order to communicate.
Children benefit significantly from the guidance and assistance of
adults and other more capable peers while engaged in meaningful,
culturally relevant activities. The preschool environment is ideally
suited for developing first and second languages because language is
used in concrete, conversational, and meaningful interactions.
Another way to present the various strategies that a teacher can
use to support second-language learners is presented in the following
“Research to Practice.” These strategies relate to the different stages

53
Chapter 5 involved in learning a second language and will support all children as
Stages and they progress in their language development. Some particularly crucial
Strategies in strategies to offer to children at specific stages of their second-language
Second-Language
Acquisition acquisition are indicated by the checkmarks. An important point to
keep in mind is that a child may move into and out of these different
(Continued on page 56)

Strategies for responding to Stages of communication That children

Move Into and Out of as They Learn a Second Language
reSearcH TO PracTIce

Stage of learning a second language

Fluid use
Home Observational/ Telegraphic of second
Teacher support strategy language listening and formulaic language

Start with what the child knows:

Use a few words in the child’s
home language (come, bathroom,
eat) to allow for low-level
communication. ✔ ✔

Start slowly: Allow the child

to become familiar with the
classroom situation before
approaching him or her with
questions and directives in English. ✔ ✔

Use scaffold communication:

Combine words with some type
of gesture, action, or directed gaze. ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Provide safe havens: Allow the

child to regain energy and focus
by providing spaces and activities
in which the child can participate
with few, if any, expectations for
verbal communication. ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Get help from the English-speaking

children: Show the child’s peers
ways to communicate and ask
questions in order to encourage
interaction and provide additional
language models. ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

54
 Research to Practice (Continued)

Stage of learning a second language

Fluid use
Home Observational/ Telegraphic of second
Teacher support strategy language listening and formulaic language

Expand and extend: Start with

what the child already knows and
expand on his or her language.
If the child says “car,” the teacher
can reply, “That is a red car.” ✔ ✔

Raise expectations: Request an oral

response from the child rather
than only a gesture when he or
she shows signs of readiness
to talk. ✔ ✔

Use repetition: Say the same thing

more than once to give the child
an opportunity to understand
what is being said. ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Talk about the here and now:

Refer to the present situation to
allow the child to understand the
context of communication. ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Do fine-tuning: Restate the

message in a form that the child
can understand when he or she
at first seems not to understand. ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Offer consistent routines: Help the

child learn quickly where to go
and what to expect so that he
or she can become a member
of the group. ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Ensure inclusion: Use the child’s

name to invite him or her to
participate in small-group
activities. ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Source: Adapted from Tabors (1997), chapters 4, 5, and 6.

55
Chapter 5 stages, depending on the content being discussed and the context in
Stages and which it is presented.
Strategies in
For example, when a teacher talks about farm animals, the child may
Second-Language
Acquisition have few context cues to assist in comprehension and may be function­
ing at the observational and listening stage in this situation. Or when
the child is looking at farm animals depicted as a cartoon or in an ab­
stract art drawing, the child may have difficulty recognizing the animal
and labeling it. But, while on a field trip to the farm, more context cues
might enhance the child’s communication. These cues might include
the sight of real animals, the smell of the farm, the noises made by the
farm animals, and the farmer’s talking in the child’s home language. At
the farm a child’s communication may sound more telegraphic or even
fluid. Therefore, teachers should tailor the type of supportive strategies
they use to fit each lesson or activity.

Ask Yourself
1. How can I provide opportunities for the children in my class to
practice their new language or use their home language when
they are playing outside the classroom, in the pretend play
area, or in other activity centers?
2. What is the level of my awareness of each child’s temperament?
How can I respect each child’s preferred style of interaction,
especially as he or she is acquiring a second language?
3. What community resources can I use to provide language
models for students in my class whose home language I do
not speak?

Additional References
Developing the Young Bilingual Learner. 1998. Washington, D.C.: National
Association for the Education of Young Children and Resources and
Instruction in Staff Excellence. Videotape.
Lightbown, P., and N. Spada. 1999. How Languages Are Learned (Second
edition). New York: Oxford University Press.
Meier, D. 2004. The Young Child’s Memory for Words: Developing First and
Second Language and Literacy. New York: Teachers College Press.
Note: See pages 129–42 for a list of works cited in this publication.

56
 6
Code Switching and
Language Loss

P
arent: “Angelica has three older siblings who are
bilingual, and all of them have no problems in
speaking, reading, and writing either Spanish or
English. So my husband and I have decided to
continue speaking to Angelica in Spanish at home while
her teacher uses English with her at school.”

57
Chapter 6
Code Switching
Code Switching

P
and Language arents and teachers of young bilingual children often notice that
Loss
young English learners mix languages, a practice referred to in this
guide as code switching. Code switching can be defined as the use of
two or more languages in the same stream of talk or as the ability to
alternate between two language systems in a conversation (Pérez and
Torres-Guzmán 1996). It is often used by young children exposed to
more than one language. While it may be tempting to see code
switching as a problem, learning two languages simultaneously does
not appear to interfere with learning either one (Ashworth and
Wakefield 2004; Gass and Selinker 2001). Researchers have found that
code switching is not just an early strategy in the development of a
second language, but it can also serve many other purposes for bilin­
gual children. Furthermore, by three years of age most children will
have learned to distinguish the languages to which they are exposed
and use each language in different social situations or environments
appropriately (Berk 2003).
Examples of code switching are common in the literature on bilin­
gual children. Leopold (1949) observed a bilingual child, Hildegard,
who spoke English with her mother and German with her father.
Examples of Hildegard’s mixing languages follow:
“Die Milch pouren” (“Pour the milk”).
“Musik practicen” (“Practice music”).
“Ich habe geyawnt” (“I yawned”).
“For two monthe” (“For two months”).
Similarly, McClure (1977) and Genishi (1981) describe how in their
studies bilingual Mexican American preschool children expertly blend­
ed speech:
“I put the fork en la mesa” (“on the table”).
“Yo quiero ir outside” (“I want to go”).
The previous examples show that, even when children mix their two
languages, they tend to honor the grammatical rules of each. As they
speak the new language, they attempt to honor the phonological rules
of each language as well (Zentella 1997). These skills show how ad­
vanced the language skills of young bilingual children truly are.
Studies have shown that, as early as three years of age (Gregory 1997;
Fantini 1985; McClure 1977), children can switch languages to address
individuals in appropriate language to serve their own social goals,

58
such as to emphasize a point, honor the language preference of their Chapter 6
listener, please adults, elaborate, clarify, interrupt, change a topic, and Code Switching
be included or exclude other children as they negotiate new roles in and Language
Loss
social situations.
These examples of code switching indicate preschool children’s
increasing proficiency not only in using language but also in partici­
pating in a variety of social and cultural contexts (Pérez and Torres-
Guzmán 1996). Many of the children demonstrate competence in
controlling when, where, and with whom they switch.
Teachers also switch codes when speaking to bilingual children and
their families in an attempt to navigate between two languages. At
times, especially when a word or concept does not exist in one of the

7 PRINCIPLE
Code switching is a normal part of language development for
many bilingual children.
PRINCIPLES aNd PRaCTICES

Code switching is a common practice in bilingual families and communi­

ties. As a result, children are following the language practices around
them when they engage in code switching.

PRaCTICES
• Recognize that code switching is a natural process for bilingual children.
At times they use this strategy to communicate when the necessary
vocabulary in a language is lacking. They are also learning a sophisti­
cated way of using language.
• Value code switching as you would other experiments with language.
As children get older, switching languages represents a complex
accomplishment in language reflecting a knowledge of an advanced
system of rules.
• Avoid side-by-side translations. Some programs assign one teacher to
use the child’s home language and another teacher to use English.
A teacher can serve as a language model in the language he or she
knows well.
• Use code switching carefully to ensure that all of your students
understand what is being said.
• Read and make available to your students bilingual children’s books
that provide written examples of code switching.
• Discuss with families their concerns about code switching and its merits.

59
Chapter 6 languages, teachers will insert a word from a different language as they
Code Switching speak to illustrate a particular concept. Under those circumstances code
and Language switching can be considered an acceptable practice for teachers (Faltis
Loss
1989; Jacobson 1990; Romero and Parrino 1994).

Language Loss

C hildren rarely have both languages in balance. Typically, one

language is stronger in use and exposure. When such dominance
occurs, the elements of the weaker language can quickly be lost. Chil­
dren may forget vocabulary and even rules of grammar. Many bilingual
children lose much of their first language as they go through the U.S.
school system and their exposure to English increases. Even when par­
ents continue to use the first
language with their children,
it may not develop to the
same degree that the second
language does.
During the process of los­
ing a first language, children
may appear to have limited
proficiency in both lan­
guages. Most likely, they are
undergoing a developmental
phase during which the lack
of use of the first language
results in a decline in proficiency while the knowledge of the second
language is not yet at an age-appropriate level. In time most children
attain age-appropriate levels in the second language, although they
may retain an accent and transfer elements of their first language that
mark them as nonnative speakers.
Preschool teachers need to be aware that this phase of language
development is temporary. Even though a bilingual child’s perfor­
mance in either language appears to lag behind that of monolingual
speakers, the child may possess a total or combined vocabulary and
language skills exceeding those of monolingual speakers. What appear
to be deficiencies in both languages should be more appropriately
understood as language imbalance. At certain points in the develop­
ment of their languages, bilingual children do not perform as well as
native speakers do in either language. Eventually, however, most

60
 PaRENT Chapter 6
Code Switching
I spoke only Spanish until I started school. I can’t
and Language
remember exactly when it happened, but eventu­ Loss
ally I lost most of it. I can communicate with my
parents, I understand what they’re saying, but
I often have trouble finding the right words to
answer them. Sometimes they even laugh at
my attempts. That’s why I don’t want Breanna
to lose the Spanish she learned and used when
she was staying with my parents. I want her to
keep her home language. I’m glad you use
both English and Spanish in the classroom.

bilingual children are able to reach age-level proficiency in their

dominant language, given enough exposure and opportunities to use
that language. The age at which a child reaches this more balanced
level of bilingualism depends on a variety of factors, such as the age at
which that child began acquisition of each language, the quality and
quantity of exposure to each of those languages, and the social climate
surrounding the use of those languages (Ovando and Collier 1998).
As a result the age at which the abilities of English learning become
similar to those of their monolingual peers will vary.
A language can be maintained only through exposure to speakers
of that language and opportunities to use it. For many young children
a significant reduction in use of the home language leads to its loss.
Therefore, families need to be encouraged to provide sufficient op­
portunities for children to speak their home language so that it can be
maintained. Some families enroll their child in after-school or weekend
language classes, which can support the development of the home
language and connect the child to the culture associated with that
language community. Such options are not available in all communi­
ties or may be too expensive for many immigrant families. Additional
examples of how to provide these opportunities are provided under
Principle 6 in Chapter Four.
When children are older, many regret having lost proficiency in their
first language. If older children and adolescents cannot communicate
well with their parents or grandparents, the cost to the family can be
great (in the loss of communication and of respect for the parents and

61
Chapter 6 relatives who speak the home language). Preschool teachers should
Code Switching work with parents, family members, and staff proficient in the child’s
and Language
Loss
home language to provide ample opportunities to foster the child’s
language development in the home language while the child is
acquiring English.

Ask Yourself
1. How can I make sure that the children have plenty of
opportunities to engage in conversation with both peers
and adults so that their language development will flourish?
2. How can I balance the amount of talking I do in order to
allow the children to participate more through their own
use of language?

Additional References
Brice, A., and L. Rosa-Lugo. 2000. “Code Switching: A Bridge or Barrier
Between Two Languages?” Multiple Voices for Ethnically Diverse
Exceptional Learners, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1–12.
Peyton, J., and others, editors. 2001. Heritage Languages in America:
Preserving a National Resource. Washington D.C.: Delta Systems and
the Center for Applied Linguistics.
Wong Fillmore, L. 2000. “Loss of Family Languages: Should Educators
Be Concerned?” Theory into Practice, Vol. 39, No. 4, 203–10.
Note: See pages 129–42 for a list of works cited in this publication.

62
 7
English Learners
with Disabilities or
Other Special Needs

A
t a recent early childhood conference, teachers
raised the following questions: “How do I know
if a child is experiencing difficulties in learning
a language, such as a speech disorder, or is just
going through the process of second-language acquisition?”
“Is it OK for me to use English and the child’s home lan­
guage at school when the child has a disability?” “How long
should I wait before I make a referral to special education
for a child who is learning English as a second language?”

63
Chapter 7
A Language Disorder Versus
English Learners
with Disabilities a Language Difference
or Other
Special Needs
E arly childhood teachers ask questions similar to the preceding ones
when working with young children who are English learners and
may or may not have a disability or other special needs. Although the
answers to such questions may not always come easily or clearly, the
teacher should collaborate with the child’s family and available
specialists to determine the existence of an authentic language disorder
rather than a language difference. A language disorder is “an inability
to understand and process language either expressively or receptively”
(Tompkins 2002, 6). In contrast, a language difference, that is, a
difference in understanding and using a language that is influenced
by a child’s linguistic and cultural experiences with a first language
(Roseberry-McKibbin 2002) or with a variant of the standard language
(Hirsh-Pasek, Kochanoff, and Newcombe 2005), is not an indication

Behaviors Demonstrated by english Learners

and children with Disabilities
ReseaRch to pRactice

English learners may exhibit certain classroom behaviors that concern

their teachers and may cause the teachers to refer the learners to
special education classes. Although those behaviors are similar to those
exhibited by children with disabilities, the reasons for their existence
are different. For English learners the behaviors are temporary adjust­
ments in response to being placed in an environment in which they
fail to understand the rules or the language being spoken. Therefore,
teachers should team up with professionals knowledgeable about
second-language acquisition to sort out which behaviors are due to
learning English as a second language and which are due to other
causes. Behaviors that can be misinterpreted include the following:
• Speaks infrequently
• Speaks excessively (in the home language or in English)
• Refuses to answer questions
• Confuses similar sounding words
• Is unable to tell or retell stories
• Has poor recall
• Uses poor pronunciation
• Uses poor syntax and grammar
• Does not volunteer information

Adapted from Ortiz and Maldonado-Colon (1986).

64
of a language disorder. Working with family members and specialists Chapter 7
as a team will help teachers determine which languages and communi­ English Learners
cation systems will best support the overall learning and development with Disabilities
or Other
for a particular child. Special Needs
Because a shortage of trained bilingual and bicultural staff exists
in early childhood special education, inexperienced educators and
specialists involved in evaluating and educating culturally and linguis­
tically diverse young children may judge various approaches to learn­
ing, knowledge bases, behaviors, and, of course, language skills as being
deficient rather than merely different.
Another reason for early childhood educators, parents, and admin­
istrators to proceed cautiously when trying to distinguish a language
disorder from a language difference is the effect of the learning context
(Gutiérrez-Clellen and Peña 2001). If most children in the educational
and care setting are progressing according to state, local, and cultural
norms, then the children’s low achievement in language could be
attributed to a failure to respond to adequate, age-appropriate instruc­
tion. However, if a significant percentage of the children are showing
delays in learning, the instruction or care may be inadequate.
In that case larger, more comprehensive programmatic and staffing
issues should be examined (Corson 2001). Similarly, if children are
not responding to a particular form of assistance, a reorganization of
the learning activity to include other forms of scaffolding or assisted
learning may be required. Before referral and diagnosis occur, therefore,
environmental, attitudinal, philosophical, and staffing adjustments
should be made.

Special Education Programs

and English Learners

S ome young English learners have been placed in programs for

children with disabilities because of a shortage of available and
affordable preschool programs in the community or the belief that
individualized instruction would be helpful. Although this practice
is well intentioned, evidence shows that it may harm children more
than help them. Wilkinson and Ortiz (1986) found that after three
years spent in special programs for students with learning disabilities,
English learners were further behind than when they were initially
placed in those programs.
The most recent reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) stipulates that children should not be found

65
Chapter 7
English Learners
ReseaRch HighLights
with Disabilities
or Other A mistaken belief exists that young children learning more than one
Special Needs language will have delayed language acquisition. This notion holds that
when a child is acquiring two languages at the same time, the onset of the
first words is delayed, and the rate of vocabulary growth lags behind that
of speakers of a single language. Even researchers who report this finding
are quick to point out that if both languages are taken into account,
bilingual children have a vocabulary that exceeds that of the monolingual
child. Goodz (1994) reported no delay in the onset of the first words in a
sampling of bilingual children. Furthermore, in at least one of their
languages, the children had developed as much vocabulary as had
monolingual children of the same age. It seems clear, therefore, that the
belief that the children are delayed during this process may often be an
incorrect assumption.

In their studies on the language development of children with Down

syndrome, Mundy and others (1995) found that when teachers and parents
took into account the children’s skills in English, the home language, and
sign language, they realized that the children were at or above the same
level in vocabulary and syntax as monolingual children of the same age
who had Down syndrome.

eligible for special education services if their learning challenges are

primarily the result of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvan­
tage. Consequently, teachers and specialists must ensure that young
children are assessed in their home language(s). Assessment results
should also reflect the family’s knowledge of their children’s develop­
ment, abilities, and learning challenges when eligibility for services is
being determined and an individualized family service plan (IFSP) or
individualized education program (IEP) is being developed.
All the principles and practices listed in this guide apply to young
English learners with disabilities. Research has shown that children
with disabilities can learn more than one language and can function
bilingually as effectively as their typically developing peers (Candelaria-
Greene 1996; Miles 1996). Their delays in communication manifest
their cognitive, motor, and social delays and are not associated with
their growing up bilingually. The language delays in both languages
coexist with their disabilities, but bilingualism is not the cause of their
delays (Baker 2000a).

66
 Sometimes teachers and specialists mistakenly assume that a child Chapter 7
with a disability will be confused by being exposed to more than one English Learners
language, particularly because the child already has a disability. As a with Disabilities
or Other
result they recommend that only one language be used to communi­ Special Needs
cate with that child, and English is often the language of choice. Such
a recommendation can adversely affect the learning and social develop­
ment of the child and his or her family.
Several factors come into play for a bilingual child with a disability
who is exposed to only one language when that language is not the
home language. First, by suddenly being placed in an all-English
context, the child has little recourse to draw on what is familiar,
comfortable, and reassuring in communication and social interactions.
Second, the child will have to spend much of his or her energy and
concentration on learning a second language while struggling with
other learning challenges. Third, although the child may, over time,
start to understand and use English, the child may lose the ability to
benefit from the critical support and guidance provided by the family
in the home language because his or her home language is not also
being nurtured.
When language and communication goals are developed for mono­
lingual children with cerebral palsy, Down syndrome, or autism, the
children’s communication abilities are considered in comparison with
those of other children with the same diagnosis and degree of delay.

During an informal conference with the mother

of a 4-year-old child with autism:

teacheR
in the classroom samuel speaks to me in english
and to the classroom assistant in spanish. Does
he use both languages at home?

paRent
Yes, since he began talking, he uses english with
me and with his brothers, and he uses spanish
with his father. sometimes he’ll substitute
spanish words when he doesn’t know the english,
like i don’t think he knows the word ‘slipper,’
so he always uses ‘chancleta.’ But he easily
switches back and forth between languages.

67
Chapter 7 Similarly, bilingual children with disabilities benefit from having their
English Learners communication abilities compared with those of other children with
with Disabilities the same diagnosis and degree of delay as language and communica­
or Other
Special Needs tion goals are explored and developed for them.

Coordinating Language and

Communication Goals

A critical need exists to establish a system of coordination among

the adults caring for and working with the young bilingual child
with disabilities. Such a system will provide a clear idea as to what
language(s) and modes of communication have been identified as
appropriate for learning
and social interaction. This
shared understanding comes
only from the collaboration
of special educators, early
childhood educators, and
bilingual educators with the
child’s family. Both teachers
and administrators must be
involved.
The collaborative team
needs to consider how each
spoken language and augmentative communication system, such as
sign language or a picture-symbol system, will be used during the
(Continued on page 70)

ReseaRch HighLights
Deaf and hard-of-hearing children from spanish-speaking homes
Gerner de Garcia (1995a, 1995b) found that for students who already had
a foundation in Spanish as their home language and signing, a trilingual
approach of using Spanish and American Sign Language while spoken
English was being introduced was successful for Spanish-dominant deaf
and hard-of-hearing students. He also found that some immigrant deaf and
hard-of-hearing students arrive in U.S. schools underschooled and may,
therefore, not know any sign language or written or spoken language. So
they would be in a position to acquire two language forms—spoken English
and some form of sign language.

68
8
Chapter 7
pRincipLe English Learners
with Disabilities
coordination and collaboration among families, teachers, and
or Other
specialists become crucial in supporting the language and literacy Special Needs
pRincipLes anD pRactices

development of children with disabilities or other special needs.

Communication between teachers and families is crucial in serving all
children more effectively, especially when children have unique needs.
In such cases coordination and collaboration between teachers and
families are necessary supports for the child.

pRactices
• Determine with the family what their language use and preferences
are. Develop a plan to support the family’s goals while addressing
goals for the classroom and for IFSP and IEP language.
• Vary and adapt the amount of adult guidance according to children’s
abilities so that each child is in charge of his or her own learning as
much as possible.
• Connect learning goals and activities with local and state curriculum
and standards.
• Use all the senses (vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell) when
introducing and presenting vocabulary and other concepts.
• Provide multiple opportunities for children with disabilities to interact
with their peers in English and their home language.
• Model for students ways to interact with and assist classmates who
have disabilities.
• Use physical gestures, signed words, visual cues, and props when the
actual item is not an option (or pair the actual item with one or more
of the cues) to promote successful communication in English and the
children’s home languages.
• Implement the use of technology (e.g., computers, voice output
devices, switch-operated toys) throughout the classroom as another
means of supporting student learning.
• Offer adapted or specialized materials (e.g., recorded books, Braille
books and other printed material, large and bold print, adapted
handles on various materials) throughout the classroom to enhance
active participation.
• Make appropriate environmental changes (e.g., color contrast in
materials, good lighting, reduced noise level, comfortable seating,
and work spaces) to support children’s learning.

69
Chapter 7 course of the child’s day. Any system or combination of communica­
English Learners tion systems will have optimal results when implemented in a natural,
with Disabilities and nonstressful manner. The IFSP or IEP should, therefore, specify
or Other
Special Needs which instructional goals and objectives will be delivered in the native
language, which will be delivered in English, and, if applicable, which
will be delivered in an alternative mode of communication appropriate
for English learners (Artiles and Ortiz 2002).

Ask Yourself
1. What access do I have to colleagues who are knowledgeable
about second-language acquisition and can help me sort out
whether a student is demonstrating a language difference or
a language disorder?
2. How frequently do I meet with every team member for each
child in my class who has either an IFSP or an IEP?
3. How prepared and comfortable am I in using the different
communication systems that the children in my class bring in
from other settings? If necessary, where do I go to get support?
4. What can I do to provide an inclusive setting for the children
with disabilities in my class so that they have access to and
benefit from the many language and literacy activities I offer
the rest of my students?

Additional References
Klein, M. D., and D. Chen. 2001. Working with Children from Diverse
Cultural Backgrounds. Albany, N.Y.: Delmar.
Lynch, E. W., and M. J. Hanson. 1998. Developing Cross-cultural
Competence: A Guide for Working with Young Children and Their
Families (Second edition). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Roseberry-McKibbin, C. 2002. Assessment of Bilingual Learners: Language
Difference or Disorder? Rockville, Md.: American Speech-Language-
Hearing Association.
Note: See pages 129–42 for a list of works cited in this publication.

70
 8
Recommended
Early Literacy Practices

T
eacher: “Andres speaks Russian. No one on the
staff speaks this language. His mother stayed for
several hours on the first day to show Andres
around the center and to explain the daily routine.
I use a picture schedule so he knows what to expect through­
out the day, a wide variety of props, and books with lots of
pictures and gesturing, such as patting the chair where he
can sit as I say, ‘Sit on the chair.’ I’ve shared these strategies
with the other children in my classroom, and they are
helping him with the same techniques.”

71
Chapter 8
Defining Early Literacy
Recommended

E arly literacy has been defined in many ways, and each definition
Early Literacy
Practices
has implications for teaching and guiding children’s development.
Koralek and Collins (1997, 10) state that early “literacy describes the
gradual, ongoing process of learning to understand and use language
that begins at birth and continues through the early childhood years.
During this period children first learn to use oral forms of language—
listening and speaking—and then begin to explore and make sense of
written forms—reading and writing.”
Research on brain development has revealed the importance of early
relationships and healthy social-emotional and language development.
That research will ordinarily inform early literacy planning and instruc­
tion conducted by teachers and programs (Snow, Burns, and Griffin
1998). Koralek and Collins (1997) point out that providing children
many opportunities to listen and speak gives the children an important
foundation for reading and writing. Children who are read to often
are exposed to the joy of reading. Even with these opportunities with
language and literacy, about eight to ten percent of the children still
encounter difficulties with learning to read (Snow, Burns, and Griffin
1998). Most children come into the world ready to learn spoken lan­
guage but will need carefully planned instruction to learn to read or
make sense of written language (Berg and Stegelman 2003; Kaderavek
and Justice 2004).
Two components of early literacy are knowing how to construct
meaning through reading and through writing. “Reading and writing
are always situated within discourse communities—groups of people
with socially and culturally determined language practices, behaviors,
and ways of thinking about the world” (Owocki 2001, 6). Therefore,
a third related component of literacy development is the knowledge
that children need to negotiate reading and writing within their
communities. Therefore, children and their families should be seen as
contributors to their literacy development and practices just as for their
oral communication practices. The benefits of creating positive and
meaningful language and literacy experiences in English and the home
language for young bilingual children are far-reaching. As Snow, Burns,
and Griffin (1998, 324–25) state: “. . . Being biliterate, or having the
ability to read and write in two languages, confers numerous intellec­
tual, cultural, economic, and social benefits.”

72
Connecting Home and School Chapter 8
Recommended
Literacy Practices Early Literacy
Practices

D uke and Purcell-Gates (2003) emphasize the importance of tap­

ping into the literacy practices used at home as a resource and
bridge to presenting literacy practices used at school. Often, teachers
ask parents and family members to use school vocabulary and literacy
practices at home. But they may forget to do the reverse (i.e., to bring

9
PRINCIPLE
Engaging in multiple literacy practices, such as reading books,
singing songs, and reciting poetry, is part of the daily life of
many families.
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES

Preschool teachers should recognize and capitalize on the richness of

language use in children’s families. For example, poetry has been found
to play an important role in the language development of some Korean
American families (Scarcella 1990). By gathering the following informa­
tion, a teacher will be better able to tap into the literacy practices and
knowledge base the children are already familiar with and use that
information as a resource in the classroom.

PRACTICES
Ask parents about the ways they engage in the use of language and
literacy at home:
• Do they read to their children? If so, what kinds of printed materials
do the adults and children in the home select?
Mail, letters
Newspapers
Popular magazines
Religious books and written materials
Cookbooks and food labels
School newsletters and information flyers
Children’s story books
Folktales
Nursery rhymes
Poetry
Letters or cards from relatives
Television guides
Board games
Children’s coloring or activity books
• Do they recite rhymes?
(Continued on next page)

73
Chapter 8
Principle 9 (Continued)
Recommended
Early Literacy • Do they tell stories about relatives and friends?
Practices
• Do they sing along to music? If so, what type of music? Does the child
have certain favorite songs?
• Do they tell folktales?
• Do they play word games?
• Do they share proverbs?
• Do they repeat limericks?
• Do they have family conversations?
When do your best conversations happen?
What does your child like to talk about?
What do you like to talk about?

into the classroom or care setting the richness of literacy practices,

tools, and materials that already exist at home).
The recent focus on the importance of early literacy is leading early
childhood educators to seek guidance as they attempt both to respect
children’s home language and culture and to introduce academic
English. Research has shown that children can transfer language and
literacy skills from one language to another (Durgunoglu and Öney
2000; Jiménez, Garcia, and Pearson 1995; Lanauze and Snow 1989).
When the children’s home languages have the same writing conven­
tions as those for English (for example, one reads from left to right and
top to bottom), the children will most likely apply those principles
to reading in the second language. The stronger the children’s lan­
guage and literacy skills are in the home languages, the more likely the
children will transfer those skills successfully to their second language.
(The foundation provided by the first language for learning a second
language was explained in the earlier discussion of the threshold
hypothesis in Chapter Four).
For children in kindergarten and the elementary grades, several basic
cognitive abilities have been found to transfer across languages and
facilitate the process of second-language acquisition and literacy
development (Baddeley 1988; Case 1985; Geva and Ryan 1993). The
children are able to:
1. Use information from what is being discussed and connect that
information with what they already know to make sense of new
concepts.

74
 2. Use their knowledge of letter-sound relationships to begin to Chapter 8
decode print. Recommended
3. Access words and their meanings from memory. Early Literacy
Practices
4. Apply their knowledge of word order as they start to read or write.
5. Understand the story or text read to them and ask questions when
they are confused or when the reading does not make sense to
them.
6. Put their thoughts into writing.
Children can transfer their knowledge of decoding skills and strate­
gies for determining meaning when reading text in a second language.
In the task of decoding, the basic linguistic knowledge and cognitive
processes involved are letter recognition, phonological awareness,
letter-sound relationships (phonics), the blending of sounds to form
words, and the matching of print to known words stored in long-term
memory. Phonological awareness and decoding ability in Spanish have
been found to be related to the ability of bilingual children in grade one
to decode texts in English (Durgunoglu, Nagy, and Hancin-Bhatt 1993).
Basic cognitive processes involved in sound- and letter-processing skills
in Spanish were linked to the decoding of words in English. The positive
aspects of transfer in word recognition have been observed even when
the child’s first language is a nonalphabetic language. For example, a
study of bilingual Chinese children in grades one through eight found
that the children’s ability to detect Chinese rhyme was significantly re­
lated to their phonological and decoding skills in English (Gottardo and
others 2001).

RESEARCh HIghLIghTS
From their review of research on literacy practices of Latino students,
Barrera and Jiménez (2002) found that the more effective teachers:
1. Offered a balance between attention to decoding and meaning of text
2. Provided conditions that allowed students to utilize all of their cultural
and linguistic knowledge (Some teachers did so by providing students
with a summary of a story in Spanish before reading the story aloud in
English. Other teachers allowed and encouraged children to employ
whichever language was most comfortable rather than English only.)
3. Increased their connection with parents and families by seeking
comments and incorporating them into instructional practices when
suitable

75
Chapter 8
Teaching Through Language
Recommended

A
Early Literacy n important distinction exists between teaching through language
Practices
and teaching language. For young children, using language in a
conversational, engaging manner provides a vehicle for introducing
new concepts and reviewing those already learned. Their learning is
enhanced when they can make a connection with something familiar.
Therefore, the use of their home language and culture, when possible,
will help them become emergent readers when they have not yet
mastered English (TESOL 2001).
Making a connection with the child’s first language should not,
however, preclude introducing written text in English to English learn­
ers. Many preschool English learners recognize environmental print in
English from signs, logos, labels, television programs, and billboards
that they enjoy “reading” when seen in written materials at school. Big
illustrated books containing rhyme, rhythm, and repetition are also
very helpful. A carefully planned literacy curriculum that offers a
well-balanced presentation of literacy skills through sequential instruc­
tion and dedicated time for children and teachers to engage in reading
different types of text represents the type of comprehensive approach
to literacy instruction that will benefit young English learners
(Torgesen 2002).
Often, the teacher speaks only English or is bilingual but has chil­
dren in class who speak several different languages. In those instances
the teacher should draw on the language skills of paraprofessionals,
family members, and community volunteers to support the continued
concept development of children not yet fluent in English. In addition,
the teacher can implement the many other practices presented in this
guide to support children’s development in language and literacy.
For some bilingual children the task of learning to read and write
in two languages may be more challenging if their languages have
different writing systems rather than only different scripts. For some
bilingual children, the task of learning to read and write in English
may be less challenging if their home language has an alphabet. For
example, children learning to read and write in English and German,
or English and French, which have alphabetic writing systems, may
have an easier time than children learning to read and write in English
and Chinese, which have different writing systems (McBride-Chang
2004).

76
Reading Books Aloud to English Learners Chapter 8
Recommended

R eading books aloud to children helps them acquire information Early Literacy
Practices
and skills, such as the meaning of words, the makeup of a book,
a variety of writing styles, facts about their world, differences between
conversations and written language, and knowledge of printed letters
and words along with the relationship between sound and print (Early
Childhood Head Start Task Force 2002). Using different types of books
ensures that the children
will find at least a few books
that meet their interests and
preferences. Storybooks are
traditional favorites for many
young children. Other chil­
dren may prefer books that
have information about ani­
mals, nature, transportation,
careers, or travel, for example.
Alphabet books, picture
dictionaries, and books with
diagrams and overlays (such as those about the human body) also
catch the interest of children. And some children particularly enjoy
books containing poetry, children’s songs and verses, or folktales.
Offering different types of books also provides flexibility in choosing
one or two languages in which to read a story. Several researchers have
stressed the importance of using authentic books or multicultural
literature that portrays children and adults of diverse U.S. cultures
engaging in genuine family and community activities and communi­
cating in their language (Barrera, Quiroa, and Valdivia 2002; Natheson-
Mejía and Escamilla 2003; Schon 1997). Note: Avoid books and writ­
ten materials that reinforce stereotypes and depict people in offensive
ways. Other options for the teacher to use are the following:
• Photo albums with captions in English or the home language are an
excellent way to draw out even those children who typically do not
participate in traditional reading of books. Images of family mem­
bers, pets, and outings can inspire conversations and lead to shared
experiences.
• Picture books serve as outstanding vehicles for the teacher and the
child to interpret or make up their own version of the story. In this

77
Chapter 8 manner the story can be told in any language or combination of
Recommended languages.
Early Literacy
Practices • English books with words or phrases in the home language are
especially useful for engaging groups in which two major language
groups are represented in a class. For children already proficient in
English, the books introduce vocabulary in their peers’ native
language. For children whose native language is still dominant,
the books help them understand at least parts of a story and stay
engaged in the reading experience. For bilingual children the books
can reinforce their dual-language skills, allowing them to see how
they can be interpreters or language brokers for those peers who
understand only one of the languages. A good example of this type
of book for classes with English and Spanish speakers is Pío Peep:
Traditional Spanish Nursery Rhymes (Ada and Campoy 2003).
• Bilingual books may have English text on one side of a page and a
second language on the other side. The English text can be read by a
staff person on one occasion, and the non-English text can be read
by a family member or a classroom volunteer on another occasion.
• Some teachers make versions of the same book available in English
and in one or more languages. This practice allows children to com­
pare and contrast vocabulary and writing conventions in different
languages and for adults in the classroom to read to the children in
their stronger language. It also demonstrates the teacher’s valuing of
a multilingual and multicultural learning environment.
• Child-generated texts or stories that children dictate to their teach­
ers are very meaningful to all children, including English learners,
because these stories reflect experiences that are familiar to the
children. In addition, “writing” their own phrases and stories pro­
vides young children with a concrete way to engage in a meaningful
literacy experience. Preschoolers benefit from hearing stories about
people, places, and things that are meaningful to the children.

78
 Chapter 8
Reading with Preschool English Learners Recommended
Early Literacy
The practices listed here can be used with all preschool children, Practices
RESEARCh To PRACTICE

including English learners. Ongoing research promises to shed light

on how each of these practices works with preschool English learners.
The goal of these techniques is to encourage pleasurable interactions
centered on books for both adults and children.
• Use “read-alouds” to encourage a group of young children to
follow a story or text. For English learners small-group read-alouds
ensure greater participation by each child in the group and allow the
teacher to monitor learning for each child. Some bilingual teachers
artfully use English and the home language in the reading and the
discussion of the text or story (Thomas and Collier 2003b).
• Find ways to encourage children to use their home language to react
to, predict, and review parts of a story or a passage when they are
not yet at a level in their English-language development at which
they can contribute in other ways. This approach increases English
learners’ experiences of inclusion and promotes other areas of
cognitive and social development.
• Introduce key concepts or vocabulary in the children’s home lan­
guage and in English before reading a story or text to the children.
Doing so will ensure that the children will gain familiarity, under­
standing, and a connection with at least some of the story’s or text’s
terminology or vocabulary.
• Review key or novel vocabulary through “text talk,” in which the
teacher identifies two or four words in the story or text. Each word is
(1) read again as it was used in the text, and the children are asked
to repeat the word along with the teacher to create a phonological
representation of the word; (2) given a definition easily understood
by preschoolers; and (3) used in a context other than that in the
same story (Beck and McKeown 2001).
• Use dialogic reading with one child at a time or with a small group
of children. In dialogic reading the adult (1) increases the number of
times the child is asked to name objects in the pictures or drawings
in picture books; (2) uses “what” and open-ended questions
to encourage the child to say more than one word at a time; and
(3) expands on the child’s response as a way to teach vocabulary
and provide more complete descriptions of what the child sees
(American Library Association 2004; Arnold and Whitehurst 1994).

79
Chapter 8
Writing as a Part of Early Literacy
Recommended

O
Early Literacy ffering opportunities to write, together with opportunities to
Practices
read, is another important strategy for encouraging second-
language learners to practice emerging skills in their new language
while solidifying skills in their first language. The way children write
depends on their language abilities and fine motor skills. Writing can
take the form of drawing as a means to represent a thought, dictation
to an adult, or beginning attempts at independent writing. English
learners may use writing conventions taken from their home language
and from English, much as they mix languages in their speech.

here Alejandra, at five years

of age and prior to entering
kindergarten, uses both English
and Spanish in a card she
sent to her aunt, Tia Rebeca.
(Tia is Spanish for aunt.)

Because of their common underlying metalinguistic awareness,

bilingual individuals possess greater knowledge of language than do
monolingual individuals. They have access to two languages and
opportunities to contrast both. Apparently, this knowledge is related
to an awareness of the meaning of written language. Among bilingual
children awareness that spoken language can be represented in a
written format has been found to develop earlier than it does among
monolingual children (Bialystok 1997; Durgunoglu and Öney 2000).
That is, awareness that sounds in the word cookie /k/ /oo/ /k/ /e/ are
represented in letters “c” “o” “o” “k” “i” “e” is transferred from the first
language and facilitates the acquisition of that awareness in the second
language.

80
 Chapter 8
Drawing on Students’ Knowledge Recommended
Early Literacy
The following quotation is an example of how one teacher used her
Practices
RESEARCh To PRACTICE

students’ prior knowledge of a topic to start a unit:

“This year the students and I explored the theme of ‘The Ocean.’ As an
introductory activity I asked my students what type of fish they would
like to be if they lived in the ocean. Since I have both Spanish speakers
and English speakers, I asked and wrote the question in Spanish and
English. The following are my questions and their answers:
What kind of fish would you like to be?
¿Que tipo de pez te gustaría ser?
John: Tiburón (shark)
Vivi: Red fish
Juan: Una tuna fish (a tuna fish)
Sara: Un pescado rojo (a red fish)
Toni: Una ballena (a whale)
Liliana: Goldfish, la mamá (goldfish, the mother)
Maria: Un pez grande que nada en el mar todo el dia (a big fish that
swims in the sea all day long)
From their responses I could see that they already had a foundation
of ocean animals, including some fairly advanced concepts, and
vocabulary that I could build on.”

Making Stories Come Alive

A key literacy practice for instructing English learners is to provide

multiple ways for children to revisit the same text in other areas of
the classroom or in other activities. This practice allows teachers and
students to expand beyond read-alouds and to repeat and review story
elements and vocabulary. Teachers can use flannel-board reenactments;
puppet or doll-figure reenactments; story boxes with major props from
the story; art and writing activities linked with the story; and home
and family backpacks as well as songs and fingerplays related to the
story to supplement the reading experience and make it come alive.
Companion computer programs can serve to review the story, reinforce
vocabulary, and provide an alternative means for children with
disabilities to “read” alongside their peers. These purposeful, multi-
sensory options for using different types of visual presentations and
manipulatives can be used in small-group, individual, or whole-group

81
Chapter 8 instructional settings to provide different opportunities for English
Recommended learners to interact with the story and contribute to further discussions
Early Literacy (Isbell 2002).
Practices
Teachers adept at engaging English learners in purposeful, multisen­
sory interactive lessons encourage students to think, question, listen,
and reflect on elements of a story. Pinnegar, Teemant, and Tyra (2001)
point out that it is important that children be placed in different types
of combinations (e.g., a fluent English speaker with a bilingual speaker
and with a home language speaker) because the very nature of the
group will enhance or impede the risks the children are willing to take.
For both monolingual and bilingual students, a comprehensive
approach to early literacy should include instruction in the key
subcomponents of the act of reading, including basic phonological
awareness activities, such as rhyming and alliteration; exposure to
alphabet and letter-sound correspondence; vocabulary development;
and opportunities for beginning writing (Dickinson and Tabors 2001;
International Reading Association 1998, 1999). Because a significant
percentage of children, especially children at risk of having reading dif­
ficulties, benefit from systematic instruction, the key subcomponents
of reading should be presented in small groups and should offer a
sequence of purposeful, playful lessons (Astore 2004; Torgesen 2002).
Recently, an increasing number of scientifically validated studies
conducted with school-age children have demonstrated the importance
of preschool children being introduced to skills essential for learning
to read early in elementary school (National Institute on Child Health
and Human Development 2000). Learning activities that expose pre­
school children to the knowledge of letters, concepts of print, and basic
phonological awareness work well when relatively brief, playful, engag­
ing, multisensory, and purposeful (Neuman, Copple, and Bredekamp
2000). For preschool-age English learners, opportunities to begin learn­
ing those skills provide the foundation they need to learn to read and
support their developing mastery of English. In creating opportunities
for English learners to learn essential skills and have experiences lead­
ing to becoming skilled readers, teachers must attend to each child’s
developing ability to understand and speak English. English learners
benefit from activities that foster essential skills and experiences in
both English and their home language.
Recent studies indicate that teachers who produced the best results
focused on developing decoding skills (e.g., alliteration, oral rhym­
ing, and alphabetic knowledge), reading to the children, and engaging
them in playful activities that develop oral language. Although many

82
preschool teachers already implement several of these practices as part Chapter 8
of their daily routine, some may wonder about how to fit these skill Recommended
areas into a full schedule. The scientifically based research examined by Early Literacy
Practices
the National Early Literacy Panel showed that addressing the majority
of these skills for just a few minutes a day contributed to preschool
children’s progress with literacy (Strickland and others 2004). The panel
also noted that early literacy is an area that merits further investigation,
especially as it applies to English learners, who were the focus of only
a handful of studies included in the panel’s synthesis (Shanahan and
Strickland 2004).
In another review of the research, Dickinson and Smith (2001) identi­
fied other contributing factors to children’s literacy success, including
(1) structural measures, such as teacher-child ratios, the size of the pro­
gram, and the years of experience and educational levels of the teachers;
(2) the educational process as assessed by rating tools, such as materials
available to children, and the nature and organization of the furnish­
ings; (3) teachers’ beliefs about child development and appropriate
classroom practices; and (4) teacher-child and child-child interactions.
“The emotional tenor of classrooms is largely influenced by how teach­
ers talk to individuals and the group. This emotional climate, in turn,
has an impact on children’s willingness to trust and to relate to teachers
and to engage in literacy learning activities provided in the classroom”
(Dickinson and Smith 2001, 140).

Literacy Strategies for English Learners

with Special Needs

I ntroducing language and literacy experiences through concrete,

multisensory approaches provides many children with disabilities
with the support they need to build the foundation for decoding words
and understanding meaning.
Having access to early literacy
activities as part of the curricu­
lum is the key to the educa­
tional success of all children,
including children with mild
to severe disabilities. Each
child’s unique learning needs
should be considered in a
comprehensive approach to
early literacy.

83
Chapter 8 Children with disabilities can benefit from exposure to short books
Recommended with limited vocabulary. Researchers (Palincsar and Klenk 1992; Ruiz,
Early Literacy Vargas, and Beltran 2002) have found that young English learners with
Practices
mild to moderate disabilities can benefit from a literacy program that:
• Exposes children to letters, concepts of print, and basic phonological
awareness skills
• Engages children and teachers in extended conversations
• Provides a flexible application of comprehension strategies
• Offers children opportunities to look through or be read a variety of
books and stories
Although not focusing specifically on English learners, research has
shown that children with Down syndrome benefit from sight-word
recognition games along with attention to phonological awareness,
vocabulary development, and comprehension (Al Otaiba and Hosp
2004). Similarly, young children with autism have benefited from being
introduced to books with photographs (e.g., of cars, firefighters, chil­
dren, and so forth), alphabet books, and books with informational text
rather than make-believe stories (Richman 2003).

10 PRINCIPLE
offering a variety of opportunities for children to explore
written materials and their meanings as well as the sounds of
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES

spoken language through rhyme and alliteration builds the

language and literacy skills of preschool English learners.
The classroom should be rich with meaningful print to help children
understand the connection between written and spoken language. Print
is meaningful when it relates to children’s immediate and past experi­
ences. It is critical that literacy instruction include purposeful and playful
activities.

PRACTICES
• Encourage the development of emergent literacy skills in a supportive
environment by acknowledging and expanding on the children’s
efforts.

84
 Chapter 8
• Offer a rich variety of purposeful, playful, multisensory experiences with Recommended
literacy and language, such as repetition accompanied by music or Early Literacy
clapping (U.S. Department of Education 2002). Practices

• Ask children and their parents to share with the class culturally relevant
and teachable rhymes in their native languages to serve as tools for
building the foundation for phonological awareness skills (Reading
Rockets 2004).
• Relate literacy activities to the children’s cultures, languages, and
experiences to motivate the children’s participation.
• Use pictures, photographs, and scenes in books as a platform for
interaction and discussion.
• Help children recognize their names in print by encouraging them to
watch as you print the letters of their names and say each letter as you
write it. Display the children’s names in various places in the classroom—
by their cubbies, in artwork displayed on walls, in photo books with
family pictures, for example (Armbruster and others 2003).
• Label items and learning centers in both English and the children’s home
languages, including sign language, picture symbols, and braille, when
applicable to children in your class.
• Provide different types of reading materials throughout the classroom
and outside instead of confining them to a single bookshelf. They may
include menus, phone books, catalogs, magazines, posters, recipes, and
written instructions for activities in addition to children’s books.
• Provide different types of writing tools and materials, both indoors and
outdoors, such as chalk, markers, pencils, crayons, feathers, sponges,
stamps, paintbrushes, and droppers to promote writing throughout the
daily routine. Remember to modify these materials with Velcro, vet wrap,
or tubing for children with motor challenges.
• Remember to access the book collections in libraries, bookmobiles,
families’ homes, and other service agencies in the community. You may
find a greater variety of books by borrowing from those sources.
• Communicate the importance of early reading and literacy activities to
adults who interact with the children, including family members and
classroom volunteers.

85
Chapter 8 Attention to early literacy practices is essential to short-term and
Recommended long-term outcomes for English learners. Because information on such
Early Literacy practices is continually being generated, teachers are highly encour­
Practices
aged to continue to focus on best practices for young English learners
as they pursue their professional development. In conclusion, the fol­
lowing “Research to Practice” chart provides examples of various early
literacy practices children can engage in and explains how the practices
found in many preschool classrooms relate to children’s eventual
success in reading and writing.

Early Literacy Explorations

How Practice Relates to
RESEARCh To PRACTICE

What Children Might Do Reading and Writing

Make a pattern with objects such By putting things in a certain order,

as buttons, beads, and small children gain an understanding of
colored cubes. sequence, helping them discover
that the letters in words must go in
a certain order.

Listen to a story, then talk with Children enjoy read-aloud sessions,

their families, teachers, or tutors in which they learn that books can
and each other about the plot introduce people, places, and ideas
and characters, about what might and describe familiar experiences.
happen next, and what they liked Listening and talking help children
about the book. build their vocabularies. They have fun
while learning basic literacy concepts,
such as that print is spoken words
written down, that print carries
meaning, and that text in many
alphabetic languages is read from
left to right, from the top to the
bottom of a page, and from the
front to the back of a book.

Play a matching game, such as Seeing that some things are exactly
concentration or picture bingo. the same leads children to understand
that the letters in words must be
written in the same order every time
to convey meaning.

Source: Adapted from Koralek and Collins (1997, 13), with some elaboration of concepts
based on Torgesen and Matheson (2001).

86
 Chapter 8
How Practice Relates to
What Children Might Do Reading and Writing Recommended
Early Literacy
Practices
Move to music while following Children gain an understanding
directions, such as, “Put your of such concepts as up/down,
hands up, down, in front, in back, front/back, and left/right and add
to the left, to the right. Now these words to their vocabularies.
wiggle all over.” Understanding these concepts leads
to knowledge of how words are
read and written on a page and of
positional terms.

Recite rhyming poems introduced Children develop one of the most

by a parent, teacher, or tutor and important basic phonological
make up new rhymes on their awareness skills by learning about
own. rhyming words.

Make signs for the “grocery store.” Children practice using print to
provide information—in this case the
price of different foods in meaningful
contexts.

Retell a favorite story to another Children gain confidence in their

child or a stuffed animal. ability to learn to read. They practice
telling the story in the order it was
read to them—from the beginning
to the middle to the end.

Use invented spelling to write Children use writing to share infor­

a grocery list while a parent is writ­ mation with others. By watching an
ing his or her own list. adult write, they are introduced to the
conventions of writing. Using invented
spelling encourages the development
of phonemic awareness.

Sign their names (with a scribble, Children are learning that their names
a drawing, some of the letters, represent them and that other words
or “correctly”) on an attendance represent objects, emotions, actions,
chart, painting, or letter. and so on. They see that writing
serves a purpose—for example, to let
their teacher know they have arrived,
to show others their artwork, or to tell
someone who sent a letter.

87
Chapter 8
Recommended Ask Yourself
Early Literacy
Practices
1. How do my language and literacy goals for each child address
both the child’s home language and English?
2. How can I provide access to written materials throughout
the classroom in English and the other languages used by
my students?
3. Which strategies for becoming familiar with the literacy
practices of the families of the children in my class have
I implemented?
4. How extensively have I used the many resources available
to me and to parents on this topic?

Additional References for Parents

Bishop, A., R. H. Yopp, and H. K. Yopp. 2000. Ready for Reading: A
Handbook for Parents of Preschoolers. Boston, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon.
Hall, S. L., and L. C. Moats, 1999. Straight Talk About Reading. Chicago,
Ill.: Contemporary Books.
Language Is the Key: A Program for Building Language and Literacy in Early
Childhood. Seattle: Washington Learning Systems. Available in seven
languages and in English with subtitles for viewers with hearing
impairments.

Whitehurst, R. 2004. Dialogic Reading: An Effective Way to Read to

Preschoolers. [Link]
effective-way-read-preschoolers
Additional References for Teachers
Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement (CIERA)
and the National Institute for Literacy (NIFL). 2001. Put Reading
First: The Research Building Blocks for Teaching Children to Read.
Washington, D.C.: Partnership for Reading. [Link]
publications/pdf/[Link]
“Learning to Read and Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practices
for Young Children.” 1998. A joint position statement of the Inter­
national Reading Association and the National Association for the
Education of Young Children. The Reading Teacher, Vol. 52, No. 2,
193–214.

88
Lindholm-Leary, K. 1999. Biliteracy for a Global Society: An Idea Book on Chapter 8
Dual Language Acquisition. Washington, D.C.: National Clearinghouse Recommended
for Bilingual Education. Early Literacy
Practices
Report of the National Reading Panel. 2000. Teaching Children to Read.
Rockville, Md.: NICHD Clearinghouse. Telephone
1-800-370-2943. [Link]
[Link]/.
Note: See pages 129–42 for a list of works cited in this publication.

89
Appendixes

91
Appendix A
Principles for Promoting Language,
Literacy, and Learning for Preschool
English Learners

T he ten principles that follow are included throughout this guide.

Taken together, they foster an environment that respects and values
linguistic and cultural diversity toward the eventual mastery of English.
1. The education of English learners is enhanced when pre­
school programs and families form meaningful partnerships.
2. Children benefit when their teachers understand cultural
differences in language use and incorporate them into the
daily routine.
3. Successful practices promote shared experiences in which lan­
guage is used as a meaningful tool to communicate interests,
ideas, and emotions.
4. Language development and learning are promoted when pre­
school teachers and children creatively and interactively use
language.
5. Experimenting with the use, form, purpose, and intent of the
first and second languages leads to growth in acquiring the
second language.
6. Continued use and development of the child’s home lan­
guage will benefit the child as he or she acquires English.
7. Code switching is a normal part of language development for
many bilingual children.
8. Coordination and collaboration among families, teachers,
and specialists become crucial in supporting the language and
literacy development of children with disabilities and other
special needs.
9. Engaging in multiple literacy practices, such as reading books,
singing songs, and reciting poetry, is part of the daily life of
many families.
10. Offering a variety of opportunities for children to explore
written materials and their meanings as well as the sounds of
spoken language through rhyme and alliteration builds the
language and literacy skills of preschool English learners.

93
 Appendix B
Prekindergarten Learning and
Development Guidelines

T he reader is encouraged to refer to the source from which the

following guidelines are taken: Prekindergarten Learning and
Development Guidelines (California Department of Education 2000).
Because all the areas of children’s learning and development are
interrelated, all of the items listed are integral to the optimal growth
and development of young English learners.

Program Foundations
Planning the Preschool Environment
1. The environment is safe and comfortable for children and
adults.
2. The environment is arranged to maximize learning, facilitate
movement, minimize distractions, and organize children’s play.
3. The materials in the environment are interesting, engaging,
and age appropriate.
4. The environment is supportive of diverse cultures.
5. The environment welcomes parents and provides a place for
communication between staff and parents.
6. The environment is accessible to children with disabilities and
other special needs.
7. The environment makes appropriate use of technology.

Addressing Cultural Diversity

1. The program encourages and supports appreciation of and
respect for individual and group similarities and differences,
making the acceptance of diversity a theme that is central to
the classroom culture.
2. Program materials reflect the characteristics, values, and
practices of diverse cultural groups.
3. Whenever reasonable, teachers engage in practices consistent
with those from the children’s homes.
4. Teachers attempt, as much as possible, to learn about the his­
tory, beliefs, and practices of the children and the families they
serve, and they receive support for their efforts from the early
care and education center.

94
 5. Children are encouraged to recognize and develop strategies to
use when they encounter social injustice, bias, and prejudice.

Planning for Assessment

1. Assessment is done to benefit the children and to enhance
the effectiveness of parents and teachers.
2. Assessment includes multiple sources of information and
is balanced across cognitive, social, emotional, and health
domains.
3. Assessment takes place in a context or setting that is natural,
nonthreatening, and familiar to the children.
4. Assessment is continuous and is used regularly for planning
and developing specific strategies to support the children’s
learning and development.
5. Assessment for admission or placement purposes has few
appropriate uses in preschool; but, if done, it should have an
established reliability and validity, and it should be conducted
by trained examiners.
6. Programs direct significant efforts toward developing assess­
ments that are accurate, fair, and free of cultural bias.
7. As much as possible, parents are aware of and are involved in
assessments of their children.

Including Children with Disabilities or Other Special Needs

1. Teachers accept and actively support the concept of inclusion
by creating a classroom environment in which all the children
and their families feel that they are welcome.
2. Teachers are part of the educational team that develops and
implements individualized education programs (IEPs) for
children eligible to receive special education services.
3. Teachers work collaboratively with other specialists to deter­
mine appropriate modifications in the curriculum, instruction­
al methods, or classroom environment.
4. Programs provide sufficient release time, training information,
and support for teachers to plan and consult regarding children
with disabilities or other special needs.
5. Teachers work closely with families in an educational partner­
ship and provide them with appropriate information and
support.

95
 Involving Parents and Families
1. The teacher incorporates parents’ goals into program instruc­
tion and supports the involvement of parents in helping their
children to attain those goals.
2. The program creates an environment where parents feel
empowered and comfortable in speaking up for their
children.
3. The program regularly provides parents with information
about activities in the program and about their children’s
learning and development.
4. The teacher recognizes the role that various family members
other than parents may play in promoting children’s devel­
opment.
5. The program supports and is an advocate for strong families.

Organizing Staff Preparation and Development Programs

1. The program has a comprehensive staff development plan.
2. The program provides adequate paid time for professional
development activities.
3. The program promotes professionalism and ethical behavior.
4. The program provides opportunities for all staff to participate
in decision making.
5. The program provides tools and materials needed by the staff
members to advance their professional skills and knowledge.
6. The program employs staff who meet the requirements for
education and experience for their positions and encourages
advancement along a planned career pathway.
7. The program has a compensation schedule that acknowledges
and validates the required training and experience of each
staff member.
8. Professional development activities stress the development of
cultural competence.
9. The program supports professional development activities
that focus on family involvement.
10. The staff development plan incorporates a clearly defined
approach to integrating technology into the early childhood
program.

96
Curriculum
Social and Emotional Development
1. The staff is responsive to the children’s emotional needs.
2. The program climate, organization, and routine create a sense
of safety, security, and predictability.
3. Each child is helped to develop a sense of self-worth and
capability.
4. Each child is helped to develop a sense of self as a valued and
responsible member of the group.
5. The children are guided and helped to form and maintain
satisfying relationships with others.
6. The children are guided and helped to express their emotions
in socially acceptable ways.
7. The children’s social and cultural backgrounds are taken into
account in interpreting the children’s preferences and behav­
iors in the preschool setting.
8. The children’s social behavior is guided in the context of daily
activities.
9. The goal of discipline is to promote greater social and emo­
tional competence.

Language and Literacy Development

1. Programs support development in both language and literacy.
2. Programs provide a language-rich and print-rich environment
to support the children’s language and literacy learning across
curricular areas.
3. Adults model language and literacy practices to enhance the
children’s learning and development in those areas.
4. Programs implement a language arts curriculum that lays
the foundation for the children’s success in language arts in
elementary school.
5. The program recognizes and includes the home languages of
English learners.
6. The children’s language and literacy development is supported
through interaction between preschool staff and the children’s
families.

97
 Mathematical Learning and Development
1. The program develops and builds on the children’s existing
informal mathematical knowledge, recognizing that children
enter preschool with different experiences in mathematics.
2. Teacher-guided and child-initiated activities are integrated into
a mathematically rich learning environment using multiple
instructional approaches.
3. The program implements a mathematics curriculum that lays
the foundation for the children’s success in mathematics in
elementary school.
4. The program identifies clear, age-appropriate goals for math­
ematics learning and development.
5. The program establishes a partnership with parents and other
caregivers in preparing the children for mathematics learning.

Physical and Motor Development

1. The curriculum gives attention to all areas of motor skill
development, including gross motor, fine motor, oral motor,
and sensorimotor.
2. Consideration is given to the children’s varying rates of develop­
ment and acquisition of skills.
3. The program provides many opportunities for free play.
4. Teachers consider the children’s special health and physical
needs when designing physical activities.

Other Curriculum Areas

The teacher builds on the natural curiosity that children have about
the world around them by creating opportunities for the exploration of
history–social science, science, the arts, and health and nutrition. These
subjects are part of the program’s daily routines and are fully integrated
into the program. Where appropriate, the program links those content
areas with other content areas, such as social-emotional development,
language and literacy development, mathematics, and physical and
motor development.

98
Appendix C
Desired Results for Children and Families

T he California Department of Education’s Child Development

Division has revised its approach to evaluating the child care and
development services it provides. It is moving away from a process-
oriented compliance model and toward a focus on the results desired
from the system. This approach, which is compatible with the
Department’s accountability system for elementary and secondary
education, is intended to improve the results achieved for children
and families through the child development services provided. Titled
Desired Results for Children and Families, the new system will docu­
ment the progress made by children and families in achieving the
desired results and will provide information to help practitioners
improve their child care and development services. Specific guidance
on how best to use the Desired Results system with English learners
is being developed by Berkeley Evaluation and Assessment Research,
University of California, Berkeley. The new system is designed to:
• Identify measures demonstrating the achievement of desired results
across the development areas for children from birth to age thirteen
in child care and development programs.
• Provide information that reflects the contributions made by each
of the various types of Department-funded child development
programs in achieving the desired results.
• Hold programs accountable to program standards that support the
achievement of desired results and are used to measure program
quality.
• Provide a data-collection mechanism for evaluating the quality
of individual child development programs.
• Create a base of information on the relationships between processes
and results that can be used to target technical assistance for improv­
ing practices in all child development programs.
The intent of the Desired Results system at the state level is to iden­
tify successes and areas for improvement so that the Child Develop­
ment Division can provide support and technical assistance to increase
program quality. At the program level the extent to which children and
families are achieving the desired results will be determined so that
quality improvement activities are effectively targeted to benefit

Source: Desired Results Web site: [Link]

99
 program participants directly. Differences in the structure and objec­
tives of individual programs will be acknowledged, and the system will
be culturally sensitive and linguistically responsive to the diverse
populations of children and families served.
The primary objective of the Desired Results approach is to encour­
age progress toward the achievement of those results by providing
information and technical assistance to improve program quality. The
system has been built on existing processes and procedures, with an
emphasis on the coordination of programs and services to support
the continuum of children’s developmental progress from birth to age
thirteen.
The Desired Results system also interfaces with a concurrent project,
the Desired Results: Access for Children with Disabilities Project (DR
Access). That project is funded through the Early Education Unit,
Special Education Division, California Department of Education, and
is being conducted by the California Institute on Human Services,
Sonoma State University. The DR Access Project coordinates with
Desired Results in two ways. First, DR Access staff worked with the
Child Development Division and their contractors during the develop­
ment of the Desired Results framework to make the Desired Results
Developmental Profile as inclusive and appropriate as possible for the
assessment of the progress of young children with disabilities. DR
Access staff have also developed a system of adaptations and guidelines
for the Desired Results Developmental Profile that will allow practi­
tioners to assess children with disabilities in an appropriate manner
within the structure of the Desired Results system.
Through these two approaches the DR Access Project ensures that
the Desired Results framework considers the needs of young children
with disabilities and is applicable to all settings where children with
disabilities and their families are served, including both regular and
special education placements. The vision held by the contributors to
the Desired Results system and the DR Access Project is that through
this collaborative effort a continuity of outcomes will be achieved for
all children in California Department of Education programs.
The training and implementation phase of the Desired Results
system for center-based programs and family child care home networks
is being carried out with a series of regional training sessions for local
program administrators. Assisted by California Institute on Human
Services, the Child Development Division is providing comprehensive
training designed to facilitate implementation of the Desired Results
system in programs at the local level and to build the capacity of local
programs to train staff who work directly with children. Participation

100
in the training is by invitation only. The sites are selected one year
prior to a scheduled coordinated compliance review or contract moni­
toring review.

Components of the Desired Results Structure

There are four basic components of the Desired Results structure: the
results themselves, indicators, measures, and measurement tools. The
six desired results to which all California Department of Education-
funded child care and development programs are expected to contrib­
ute are listed as follows:
• The children are personally and socially competent.
• The children are effective learners.
• The children show physical and motor competence.
• The children are safe and healthy.
• Families support their children’s learning and development.
• Families achieve their goals.
The desired results for children encompass the four developmental
domains (i.e., cognitive, social-emotional, language, and physical
development), which are reflected and integrated throughout the
indicators, measures, and examples of the measures.
A desired result is defined as a condition of well-being for children
or families (e.g., that children are personally and socially competent),
expressing the positive impact of the entire system on the development
and functioning of children and on the self-sufficiency and function­
ing of families.
An indicator defines a desired result more specifically so that it can
be measured. For example, as an indicator of the desired result that
children are personally and socially competent, children show self-
awareness and a positive self-concept. Desired results are generally
better measured by using multiple indicators, none of which gives full
information on all aspects of achievement.
A measure quantifies achievement of a particular indicator (e.g., that
a preschooler can communicate easily with familiar adults).
A measurement tool is the actual instrument or procedure used to
capture or track information on indicators and standards of achieve­
ment (e.g., the Desired Results Developmental Profile).

101
 Appendix D
California Preschool Learning Foundations,
Volume I
Language and Literacy
Listening and Speaking

1.0 Language Use and Conventions

At around 48 months of age At around 60 months of age

1.1 Use language to communicate 1.1 Use language to communicate

with others in familiar social with others in both familiar and
situations for a variety of basic unfamiliar social situations for
purposes, including describing, a variety of basic and advanced
requesting, commenting, purposes, including reasoning,
acknowledging, greeting, predicting, problem solving,
and rejecting. and seeking new information.

1.2 Speak clearly enough to be 1.2 Speak clearly enough to be

understood by familiar adults understood by both familiar and
and children. unfamiliar adults and children.

1.3 Use accepted language and 1.3 Use accepted language and style
style during communication during communication with
with familiar adults and both familiar and unfamiliar
children. adults and children.

1.4 Use language to construct 1.4 Use language to construct

short narratives that are real extended narratives that are
or fictional. real or fictional.

2.0 Vocabulary
2.1 Understand and use accepted 2.1 Understand and use an
words for objects, actions, increasing variety and specific­
and attributes encountered ity of accepted words for
frequently in both real and objects, actions, and attributes
symbolic contexts. encountered in both real
and symbolic contexts.

2.2 Understand and use accepted 2.2 Understand and use accepted
words for categories of objects words for categories of objects
encountered and used encountered in everyday life.
frequently in everyday life.

2.3 Understand and use simple 2.3 Understand and use both
words that describe the rela­ simple and complex words
tions between objects. that describe the relations
between objects.

102
3.0 Grammar
At around 48 months of age At around 60 months of age

3.1 Understand and use increas­ 3.1 Understand and use increas­
ingly complex and longer ingly complex and longer
sentences, including sentences sentences, including sentences
that combine two phrases or that combine two to three
two to three concepts to phrases or three to four
communicate ideas. concepts to communicate
ideas.

Reading

1.0 Concepts about Print

At around 48 months of age At around 60 months of age

1.1 Begin to display appropriate 1.1 Display appropriate book-

book-handling behaviors handling behaviors and
and begin to recognize print knowledge of print
conventions. conventions.

1.2 Recognize print as something 1.2 Understand that print is

that can be read. something that is read and
has specific meaning.

2.0 Phonological Awareness

2.1 Orally blend and delete words
and syllables without the
support of pictures or objects.

2.2 Orally blend the onsets, rimes,

and phonemes of words and
orally delete the onsets of
words, with the support of
pictures or objects.

3.0 Alphabetics and Word/Print Recognition

3.1 Recognize the first letter of own 3.1 Recognize own name or other
name. common words in print.

3.2 Match some letter names to 3.2 Match more than half of upper­
their printed form. case letter names and more
than half of lowercase letter
names to their printed form.

3.3 Begin to recognize that letters

have sounds.

103
 Reading (Continued)

4.0 Comprehension and Analysis of Age-Appropriate Text

At around 48 months of age At around 60 months of age

4.1 Demonstrate knowledge of 4.1 Demonstrate knowledge of

main characters or events in details in a familiar story,
a familiar story (e.g., who, including characters, events,
what, where) through answer­ and ordering of events through
ing questions (e.g., recall and answering questions (particu­
simple inferencing), retelling, larly summarizing, predicting,
reenacting, or creating artwork. and inferencing), retelling,
reenacting, or creating
artwork.

4.2 Demonstrate knowledge from 4.2 Use information from informa­

informational text through tional text in a variety of ways,
labeling, describing, playing, including describing, relating,
or creating artwork. categorizing, or comparing
and contrasting.

5.0 Literacy Interest and Response

5.1 Demonstrate enjoyment of 5.1 Demonstrate, with increasing
literacy and literacy-related independence, enjoyment of
activities. literacy and literacy-related
activities.

5.2 Engage in routines associated 5.2 Engage in more complex

with literacy activities. routines associated with
literacy activities.

Writing

1.0 Writing Strategies

1.1 Experiment with grasp and 1.1 Adjust grasp and body position
body position using a variety for increased control in draw­
of drawing and writing tools. ing and writing.

1.2 Write using scribbles that are 1.2 Write letters or letter-like
different from pictures. shapes to represent words
or ideas.

1.3 Write marks to represent 1.3 Write first name nearly

own name. correctly.

104
 English-Language Development
Listening

1.0 Children listen with understanding.

Focus: Beginning words
Beginning Middle Later

1.1 Attend to English 1.1 Demonstrate 1.1 Begin to demon­

oral language in understanding of strate an under­
both real and words in English standing of a larger
pretend activity, for objects and set of words in
relying on into­ actions as well as English (for objects
nation, facial phrases encoun­ and actions, per­
expressions, or tered frequently sonal pronouns,
the gestures of in both real and and possessives)
the speaker. pretend activity. in both real and
pretend activity.

Focus: Requests and directions

1.2 Begin to follow 1.2 Respond appropri­ 1.2 Follow directions
simple directions ately to requests that involve a
in English, espe­ involving one step one- or two-step
cially when there when personally sequence, relying
are contextual directed by oth­ less on contextual
cues. ers, which may cues.
occur with or
without contex­
tual cues.

Focus: Basic and advanced concepts

1.3 Demonstrate an 1.3 Begin to demon­ 1.3 Demonstrate an
understanding strate an under­ understanding
of words related standing of words of words in
to basic and in English related English related to
advanced con­ to basic concepts. more advanced
cepts in the home concepts.
language that are
appropriate for
the age (as re­
ported by parents,
teachers, assis­
tants, or others,
with the assistance
of an interpreter
if necessary).

105
 Speaking

1.0 Children use nonverbal and verbal strategies

to communicate with others.
Focus: Communication of needs
Beginning Middle Later

1.1 Use nonverbal 1.1 Combine non­ 1.1 Show increasing

communication, verbal and some reliance on verbal
such as gestures verbal commu­ communication
or behaviors, to nication to be in English to be
seek attention, understood by understood by
request objects, others (may others.
or initiate a code-switch—that
response from is, use the home
others. language and
English—and
use telegraphic
and/or formulaic
speech).

Focus: Vocabulary production

1.2 Use vocabulary 1.2 Begin to use 1.2 Use new English
in the home English vocabu­ vocabulary to
language that is lary, mainly con­ share knowledge
age-appropriate sisting of concrete of concepts.
(as reported by nouns and with
parents, teachers, some verbs and
assistants, or pronouns (tele­
others and with graphic speech).
the assistance of
an interpreter if
necessary).

Focus: Conversation
1.3 Converse in the 1.3 Begin to converse 1.3 Sustain a conver­
home language with others, sation in English
(as reported by using English about a variety
parents, teachers, vocabulary but of topics.
assistants, or may code-switch
others, with the (i.e., use the home
assistance of an language and
interpreter if English).
necessary).

106
Speaking (Continued)

Focus: Utterance length and complexity

Beginning Middle Later

1.4 Use a range of 1.4 Use two- and 1.4 Increase utterance
utterance lengths in three-word length in English
the home language utterances by adding appro­
that is age-appro­ in English to priate possessive
priate (as reported communicate pronouns (e.g., his,
by parents, teach­ her); conjunctions
ers, assistants, or (e.g., and, or); or
others, with the other elements
assistance of an (e.g., adjectives,
interpreter if adverbs).
necessary).

Focus: Grammar
1.5 Use age-appropri­ 1.5 Begin to use 1.5 Expand the use of
ate grammar in the some English different forms of
home language grammatical grammar in English
(e.g., plurals; simple markers (e.g., (e.g., plurals; sim­
past tense; use of -ing or plural –s) ple past tense; use
subject, verb, ob­ and, at times, of subject, verb and
ject), sometimes apply the rules of object), sometimes
with errors (as re­ grammar of the with errors.
ported by parents, home language
teachers, assistants, to English.
or others, with the
assistance of an
interpreter if
necessary).

Focus: Inquiry
1.6 Ask a variety of 1.6 Begin to use 1.6 Begin to use
types of questions “what” and “why” “what,” “why,”
(e.g., “what,” questions in Eng­ “how,” “when,”
“why,” “how,” lish, sometimes and “where”
“when,” and with errors. questions in more
“where”) in the complete forms
home language in English, some­
(as reported by times with errors.
parents, teachers,
assistants, or others,
with the assistance
of an interpreter if
necessary.

107
 Speaking (Continued)

2.0 Children begin to understand and use social conventions

in English.
Focus: Social conventions
Beginning Middle Later

2.1 Use social conven­ 2.1 Demonstrate 2.1 Appropriately use

tions of the home a beginning words and tone
language (as understanding of voice associated
reported by of English social with social conven­
teachers, parents, conventions. tions in English.
assistants, or
others, with
the assistance
of an interpreter
if necessary).

3.0 Children use language to create oral narratives about their

personal experiences.
Focus: Narrative development
Beginning Middle Later

3.1 Create a narrative 3.1 Begin to use 3.1 Produce simple

in the home English to talk narratives in English
language (as about personal that are real or
reported by par­ experiences; may fictional.
ents, teachers, complete a narra­
assistants, or tive in the home
others, with the language while
assistance of an using some
interpreter if English (i.e.,
necessary). code-switching).

108
 Reading

1.0 Children demonstrate an appreciation and enjoyment

of reading and literature.

Focus: Participate in read-aloud activity

Beginning Middle Later

1.1 Attend to an adult 1.1 Begin to par­ 1.1 Participate in

reading a short ticipate in reading reading activities,
storybook written activities, using using a variety of
in the home books written genres that are
language or a in English when written in English
storybook written the language is (e.g., poetry, fairy
in English if the predictable. tales, concept
story has been books, and infor­
read in the home mational books).
language.

Focus: Interest in books and reading

1.2 “Read” familiar 1.2 Choose to “read” 1.2 Choose to “read”
books written in familiar books familiar books
the home lan­ written in the written in English
guage or in English home language or with increasing
when encouraged in English with in­ independence
by others and, creasing indepen­ and talk about
in the home lan­ dence and, in the the books in
guage, talk about home language English.
the books. or in English, talk
about the books.

2.0 Children show an increasing understanding

of book reading.
Focus: Personal connections to the story
Beginning Middle Later

2.1 Begin to identify 2.1 Describe their 2.1 Begin to engage

and relate to a own experiences in extended
story from their related to the conversations
own life experi­ topic of the in English
ences in the home story, using tele­ about stories.
language (as graphic and/or
reported by par­ formulaic speech
ents, teachers, as­ in English.
sistants, or others,
with the assistance
of an interpreter
if necessary).

109
 Reading (Continued)

Focus: Story structure

Beginning Middle Later

2.2 Retell a story 2.2 Retell a story 2.2 Retell in English

in the home using the home the majority of a
language when language and story read or told
read or told a some English in English.
story in the home when read or told
language (as a story in English.
reported by
parents, teachers,
assistants, or
others, with the
assistance of an
interpreter if
necessary).

3.0 Children demonstrate an understanding

of print conventions.
Focus: Book handling
Beginning Middle Later

3.1 Begin to under­ 3.1 Continue to 3.1 Demonstrate an

stand that books develop an understanding
are read in a con­ understanding that print in
sistent manner of how to read a English is
(e.g., in English, book, sometimes organized from
pages are turned applying knowl­ left to right, top
from right to left edge of print to bottom, and
and the print is conventions that pages are
read from top to from the home turned from right
bottom, left to language. to left when a
right; this may book is read.
vary in other
languages).

110
Reading (Continued)

4.0 Children demonstrate awareness that print carries

meaning.
Focus: Environmental print
Beginning Middle Later

4.1 Begin to recognize 4.1 Recognize in the 4.1 Recognize in the

that symbols in environment environment
the environment (classroom, com­ (classroom,
(classroom, com­ munity, or home) community, or
munity, or home) some familiar home) an increas­
carry a consistent symbols, words, ing number of
meaning in the and print labels familiar symbols,
home language or in the home words, and print
in English. language or in labels in English.
English.

5.0 Children demonstrate progress in their knowledge

of the alphabet in English.

Focus: Letter awareness

Beginning Middle Later

5.1 Interact with 5.1 Begin to talk 5.1 Begin to dem­

material repre­ about the letters onstrate under­
senting the letters of the English standing that the
of the English alphabet while letters of the
alphabet. playing and inter­ English alphabet
acting with them; are symbols used
may code-switch to make words.
(use the home
language and
English).

Focus: Letter recognition

5.2 Begin to recognize 5.2 Identify some 5.2 Identify ten or
the first letter in letters of the more letters of
their own name alphabet in the alphabet in
or the character English. English.
for their own
name in the
home language
or English.

111
 Reading (Continued)

6.0 Children demonstrate phonological awareness.

Focus: Rhyming
Beginning Middle Later

6.1 Listen attentively 6.1 Begin to repeat 6.1 Repeat, recite,

and begin to par­ or recite simple produce, or
ticipate in simple songs, poems, initiate simple
songs, poems, and finger plays songs, poems,
and finger plays that emphasize and finger plays
that emphasize rhyme in the that emphasize
rhyme in the home language rhyme in English.
home language or in English.
or in English.

Focus: Onset (initial sound)

6.2 Listen attentively 6.2 Begin to recognize 6.2 Recognize and
and begin to par­ words that have produce words
ticipate in simple a similar onset that have a
songs, poems, (initial sound) similar onset
and finger plays in the home (initial sound)
in the home language or in in English.
language or in English, with
English. support.

Focus: Sound differences in the home language and English

6.3 Attend to and 6.3 Begin to use 6.3 Begin to orally
manipulate words in English manipulate
different sounds with phonemes sounds (onsets,
or tones in words (individual units of rimes, and pho­
in the home meaningful sound nemes) in words
language (as in a word or in English, with
reported by syllable) that are support.
parents, teachers, different from the
assistants, or home language.
others, with the
assistance of
an interpreter
if necessary.)

112
 Writing

1.0 Children use writing to communicate their ideas.

Focus: Writing as communication
Beginning Middle Later

1.1 Begin to under­ 1.1 Begin to under­ 1.1 Develop an

stand that writing stand that what is increasing
can be used to said in the home understanding
communicate. language or in that what is said
English can be in English can be
written down and written down and
read by others. read by others.

Focus: Writing to represent words or ideas

1.2 Begin to demon­ 1.2 Begin to use 1.2 Continue to
strate an aware­ marks or symbols develop writing
ness that written to represent by using letters or
language can spoken language letter-like marks
be in the home in the home to represent their
language or in language or in ideas in English.
English. English.

Focus: Writing their name

1.3 Write marks to 1.3 Attempt to copy 1.3 Write their first
represent their their own name name on their
own name in a in English or in own in English
way that may the writing system nearly correctly,
resemble how it of their home using letters of
is written in the language. the English
home language. alphabet to
accurately
represent pro­
nunciation in
their home
language.

113
 Appendix E
Transition to Kindergarten
or Elementary School

P reschool English learners eventually reach the age at which they

transition into the kindergarten through grade twelve school
system. Preschool teachers need to know how best to prepare these
young children to be cognitively, socially, and emotionally ready for
this next educational environment. This appendix provides a brief
discussion of the transition process and helpful transition strategies
as well as an overview of California’s English-language development
standards and English–language arts development standards for kinder­
garten. Knowing what comes next is essential for teachers, parents, and
administrators as they work to help young preschool English learners
make a successful transition to school.

What Makes the Transition to School Go Smoothly

for Young Children and Their Families?
Several practices help ensure a smooth placement and adjustment
for children moving from preschool to kindergarten or first grade. They
include strategies and procedures that (1) provide continuity through
activities that build bridges between home, early childhood education,
and school experiences; and (2) connect the child development, health
and social services, family partnerships and involvement services,
and education systems for children from birth to age five. Effective
transition activities address children’s social, emotional, physical,
cultural, linguistic, and cognitive development; involve families;
prepare children for the transition to school; and link preschool and
elementary school educators (Hand 2004).
Specific strategies that contribute to children’s successful transitions
to school include having:
• Preschool children meet their kindergarten teacher before the
start of the school year.
• Preschool children practice school routines and behavioral
expectations.
• Preschool children be introduced to future peers.
• Preschool children visit their kindergarten classroom or setting.
• New kindergartners feel welcomed by being enabled to experience
elements of practice from their preschool setting.
• Children and families experience continuity of early intervention
services between the preschool and elementary school.

114
The K–3 English-Language Development and English–
Language Arts Standards
The foundation for developing English reading skills for all students
is a solid initial understanding of the relationships between English
sounds and letters—the relationships between the spoken and the
written language. For the English learner this understanding is first
developed through the recognition and production of English sounds.
Students begin this process most effectively by first learning the
English sounds that exist in their first language and then those that
do not. They are then taught to transfer that knowledge to the printed
language. As students develop knowledge of the correspondence
between sounds and printed symbols, they develop skills to analyze
English morphemes (i.e., prefixes, suffixes, root words, and so on).
These skills in word analysis are some of the building blocks students
need to develop fluency in English and literacy skills.
The California Reading/Language Arts Framework specifies that teach­
ers must provide students with straightforward assessments of their
proficiency in English at every stage of instruction so that the students
understand what they must do to improve. As stated throughout this
resource guide, the processes by which students develop proficiency in
a second language differ from the experiences of monolingual English
speakers. For example, grammatical structures that monolingual Eng­
lish speakers learn early in their language development may be learned
much later by students learning English as a second language. The
English-Language Development Standards (ELD) provides teachers with
usable information to ensure that English-language development is
occurring appropriately for all students (California Department of
Education 2002).
For kindergarten through grade two, the English–language arts (ELA)
standards on phonemic awareness, concepts about print, and decoding
and word recognition have been integrated into the English–Language
Arts Content Standards (California Department of Education 1998). The
standards for kindergarten, which serve as anchor points that can be
used to determine whether English learners are making appropriate
progress toward becoming proficient readers of English, are presented
as follows:

115
 Kindergarten English–Language Arts Content Standards

READING
1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, and Systematic Vocabulary
Development

Students know about letters, words, and sounds. They apply this knowl­
edge to read simple sentences.
Concepts About Print
1.1 Identify the front cover, back cover, and title page of a book.
1.2 Follow words from left to right and from top to bottom on the
printed page.
1.3 Understand that printed materials provide information.
1.4 Recognize that sentences in print are made up of separate words.
1.5 Distinguish letters from words.
1.6 Recognize and name all uppercase and lowercase letters of the
alphabet.
Phonemic Awareness
1.7 Track (move sequentially from sound to sound) and represent the
number, sameness/difference, and order of two and three isolated
phonemes (e.g., /f, s, th/, /j, d, j/).
1.8 Track (move sequentially from sound to sound) and represent
changes in simple syllables and words with two and three sounds
as one sound is added, substituted, omitted, shifted, or repeated
(e.g., vowel-consonant, consonant-vowel, or consonant-vowel­
consonant).
1.9 Blend vowel-consonant sounds orally to make words or syllables.
1.10 Identify and produce rhyming words in response to an oral prompt.
1.11 Distinguish orally stated one-syllable words and separate into
beginning or ending sounds.
1.12 Track auditorily each word in a sentence and each syllable in
a word.
1.13 Count the number of sounds in syllables and syllables in words.
Decoding and Word Recognition
1.14 Match all consonant and short-vowel sounds to appropriate letters.
1.15 Read simple one-syllable and high-frequency words (i.e., sight
words).
1.16 Understand that as letters of words change, so do the sounds
(i.e., the alphabetic principle).

116
Vocabulary and Concept Development
1.17 Identify and sort common words in basic categories (e.g., colors,
shapes, foods).
1.18 Describe common objects and events in both general and specific
language.

2.0 Reading Comprehension

Students identify the basic facts and ideas in what they have read, heard,
or viewed. They use comprehension strategies (e.g., generating and
responding to questions, comparing new information to what is already
known). The selections in Recommended Literature: Kindergarten Through
Grade Twelve (California Department of Education 2002) illustrate the
quality and complexity of the materials to be read by students.
Structural Features of Informational Materials
2.1 Locate the title, table of contents, name of author, and name of
illustrator.
Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text
2.2 Use pictures and context to make predictions about story content.
2.3 Connect to life experiences the information and events in texts.
2.4 Retell familiar stories.
2.5 Ask and answer questions about essential elements of a text.

3.0 Literary Response and Analysis

Students listen and respond to stories based on well-known characters,
themes, plots, and settings. The selections in Recommended Literature:
Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve illustrate the quality and complexity of
the materials to be read by students.
Narrative Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text
3.1 Distinguish fantasy from realistic text.
3.2 Identify types of everyday print materials (e.g., storybooks, poems,
newspapers, signs, labels).
3.3 Identify characters, settings, and important events.

WRITING
1.0 Writing Strategies
Students write words and brief sentences that are legible.
Organization and Focus
1.1 Use letters and phonetically spelled words to write about
experiences, stories, people, objects, or events.

117
 1.2 Write consonant-vowel-consonant words (i.e., demonstrate the
alphabetic principle).
1.3 Write by moving from left to right and from top to bottom.
Penmanship
1.4 Write uppercase and lowercase letters of the alphabet independent­
ly, attending to the form and proper spacing of the letters.

WRITTEN AND ORAL ENGLISH LANGUAGE CONVENTIONS

The standards for written and oral English language conventions have been
placed between those for writing and for listening and speaking because
those conventions are essential to both sets of skills.
1.0 Written and Oral English Language Conventions
Students write and speak with a command of standard English
conventions.
Sentence Structure
1.1 Recognize and use complete, coherent sentences when speaking.
Spelling
1.2 Spell independently by using prephonetic knowledge, sounds
of the alphabet, and knowledge of letter names.

LISTENING AND SPEAKING

1.0. Listening and Speaking Strategies
Students listen and respond to oral communication. They speak in clear
and coherent sentences.
Comprehension
1.1 Understand and follow one- and two-step oral directions.
1.2 Share information and ideas, speaking audibly in complete,
coherent sentences.
2.0. Speaking Applications (Genres and Their Characteristics)
Students deliver brief recitations and oral presentations about familiar
experiences or interests, demonstrating command of the organization and
delivery strategies outlined in Listening and Speaking Standard 1.0.
Using the listening and speaking strategies of kindergarten outlined in
Listening and Speaking Standard 1.0, students:
2.1 Describe people, places, things (e.g., size, color, shape), locations,
and actions.
2.2 Recite short poems, rhymes, and songs.
2.3 Relate an experience or creative story in a logical sequence.

118
 The lists of ELD and ELA standards are lengthy since they contain
overarching goals and more specific learning objectives similar to the
kindergarten ELA standards listed previously. Teachers and programs
are encouraged to obtain the entire ELD and ELA standards documents.
WestEd’s Northern California Comprehensive Assistance Center has
developed a publication titled The Map of Standards for English Learners
that presents the two sets of standards, ELD and ELA, in an easy-to­
follow tabular format. Excerpts from the document are presented on
the following pages:

119
120

ELD Standards ELA Standards

Cluster Level K–2 K 1 2

Retell Stories and Summarize Main Idea

6 EI Retell familiar stories and short conversations 2.3 Relate an experi­ 2.2 Retell stories, using basic 1.7 Recount experi­
by using appropriate gestures, expressions, ence or creative story grammar and ences in a logical
and illustrative objects. story in a logical relating the sequence sequence.
I Retell stories and talk about school-related sequence. of story events by 2.1 Recount experi­
activities by using expanded vocabulary, answering who, what, ences or present
descriptive words, and paraphrasing. when, where, and how stories.
questions.
EA Retell stories in greater detail by including 1.8 Retell stories,
the characters, setting, and plot. (ES*) 2.3 Relate an important including charac­
life event or personal ters, setting, and
A Narrate and paraphrase events in greater experience in a simple
detail by using more extended vocabulary. (2) plot.
sequence.
2.4 Provide descriptions,
with careful attention to
sensory detail.

Recite Rhymes and Stories

7 EI Recite familiar rhymes, songs, and simple 2.2 Recite short poems, 2.1 Recite poems, rhymes,
stories. rhymes, and songs. songs, and stories.

Ask and Answer Questions

8 1.2 Ask for clarifica­
B Answer simple questions with one- to two- 2.1 Describe people, 1.2 Ask questions for
word responses. places, things clarification and tion and explana­
(e.g., size, color, understanding. tion of stories
EI Ask and answer questions by using phrases
shape), locations, and ideas.
or simple sentences. (ES*)
and actions.

Levels: B = Beginning; EI = Early Intermediate; I = Intermediate; EA = Early Advanced; A = Advanced

Essential Standards: ES = Essential ELA and matching ELD standards (major emphasis in CST and CAHSEE); ES* = Essential ELD standards on CELDT

From J. Carr and R. Lagunoff, The Map of Standards for English Learners: Integrating Instruction and Assessment of English-Language Development and English–Language Arts
Standards in California (Fourth edition), copyright © 2003 WestEd. Reprinted by permission of WestEd, San Francisco.
 ELD Standards ELA Standards
Cluster Level K–2 K 1 2

I Ask and answer instructional questions by 1.5 Organize

using simple sentences. presentations to
maintain a clear
EA Ask and answer instructional questions
focus.
with more extensive supporting elements
1.9 Report on a topic
(e.g., “Which part of the story was the most
with supportive
important?”).
facts and details.
2.2 Report on a
topic with facts
and details,
drawing from
several sources of
information.

Use Vocabulary for Communication

1 ES B Retell simple stories by using drawings, words, (See Listening and Speaking, (See Listening and
or phrases. Speaking, Speaking
Applications.)
B Respond appropriately to some social and
academic interactions (e.g., simple question/
answer, negotiate play).
B Demonstrate comprehension of simple
vocabulary with an appropriate action. (ES*)
B Produce simple vocabulary (single words or
short phrases) to communicate basic needs in
social and academic situations (e.g., locations,
greetings, classroom objects).
EI Produce vocabulary, phrases, and simple
sentences to communicate basic needs in
social and academic situations.
121
122

ELD Standards ELA Standards

Cluster Level K–2 K 1 2

I Use more complex vocabulary and sentences

to communicate needs and express ideas in a
wider variety of social and academic settings
(e.g., classroom discussions, mediation of
conflicts).
I Apply knowledge of content-related
vocabulary to discussions and reading. (ES*)
I Describe common objects and events in both 1.8 Same as ELD
general and specific language. (ES)

Use Social and Academic Vocabulary

2ES B Read aloud simple words (e.g., nouns and 2.2 Recite short poems, 2.1 Recite poems, rhymes,
adjectives) in stories or games. rhymes, and songs. songs, and stories.
EI Read simple vocabulary, phrases, and
sentences independently. (ES*)
EI Read aloud an increasing number of English
words.
I Use decoding skills to read more complex
words independently.
EA Use decoding skills and knowledge of
academic and social vocabulary to begin
independent reading.
A Apply knowledge of academic and social
vocabulary to achieve independent reading.
(2)
A Use knowledge of individual words in 1.8 Same as ELD
unknown compound words to predict their standard. (ES)
Additional References
California Department of Education. 1999. Reading/Language Arts
Framework for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade
Twelve (with content standards). Sacramento: California Department
of Education.
Carr, J., and R. Lagunoff. 2003. The Map of Standards for English Learners:
Integrating Instruction and Assessment of English­Language Development
and English–Language Arts Standards in California (Fourth edition).
San Francisco: WestEd.
Hand, A. 2004. Transition to School: An Important Focus for School Readi­
ness Programs. First 5 California Implementation Tools for School
Readiness Series. Los Angeles: UCLA Center for Healthier Children,
Families, and Communities. This resource also includes strategies
for family support and community linkages during transition.
[Link] or [Link]
Note: See pages 129–42 for a list of works cited in this publication.

123
 Glossary

academic English: The variety of English used in schools, in textbooks,

and in many business and government transactions.
American Sign Language: A complex visual-spatial language used by
the deaf community in the United States and in English-speaking
parts of Canada. There are also other systems of signed communica­
tion, such as Signed English. Children from other countries may have
learned their own regional variation of a signed language.
augmentative communication: Any method of communicating
without speech, such as the use of signs, gestures, and electronic and
nonelectronic devices.
bilingual: Refers to a person (child or adult) who speaks two languages.
biliterate: Having the knowledge and skill needed to read and write in
one’s home language and in a second language.
cerebral palsy: A disorder of posture, muscle tone, and movement
resulting from brain damage.
code switching: The practice of using more than one language to
express a thought or idea.
cognate: One of two or more words having the same linguistic root or
origin.
content knowledge: The concepts, principles, relationships, processes,
and applications of an academic subject that children should know.
The developmental age and grade level of the children should deter­
mine the extent of the knowledge expected.
cross-language transfer: The skills, background knowledge, and cogni­
tive strategies that children transfer between their first and second
languages.
culture: Values, ideas, and other symbolic, meaningful systems created
and transmitted by a group of people.
decoding: The ability to translate symbols (e.g., alphabet letters) into
recognizable syllables and words. It is grounded in an understand­
ing of the mechanics of text (concepts about print), the knowledge that
spoken words consist of a sequence of individual sounds or phonemes
(phonemic awareness), a familiarity with the letters in the language
(letter knowledge), the knowledge that the letters in the written words
represent corresponding sounds (alphabetic principle), and the ability to
bring these elements together to decipher regular words.

124
Down syndrome: A common genetic disorder in which a child is born
with 47 rather than 46 chromosomes, resulting in developmental
delays, mental retardation, low muscle tone, and other possible
effects.
dual-language development: The development of two languages;
same as bilingual-language development.
early literacy: The knowledge and skills that are the forerunners to
later success in reading and writing.
emergent readers: Children who have some early literacy skills but are
not yet fluent readers.
English learners: Children attending school in the United States who
come from a home where a language other than English is spoken.
expressive language: The process of formulating and sending a
message. One way to express language is through speech. Other
ways are through using sign language, pointing to words and
pictures on a communication board, and using written messages
on a computer screen.
formulaic speech: Speech characterized by formulas or chunks and
phrases that the child uses without completely understanding how
they function in the language.
grammar: The system of rules by which words are formed and put
together to make sentences.
home language: The language used primarily by the child’s family in
the home environment. For some children there may be more than
one home language (e.g., when the mother speaks Chinese and the
father speaks English).
hypothesis: A tentative explanation for a phenomenon used as a basis
for further investigation.
hypothesize: To offer something as a form of hypothesis.
immigrant experience: An individual’s or a family’s experience of
leaving one’s home country and moving to a new country.
indigenous: Having origins in a region or a country.
individualized education program: A written plan constituting a legal
document that states a child’s present level of functioning; specific
areas that need special services; annual goals; short-term objectives;
services to be provided; and the method of evaluation to be imple­
mented for children three to twenty-one years of age who have been
determined eligible for special education (Cook, Klein, and Tessier
2004).

125
 individualized family service plan: Both a process and a document.
The process consists of the gathering, sharing, and exchanging of
information between families and staff to enable families to make
informed choices about the early intervention services they want for
their children. The document is a written contract outlining out­
come statements to be achieved by the infant or toddler with special
needs and his or her family (Cook, Klein, and Tessier 2004).
language: The human use of spoken or written words as a communica­
tion system. Language can also include a system of communication
based on signs, gestures, or inarticulate sounds.
language acquisition: The process of learning a language. Assuming
the absence of a disability and the presence of spoken language,
children subconsciously acquire the basics of their home language
(phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics) from birth
through age five. From age six and continuing throughout adult­
hood, they continue this subconscious learning, adding layers of
complexity to what they already know. Each grade level of formal
school instruction adds to the cognitive complexity of developing
spoken and written language.
language brokers: Children who use their developing bilingual lan­
guage skills to act as translators between institutions and their family
members and to assist their peers or siblings who may not know as
much English as they do.
language loss: Depletion of language occurring when a member of the
minority group can no longer use the minority language as well as
he or she used to do or when some of the proficiency is no longer
accessible. Language loss may also refer to incomplete or imperfect
learning of a language spoken in childhood.
metalinguistic awareness: An awareness of the structure and function
of language that allows one to reflect and consciously manipulate
the language.
monolingual: Refers to a person (child or adult) who speaks one lan­
guage.
morphology: The study of meaningful units of language and their
combination to form words.
motherese: The name given to the restricted sort of language spoken
by mothers and other primary caregivers to their young children,
the main function of which is to teach the children the basic func­
tion and structure of language. Adults make an unconscious effort
to stretch the signals, exaggerating the acoustic components that are

126
 exactly the dimensions that the baby needs to pay attention to in
order to form the mental maps for speech.
multilingual: Refers to a person (child or adult) who speaks more than
one language.
overgeneralization: A language practice used by children as they are
learning a language in which they apply a perceived rule or use of
a word incorrectly. For example, a child may say “mans” instead of
“men” to show the plural form of the word “man.”
phonemic awareness: The ability to hear, identify, and manipulate the
sequence of individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words.
phonics: Instructional practices that emphasize how spellings are
related to speech sounds in systematic ways; letter-sound correspon­
dences.
phonological awareness: The ability to detect or manipulate the
sound structure of spoken words, independent of meaning. It is an
increasingly sophisticated capability that it highly predictive of, and
causally related to, children’s later ability to read.
phonology: The system or pattern of speech sounds used in a particu­
lar language.
pragmatic/communicative competence: The ability to understand
and apply social rules for language use. Children who are skilled at
pragmatic use or have communicative competence can use language
to persuade peers and adults, ask and answer questions in school,
and request entry into a playgroup.
private speech: The practice of children talking aloud to themselves
while engaged in play.
receptive language: The process of receiving and understanding a
message through language.
register: Different forms of the same language that are used with
certain people or in certain situations.
scaffolding: A process by which adults or capable peers provide
supportive structures to help children learn and play. Scaffolding
occurs at a time when children are faced with a challenge that they
can solve with a simple hint, question, or prompt.
script: The way a language is represented in writing. For example,
Armenian script looks like this: . Chinese script looks like
this: . Arabic script looks like this: . English script is repre­
sented in the writing in this guide.

127
 second-language acquisition: The process by which a child or an
adult learns to understand and use a second language.
semantics: The study of how meaning in language is created by the use
and interrelationships of words, phrases, and sentences.
simultaneous language acquisition, simultaneous bilingualism:
The process of learning two languages at the same time.
social English: The variety of English initially used by most speakers
learning English as a second language in informal situations and
conversations.
sociocultural perspective: Based on the work of Vygotsky, socio­
cultural theory presents the perspective that children’s cognitive
structures are developed through the actions and speech of their
caretakers and are transmitted through social interactions. It follows
then that there will be culturally coded styles of speech and interac­
tion which will result in culturally related patterns of thought.
successive language acquisition, successive bilingualism: The pro­
cess of learning a second language after the first language has already
been learned or after basic mastery in the first language has been
achieved.
syntax: The ordering of and relationship between the words and other
structural elements in phrases and sentences.
take the floor: The act of calling attention to oneself to participate or
show one’s knowledge; being the main speaker in a group.
telegraphic speech: Speech characterized by the use of a few content
words without functional words or certain grammatical markers,
as in telegraphs.
theory: The body of rules, ideas, principles, and techniques that applies
to a particular subject.
vocabulary: All the words used by or known by a child or adult. Oral
vocabulary refers to words used in speaking or recognized in listen­
ing. Reading vocabulary refers to words recognized or used in print.
wait time: The amount of time a teacher allows for children to
respond to a question or request.

128
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142 08-019 PR080037-0 8-09 20M

 REPÚBLICA BOLIVARIANA DE VENEZUELA
UNIVERSIDAD PEDAGÓGICA EXPERIMENTAL LIBERTADOR
INSTITUTO PEDAGÓGICO “LUIS BELTRAN PRIETO FIGUEROA”
DEPARTAMENTO DE EDUCACIÓN TÉCNICA
PROGRAMA DE EDUCACIÓN COMERCIAL

ETAPA PREESCOLAR
(3 A 7 AÑOS DE EDAD)

BARQUISIMETO, SEPTIEMBRE 2010

 REPÚBLICA BOLIVARIANA DE VENEZUELA
UNIVERSIDAD PEDAGÓGICA EXPERIMENTAL LIBERTADOR
INSTITUTO PEDAGÓGICO “LUIS BELTRAN PRIETO FIGUEROA”
DEPARTAMENTO DE EDUCACIÓN TÉCNICA
PROGRAMA DE EDUCACIÓN COMERCIAL

ETAPA PREESCOLAR
(3 A 7 AÑOS DE EDAD)

INTEGRANTES: C. I
SANCHEZ T. YURAIMA C. 15.731.390
ROJAS S, RIDSON S. 17.728.685
PEREZ P, MARIALI C. 20.009.110
CASTAÑEDA D, JOSELYN P. 20.010.839
RIVERO, ELAINE V. 20.188.123
HERNANDEZ, YINDRIS 20.670.726
GUTIERRES, CAREN 23.485.174
SECCIÓN: 1EC001
PROFESORA: ESMERIDIAN PINEDA
ASIGNATURA: PSICOLOGÍA EVOLUTIVA

BARQUISIMETO, SEPTIEMBRE 2010

 TABLA DE CONTENIDO
INTRODUCCIÓN.........................................................................................................4
ETAPA PREESCOLAR................................................................................................5
Áreas de Desarrollo Físico.........................................................................................5
En el desarrollo motor grueso: ..............................................................................5
En el desarrollo motor fino: ..................................................................................6
Áreas de Desarrollo Personal-Social.........................................................................6
Áreas de Desarrollo Cognitivo..................................................................................7
Área de Desarrollo del Lenguaje...............................................................................9
Áreas de Desarrollo Moral.......................................................................................11
Áreas de Estimulación.............................................................................................13
CONCLUSIÓN ...........................................................................................................16
BIBLIOGRAFÍA.........................................................................................................17
 INTRODUCCIÓN.

La etapa preescolar se conoce también como niñez temprana y puede empezar

desde los dos años y medio y prolongarse hasta los siete. Aunque los cambios no son
tan drásticos como en las etapas anteriores, se dan cambios importantes que les
ayudan a adaptarse físicamente, a tener una mayor competencia cognoscitiva y una
relación social más compleja.
El ingreso en la vida preescolar marca la experiencia personal y el desarrollo
de los niños de entre tres y siete años. A partir de los tres años, el niño sale, casi por
primera vez, del entorno doméstico y familiar para iniciar su etapa preescolar. Para
afrontar este importante cambio necesita tomar conciencia de sí mismo; esto le dará
seguridad y una gran autoestima para enfrentarse a este nuevo desafío, tanto social
como intelectual.
En esta etapa pueden contemplarse diversas áreas de desarrollo las cuales van
generando una gran cantidad de habilidades y destrezas que se irán desarrollando a
medida que los niños van creciendo. Entre ellas podemos mencionar:
1.Área de Desarrollo Físico: Comprendía los aspectos relacionados a la forma y
configuración corporal y estado de salud del niño.
2.Área del Desarrollo Cognoscitivo: Los conocimientos de las propiedades
lógicos- matemáticos, espacio temporal y la capacidad de entender y expresar.
3.Área Desarrollo Socio Emocional: Las conductas relacionadas con el
desarrollo las expresiones y respuesta a afectivas.
4.Área Desarrollo Moral: La capacidad de razonamiento frente a situaciones
buenas o malas.
5.Área Desarrollo de Lenguaje: Comprendía la articulación, fonación, lenguaje
compresivo y en proceso de escritura y lectura.

4
 ETAPA PREESCOLAR.

La etapa preescolar se inicia alrededor de los 3 años, con el surgimiento de la

marcha y el lenguaje y se prolonga hasta los 6 o 7 años, en este periodo los niños sé
han independizado, tanto psicológica como físicamente de la madre. Se percata más
claramente de su medio externo. Se desplaza libremente, siente gran curiosidad por el
mundo que lo rodea y lo explora con entusiasmo, es autosuficiente y busca ser
independiente.
Los padres deben reconocer y tolerar esta mayor autonomía velando al mismo
tiempo por protegerlo de los peligros. El exceso de protección puede inhibir y coartar
potencialidades del niño generando sentimientos de vergüenza y humillación. Se
terminan de definir y tipificar los roles sexuales.
Las tareas principales en esta etapa son:
[Link] de habilidades neuromusculares
[Link] de la socialización
[Link] de la autonomía temprana
[Link] de la tipificación sexual
[Link] del sentimiento de iniciativa.

Áreas de Desarrollo Físico.

El desarrollo físico mejora considerablemente en esta etapa y aumenta

rápidamente durante los años preescolares sin diferencias importantes en el
crecimiento de niños y niñas. Los sistemas muscular y nervioso y la estructura ósea
están en proceso de maduración y están presentes todos los dientes de leche. Los
niños muestran progreso en la coordinación de los músculos grandes y pequeños y en
la coordinación visomotora. Podemos observar algunas características de este
desarrollo en las siguientes conductas propias del niño de 3 a 7 años:

En el desarrollo motor grueso:

[Link] habilidad para correr, saltar, hacer los primeros lanzamientos y patear
[Link] para atrapar una pelota que rebota

5
 [Link] para pedalear un triciclo a los 3 años; ser capaz de manejarlo bien a
los 4 años de edad.
[Link] de los 4 años, habilidad para saltar en un pie y balancearse luego
sobre un solo pie durante unos 5 segundos
[Link] para caminar apoyando desde el talón hasta los dedos (alrededor de
los 5 años)

En el desarrollo motor fino:

[Link] para dibujar un círculo, cuadrado, triángulo si se lo solicita

[Link] una persona con 3 partes
[Link] a utilizar tijeras de punta roma para niños y finalmente cortar en
línea recta
[Link] solo (con supervisión)
[Link] bien la cuchara y el tenedor al comer
Áreas de Desarrollo Personal-Social.
En el primer período de esta etapa, se va consolidando el sentido de
autonomía. La capacidad para expresar sus necesidades y pensamientos a través del
lenguaje les ayuda a ser más "independientes". Comienzan a diferenciarse más
claramente del mundo. El conflicto básico a esta edad es, según Erickson, el de la
iniciativa, que les permite emprender, planear y llevar a cabo sus actividades. Los
niños comienzan a jugar con pares a esta edad, pero si consideramos que su
pensamiento es muy individualista, y que tienen dificultad para distinguir entre una
acción física y la intención psicológica que hay detrás de esa acción, podemos
observar que estos juegos se producen junto a otros, no con otros. Si bien, a finales de
la etapa comienzan a establecer relaciones de amistad verdadera, las relaciones
fundamentales son con sus padres.
Los niños absorben valores y actitudes de la cultura en la que los educan. Van
viviendo un proceso de identificación con otras personas; es un aprendizaje
emocional y profundo que va más allá de la observación y la imitación de un modelo,
generalmente con el padre del mismo sexo. Se produce así en estos años, un proceso

6
de tipificación sexual en el cual los niños van aprendiendo a diferenciar entre los
géneros (masculino y femenino). Los niños son recompensados por comportamientos
apropiados y son castigados por comportamientos inapropiados. Al mismo tiempo
que el niño va aprendiendo a través de la obediencia y el castigo, aprende a evaluar de
acuerdo a las consecuencias y va formando sus primeros criterios morales.
El preescolar se mueve entre distintas fuerzas, se identifica, imita, aprende de
modelos y por otra parte busca diferenciarse, independizarse, desarrollar su
autonomía. Surge el negativismo y el oposicionismo en ésta, la edad de la
obstinación. Los niños son aún lábiles emocionalmente y su imaginación tiende a
desbocarse. Desarrollan fácilmente temores ya que es posible hayan experimentado
alguna situación de miedo como perderse, ser golpeados o recibir una herida, o bien
han escuchado contar experiencias de miedo a otras personas. Muchas veces como
método para poner límites, los padres amenazan con algún efecto negativo a sus hijos
y esto crea inseguridad al igual que cuando los padres sobreprotegen a sus hijos. A
medida que los niños crecen y pierden la sensación de ser indefensos, muchos de sus
temores van desapareciendo.
Podemos decir que las características de la conducta en este periodo son:
1.Físicamente activo.
[Link] lábil, ambivalente.
[Link], negativista.
[Link] en lo sexual.
[Link] temores en aumento.
[Link] lenguaje y la función simbólica están en desarrollo.
[Link] aprenden los hábitos de autocuidado.
[Link] consolida el sentido de autonomía.
[Link] desarrolla la iniciativa.

Áreas de Desarrollo Cognitivo.

La creciente facilidad que el niño de preescolar adquiere para manejar el lenguaje

y las ideas le permite formar su propia visión del mundo, a menudo sorprendiendo a

7
los que lo rodean. Desarrolla su capacidad para utilizar símbolos en pensamientos y
acciones, y comienza a manejar conceptos como edad, tiempo, espacio. Sin embargo,
aún no logra separar completamente lo real de lo irreal, y su lenguaje es básicamente
egocéntrico. Todavía le cuesta aceptar el punto de vista de otra persona. Piaget, quien
es uno de los estudiosos más importantes del desarrollo cognitivo, plantea que esta es
la etapa del pensamiento preoperacional, es decir, la etapa en la cual se empiezan a
utilizar los símbolos y el pensamiento se hace más flexible. La función simbólica se
manifiesta a través del lenguaje, la imitación diferida y el juego simbólico. En esta
etapa, los niños comienzan a entender identidades, funciones y algunos aspectos de
clases y relaciones, pero todo se ve limitado por el egoísmo. Las principales
características del desarrollo cognitivo en esta etapa pueden reunirse en:
[Link] de la función simbólica: es decir de la capacidad para
representarse mentalmente imágenes visuales, auditivas o cinestésicas que tienen
alguna semejanza con el objeto representativo.
[Link]ón de identidades: comprensión de que ciertas cosas siguen
siendo iguales aunque cambien de forma, tamaño o apariencia. El desarrollo y
convencimiento de esto no es definitivo pero es progresivo.
[Link]ón de funciones: El niño comienza a establecer relaciones básicas
entre dos hechos de manera general y vaga, no con absoluta precisión. Esto apunta a
que su mundo ya es más predecible y ordenado, pero aún existen características que
hacen que el pensamiento preoperacional esté desprovisto de lógica entre ellas
tenemos:
[Link]: el niño se centra en un aspecto de la situación, sin prestar atención a
la importancia de otros aspectos.
[Link]: si le preguntamos a un preescolar si tiene una hermana,
puede decir "si". Si le preguntamos si su hermana tiene un hermano dirá "no".
[Link]ón más que abstracción: el niño aprende y piensa mediante un despliegue
de "secuencias de la realidad en su mente".

8
 [Link] "transductivo": ni deductivo, ni inductivo. Pasa de un
específico a otro no específico, sin tener en cuenta lo general. Puede atribuir una
relación de causa-efecto a dos sucesos no relacionados entre si.
[Link]: un niño a esta edad se molesta con una mosca negra y grande
que zumba y le dice "mosca, ándate a tu casa con tu mamá". Piensa que otras
criaturas tienen vida y sentimientos como él y que puede obligarlos a hacer lo que él
quiere.
Entre los 3 y los 6 años, el preescolar comienza a dominar varios conceptos:
1)Tiempo: maneja cualquier día pasado como "ayer" y cualquier día futuro
como "mañana".
2)Espacio: comienza a comprender la diferencia entre "cerca" y lejos", entre
"pequeño" y "grande".
3)Comienza a relacionar objetos por serie, a clasificar objetos en categorías
lógicas.
El niño demuestra que puede percibir características específicas como olor,
forma y tamaño y comprende el concepto general de la categorización. La capacidad
verbal juega aquí un rol muy importante para que el niño pueda calificar lo que
percibe. Los preescolares recuerdan, procesan información. En general se dice que su
capacidad de reconocimiento es buena y su recuerdo es pobre pero ambos mejoran
entre los 2 y los 5 años.

Área de Desarrollo del Lenguaje.

Está referida a las habilidades que le permitirán al niño comunicarse con su

entorno y abarca tres aspectos: La capacidad comprensiva, expresiva y gestual. La
capacidad comprensiva se desarrolla desde el nacimiento ya que el niño podrá
entender ciertas palabras mucho antes de que puede pronunciar un vocablo con
sentido; por esta razón es importante hablarle constantemente, de manera articulada
relacionándolo con cada actividad que realice o para designar un objeto que
manipule, de esta manera el niño reconocerá los sonidos o palabras que escuche
asociándolos y dándoles un significado para luego imitarlos.

9
 Esta área comienza y se desarrolla con rapidez entre los 3 y 6 años de vida. En
la misma se constituye la "interiorización del habla", es decir que los elementos
verbales que el niño habla, llegan a confundirse con el pensamiento.
Psicológicamente la etapa egocéntrica favorece los soliloquios que le permita al niño
pensar con palabras.
Al principio de este desarrollo se pueden presentar las siguientes
características:
[Link], utiliza el tiempo pasado -se ha caído- los plurales, frases
interrogativas, exclamativas, y es capaz de hacer definiciones sencillas.
[Link] con frases. las palabras están separadas del sistema motor grueso y se
convierten en instrumentos para designar preceptos, conceptos, ideas y relaciones.
[Link] palabras que pronuncia también van dirigidas a él, y mientras aprende a
escuchar, escucha para aprender.
[Link] desarrolla la comunicación; explica historias, hechos que han pasado,
comprende algunos conceptos de espacio, tiempo y número (ordinales).
[Link] elaborar e improvisar preguntas interminablemente. Aún articula de
manera infantil.
[Link] verbal, tiende a complicar las respuestas, su forma de pensar es
asociativa.
Alrededor de 6 o 7 años cuando ya está culminando la etapa preescolar se
presentan nuevas características como:
[Link]á muy adelantado. Habla sin articulación infantil. Sus respuestas son más
sucintas y ajustadas a la pregunta.
[Link] solo para informarse. Sus preguntas son razonables “¿para qué sirve
esto?, ¿Cómo funciona esto?, ¿Qué quiere decir esto?, ¿Quién lo hizo?”.
[Link] pragmatista. Sus definiciones están hechas en función utilitarista. Los
cuentos de hadas excesivamente irreales lo molestan y confunden. Es serio y
empírico. Ve y escucha los detalles. Es capaz de aislar una palabra y pregunta su
significado.

10
 [Link] esencia, el lenguaje ya está completo en estructura y forma. Ha asimilado
las convecciones sintácticas y se expresa con frases correctas y terminadas.
[Link] vocabulario se ha enriquecido.
[Link] juego teatral rebosa de diálogo y comentarios prácticos relacionados con
los acontecimientos cotidianos del trabajo, la cocina, el almacén, el transporte, el
garaje. Puede dramatizar fenómenos naturales( sol, luna, lluvia, etc.) como
personajes. Mucho de lo que dice es en forma de “Monólogo colectivo”.
[Link] su mano derecha e izquierda, pero no de las demás personas.

Áreas de Desarrollo Moral

Entre el segundo y el tercer años se logra el control esfinteriano, con todo su

profundo sentido de "ofrenda" a los padres. Ofrenda que sin lugar a dudas tiene por
objetivo recibir la seguridad y el afecto imprescindibles para su desarrollo normal.
Esto es lo que Edouard Pichon consideraba la primera transacción moral de la vida.
Esta etapa es también la del negativismo, originado tanto en el perfeccionamiento
motriz, como en la independencia y el enfrentamiento con el medio parental, y su
obligada consecuencia de identificación con "el agresor". Por fin, muy poco tiempo
después, en el transcurso de la etapa preescolar, el conflicto triangular de la familia
será resuelto a través de los mecanismos de internalización.
En un principio el niño, esencialmente individualista, está incapacitado para
distinguir entre los fenómenos objetivos y los subjetivos, de forma tal que los
comportamientos sociales responden a la presencia física de los padres, quienes
imponen la ley. Cuando los padres no están, la ley desaparece, y las conductas
"asociales" del niño carecen entonces de valoración. Puede hablarse de un
conformismo plástico y de una ley encarnada. La forma pasiva de la ley lleva al niño,
que está descubriendo la persistencia de la realidad, a creer en la eternidad de las
reglas establecidas.
Entre los seis y siete años de edad, los cambios en la conducta y en el juicio
moral son muy marcados. Se abre un nuevo mundo en la valoración cuando el niño
alcanza la posibilidad de generalizar, y por tanto, de normatizar su propia vida y la

11
del medio. Otro tanto sucede cuando logra, gracias a su desarrollo cognitivo,
establecer excepciones en las reglas ya impuestas por los padres.
Luego, el infante humano emprenderá el largo camino que lo conduce al
mundo moral de su cultura, aquel en el que hasta puede llegar a convertirse en un
agente de cambio en base a su creatividad. Semejante proceso implica una serie de
mecanismos cognitivos, afectivos, sociales y hasta pulsionales.
Piaget ha señalado en los niños, una actitud de lento pero continuo cambio
hacia las reglas morales, proceso que partiendo de la creencia en la eternidad e
invariabilidad de las reglas, pasa por el descubrimiento de que las mismas son
impuestas por los adultos, y concluye en la comprensión de que en realidad son
creadas por el consenso social. Esas tres etapas también podrían ser entendidas de
otra manera: cada una de las actitudes adoptadas frente las normas morales refleja la
relación del niño con las personas de su entorno social.
En primer lugar se puede encontrar un período de respeto unilateral por las
figuras de autoridad: lo bueno y lo malo es aquello que los padres califican de cada
una de esas dos modalidades. En segundo lugar los juicios se basan en el concepto
"justicia de igualdad" apoyándose en la experiencia social. El niño al jugar con sus
pares descubre la necesidad y la conveniencia del respeto mutuo, y por lo tanto puede
decirse que la valoración ética pasa de la obligación a la cooperación, que ya no es
unilateral sino multilateral. Una tercera forma de comprender la evolución del juicio
moral consiste en descubrir la marcha que va desde una moral de compulsión hacia
una moral de cooperación, o desde la ley inmutable hacia el predominio del interés
por la gente sobre el interés por las reglas.
La educación dentro de unos valores morales es fundamental para que vuestro
hijo forme su personalidad y se relacione positivamente con su entorno social. De
este modo, aprenderá a ser justo, autónomo, libre, tolerante y comprensivo con otras
formas de pensar o con personas diferentes, de otras razas, culturas, etcétera

12
 Áreas de Estimulación

La estimulación adecuada, conocida también como estimulación temprana es

el conjunto de medios, técnicas, y actividades con base científica y aplicada en forma
sistémica y secuencial que se emplea en niños desde su nacimiento hasta los seis
años, con el objetivo de desarrollar al máximo sus capacidades cognitivas, físicas y
psíquicas, permite también, evitar estados no deseados en el desarrollo y ayudar a los
padres, con eficacia y autonomía, en el cuidado y desarrollo del infante.
Mediante ella se busca estimular al pequeño, de forma oportuna jamás de
hacerla antes de tiempo, cada aprendizaje tiene su momento, el objetivo es
proporcionarles a los niños una amplia gama de experiencias que sirvan como base
para futuros pensamientos. Al pensar también se aprende, se basa en experiencias
previas. Entonces mediante la estimulación se le proporcionarán situaciones que le
inviten al aprendizaje. La idea es abrir canales sensoriales para que el niño adquiera
mayor información del mundo que le rodea. Es sumamente importante estar al tanto
de la normalidad del desarrollo en esta etapa de evolución del niño y realizarle una
observación focalizada, para saber por dónde empezar a ofrecerle las experiencias,
centralizándose en sus áreas de desarrollo y al mismo tiempo ir estimulando la
atención, la memoria y el lenguaje.
Para favorecer el óptimo desarrollo del niño, las actividades de estimulación
se enfocan en cuatro áreas: área cognitiva, motriz, lenguaje y socioemocional.
[Link] área cognitiva: Le permitirá al niño comprender, relacionar, adaptarse a
nuevas situaciones, haciendo uso del pensamiento y la interacción directa con los
objetos y el mundo que lo rodea. Para desarrollar esta área el niño necesita de
experiencias, así el niño podrá desarrollar sus niveles de pensamiento, su capacidad
de razonar, poner atención, seguir instrucciones y reaccionar de forma rápida ante
diversas situaciones.
La estimulación oportuna para el pensamiento, debe enmarcarse en dos
corrientes o teorías: apoyar el desarrollo madurativo del niño y que el desarrollo del
pensamiento, por lo tanto la estimulación podría considerarse como un producto de
experiencias y aprendizajes. La idea es lograr cruzar ambas conjeturas, por un lado

13
respetando el nivel de madurez de cada pequeño, así como sus características
personales y, por el otro, proporcionar experiencias enriquecedoras en las áreas por
desarrollar.
2.Área Motriz: Esta área está relacionada con la habilidad para moverse y
desplazarse, permitiendo al niño tomar contacto con el mundo. También comprende
la coordinación entre lo que se ve y lo que se toca, lo que lo hace capaz de tomar los
objetos con los dedos, pintar, dibujar, hacer nudos, etc. Para desarrollar esta área es
necesario dejar al niño tocar, manipular e incluso llevarse a la boca lo que ve, permitir
que explore pero sin dejar de establecer límites frente a posibles riesgos.
3.Área de lenguaje: Está referida a las habilidades que le permitirán al niño
comunicarse con su entorno y abarca tres aspectos: La capacidad comprensiva,
expresiva y gestual. La capacidad comprensiva se desarrolla desde el nacimiento ya
que el niño podrá entender ciertas palabras mucho antes de que puede pronunciar un
vocablo con sentido; por esta razón es
importante hablarle constantemente, de manera articulada relacionándolo con cada
actividad que realice o para designar un objeto que manipule, de esta manera el niño
reconocerá los sonidos o palabras que escuche asociándolos y dándoles un significado
para luego imitarlos.
4.Área Socio-emocional: Esta área incluye las experiencias afectivas y la
socialización del niño, que le permitirá querido y seguro, capaz de relacionarse con
otros de acuerdo a normas comunes.
Para el adecuado desarrollo de esta área es primordial la participación de los
padres o cuidadores como primeros generadores de vínculos afectivos, es importante
brindarles seguridad, cuidado, atención y amor, además de servir de referencia o
ejemplo pues aprenderán cómo comportarse frente a otros, cómo relacionarse, en
conclusión, cómo ser persona en una sociedad determinada. Los valores de la familia,
el afecto y las reglas de la sociedad le permitirán al niño, poco a poco, dominar su
propia conducta, expresar sus sentimientos y ser una persona independiente y
autónoma.

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 Es fundamental que los padres, y más adelante los maestros, le brinden al niño
un ambiente rico para poder despertar sus energías ocultas. Con esto lograremos en
un futuro que los niños sean más investigadores, seguros, audaces, y capaces de ir en
busca de la satisfacción de sus propias necesidades teniendo con esto aprendizajes
significativos para ejercer con autonomía, lo cual quiere decir que el pensamiento
tenga un sentido real para ellos, dejando atrás el aprendizaje mecánico y vacío.
El juego cumple una función primordial con respecto al aprendizaje del
pensamiento infantil, independientemente de su contenido real. El proceso del juego
es una experiencia de aprendizaje poderosa en el pensamiento y multifacética. El
juego infantil implica la exploración, la experimentación con el lenguaje, el
conocimiento y el desarrollo de las aptitudes sociales. Hay que alentar a los niños a
que jueguen e investiguen, a que aprendan y avancen en su desarrollo social como
emocional, físico e intelectual.
Los niños aprenden a comportarse imitando la conducta de quienes les rodean,
por eso los padres, maestros y otras personas que cuidan los niños deben contar con
los conocimientos y las aptitudes necesarias para brindarles en la primera infancia los
mejores ámbitos de aprendizaje y de interacción; ser capaces de reconocer los
síntomas y señales que indican deficiencias en el crecimiento y desarrollo de los
preescolares. La función simbólica aparece y se demuestra en la imitación, el juego y
lenguaje simbólico, que le permite al niño representar mentalmente a las personas,
objetos y sucesos.

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 CONCLUSIÓN

Se puede concluir que en etapa preescolar, los niños van formando su

personalidad y entran en el estadio denominado personalismo. Es importante que
consoliden todo lo que han aprendido hasta el momento, así como su autonomía,
autoestima y sentido moral. Ha llegado la hora de relacionarse fuera de casa y hacer
nuevos amigos
En estos años la dependencia del niño es menor al de la etapa de latencia, pero
sin embargo, necesita de adultos que le escuchen, le den conversación y respondan a
un sinfín de dudas y cuestiones relacionadas con su nuevo entorno y su nuevo círculo
social. La familia y la escuela son el medio donde viven experiencias nuevas, prueban
y realizan actividades que les ayudan a desarrollar su iniciativa.
Los amigos son un pilar fundamental durante la primera infancia. Los niños
necesitan de compañeros de juegos que compartan sus mismas vivencias. Es el
momento de afrontar nuevos retos, como son compartir y establecer relaciones
sociales con otros niños y adultos.
Los niños en edad preescolar ponen a prueba sus limitaciones en términos de
habilidades físicas, comportamientos y expresiones de emoción y habilidades de
pensamiento. Es importante tener un ambiente seguro y estructurado dentro del cual
explorar y enfrentar nuevos retos. Sin embargo, los niños en edad preescolar
necesitan límites bien definidos, deben demostrar iniciativa, curiosidad, deseo de
explorar y gozo sin sentirse culpable.

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 BIBLIOGRAFÍA

Dr. Tango, Inc. Medline Plus información de salud para usted. Desarrollo de los
niños en la edad preescolar. Disponible en:
[Link]
(2010/09/20)

Psic. Vergara María. Desarrollo psicológico en la edad preescolar. Disponible en:

[Link]
ml (2010/09/20)

Cosas de la infancia. Estimulacion Temprana. Disponible en:

[Link] (2010/09/21)

El juego infantil. Desarrollo de la experiencia y del juicio moral. Disponible en:

[Link] (2010/09/23)

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