Mathematical thermal systems

• Description of a Thermal system

• Model of the Thermal system

Introduction
• Thermal systems are those that involve the transfer of heat from one substance to
another.
• Thermal system may be analyzed in terms of thermal resistance and thermal
capacitance although they may not be represented as lumped parameters.
• But by making some assumptions, they can be represented as distributed parameters,
which make the analysis simple.
A Thermal System

Assumptions for the system

Fluid in the tank is perfectly mixed so that it is at uniform temperature
The tank is insulated to eliminate heat loss to the surrounding air.
There is no heat storage in the insulation.
Definitions for variables of the system
θi = Steady state temperature of inflowing liquid,
θ = Steady state temperature of out-flowing liquid,
H = Steady state heat input rate from heater.
What happens when you move from steady state?
• Let ∆H be a small change in the heat input rate from its steady state value. This change
in H will result in the following changes.
– Change in heat output rate by an amount ∆H1.
– Change in heat storage rate of liquid in the tank by an amount ∆H2.
– Change in temperature of out-flowing liquid by an amount ∆θ.
Thermal Resistance
• Change in outflow heat rate is given by
∆H1 = Q Cs ∆θ
Where
Q = Steady state liquid flow rate
Cs = Specific heat of liquid
∆H1 = ∆θ/R
If R = 1/QCs which is defined as the Thermal Resistance
Thermal Capacitance
Change in heat storage rate is given by
∆H2 = MCs d∆θ/dt
Where
– M = mass of the liquid in the tank
– ∆d θ/dt = rate of rise of temperature in the tank
∆H2 = C d∆θ /dt – Where C = MCs which is defined as Thermal capacitance
Transfer function for the system
∆H= ∆H1 + ∆H2
The mathematical model of a thermal system shown in figure is
ΔH= Δθ/R + C(dΔθ )/dt
Applying Laplace transform
ΔH(s)= Δθ/R(s ) + CsΔθ(s)
= [ 1/R + Cs]Δθ(s)
= [( 1+RCs )/R ]Δθ(s)
Transfer function of the system
(Δθ(s))/(ΔH(s)) =[ R/(1+RCs) ]
•Thermal systems are simple systems like level and do not yield to complexities like pneumatic
or hydraulic systems.
Example: Two thermal resistances in series
Consider a situation in which we have an internal temperature, θi, and an ambient
temperature, θa with two resistances between them. An example of such a situation is
your body. There is a (nearly) constant internal temperature, there is a thermal
resistance between your core and your skin (at θs), and there is a thermal resistance
between the skin and ambient. We will call the resistance between the internal
temperature and the skin temperature Ris, and the temperature between skin and
ambient Rsa.
a) Draw a thermal model of the system showing all relevant quantities.
b) Draw an electrical equivalent
c) Develop a mathematical model (i.e., an energy balance).
d) Solve for the temperature of the skin if θi, =37°C, θa =9°C, Ris=0.75°/W; for a patch of
skin and R
sa= 2.25°/W for that same patch.
Solution:

a) In this case there are no thermal capacitances or heat sources, just two know
temperatures ( θi, and θa), one unknown temperature (θs), and two resistances ( Ris and Rsa.)

b) Temperatures are drawn as voltage sources. Ambient temperature is taken to be

zero (i.e., a ground "temperature), all other temperatures are measured with respect to
this temperature).
c) There is only one unknown temperature (at θs), so we need only one energy balance
(and, since there is no capacitance, we don't need the heat stored term).

d) Solving for θs

We can now solve numerically (we use 28°C for the internal temperature since it is 28°C
above ambient (37°-9°=28°)

This says that θs is 21°C above ambient. Since the ambient temperature is 9°C, the
actual skin temperature is 30°C.
FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS
What is Frequency Response?
The response of a system can be partitioned into both the transient response and the steady state
response. We can find the transient response by using Fourier integrals. The steady state
response of a system for an input sinusoidal signal is known as the frequency response.
In this chapter, we will focus only on the steady state response.
If a sinusoidal signal is applied as an input to a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system, then it
produces the steady state output, which is also a sinusoidal signal. The input and output
sinusoidal signals have the same frequency, but different amplitudes and phase angles. Let the
input signal be

Where,
• A is the amplitude of the input sinusoidal signal.
• ω0 is angular frequency of the input sinusoidal signal.
We can write, angular frequency ω0 as shown below. ω0=2πf0
Here, f0 is the frequency of the input sinusoidal signal. Similarly, you can follow the same
procedure for closed loop control system.
Frequency Domain Specifications
The frequency domain specifications are
• Resonant peak
• Resonant frequency
• Bandwidth.
Consider the transfer function of the second order closed control system as
Resonant Peak
It is the peak (maximum) value of the magnitude of T(jω). It is denoted by Mr. At u=ur, the
Magnitude of T(jω) is -

Resonant peak in frequency response corresponds to the peak overshoot in the time domain
transient response for certain values of damping ratio δδ. So, the resonant peak and peak
overshoot are correlated to each other.
BANDWIDTH
It is the range of frequencies over which, the magnitude of T(jω) drops to 70.7% from its zero
frequency value.
At ω=0, the value of u will be zero.
Substitute, u=0 in M.

Therefore, the magnitude of T(jω) is one at ω=0

At 3-dB frequency, the magnitude of T(jω) will be 70.7% of magnitude of T(jω)) at ω=0

Bandwidth ωb in the frequency response is inversely proportional to the rise time tr in the time
domain transient response.
BODE PLOTS
The Bode plot or the Bode diagram consists of two plots −
• Magnitude plot
• Phase plot
In both the plots, x-axis represents angular frequency (logarithmic scale). Whereas, yaxis
represents the magnitude (linear scale) of open loop transfer function in the magnitude plot and
the phase angle (linear scale) of the open loop transfer function in the phase plot. The
magnitude of the open loop transfer function in dB is -

The phase angle of the open loop transfer function in degrees is -

Basic of Bode Plots

The following table shows the slope, magnitude and the phase angle values of the terms present
in the open loop transfer function. This data is useful while drawing the Bode plots.
The magnitude plot is a horizontal line, which is independent of frequency. The 0 dB line itself
is the magnitude plot when the value of K is one. For the positive values of K, the horizontal
line will shift 20logK dB above the 0 dB line. For the negative values of K, the horizontal line
will shift 20logK dB below the 0 dB line. The Zero degrees line itself is the phase plot for all
the positive values of K.
Consider the open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)=s
Magnitude M=20logω dB
Phase angle =900
At ω=0.1rad/sec, the magnitude is -20 dB.
At ω=1rad/sec, the magnitude is 0 dB.
At ω=10 rad/sec, the magnitude is 20 dB.
The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.
The magnitude plot is a line, which is having a slope of 20 dB/dec. This line started at
ω=0.1rad/sec having a magnitude of -20 dB and it continues on the same slope. It is touching
0 dB line at ω=1 rad/sec. In this case, the phase plot is 900line.
Consider the open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)=1+sτ.
Magnitude
Phase angle

For , the magnitude is 0 dB and phase angle is 0 degrees.

For , he magnitude is 20logωτ dB and phase angle is 900.

The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot

The magnitude plot is having magnitude of 0 dB upto ω=1τω=1τ rad/sec. From ω=1τ rad/sec,
it is having a slope of 20 dB/dec. In this case, the phase plot is having phase angle of 0 degrees
up to ω=1τ rad/sec and from here, it is having phase angle of 900. This Bode plot is called the
asymptotic Bode plot.
As the magnitude and the phase plots are represented with straight lines, the Exact Bode plots
resemble the asymptotic Bode plots. The only difference is that the Exact Bode plots will have
simple curves instead of straight lines.
Similarly, you can draw the Bode plots for other terms of the open loop transfer function which
are given in the table.
Rules for Construction of Bode Plots
Follow these rules while constructing a Bode plot.
• Represent the open loop transfer function in the standard time constant form.
• Substitute, s=jωs=jω in the above equation.
• Find the corner frequencies and arrange them in ascending order.
• Consider the starting frequency of the Bode plot as 1/10th of the minimum corner
frequency or 0.1 rad/sec whichever is smaller value and draw the Bode plot upto 10 times
maximum corner frequency.
• Draw the magnitude plots for each term and combine these plots properly.
• Draw the phase plots for each term and combine these plots properly.
Note − The corner frequency is the frequency at which there is a change in the slope of the
magnitude plot.
Example
Consider the open loop transfer function of a closed loop control system

Stability Analysis using Bode Plots

From the Bode plots, we can say whether the control system is stable, marginally stable or
unstable based on the values of these parameters.
• Gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency
• Gain margin and phase margin
Phase Cross over Frequency
The frequency at which the phase plot is having the phase of -1800 is known as phase cross
over frequency. It is denoted by ωpc. The unit of phase cross over frequency is rad/sec.
Gain Cross over Frequency
The frequency at which the magnitude plot is having the magnitude of zero dB is known as
gain cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωgc. The unit of gain cross over frequency is rad/sec.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between the phase cross over frequency
and the gain cross over frequency is listed below.
• If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is greater than the gain cross over frequency ωgc,
then the control system is stable.
• If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is equal to the gain cross over frequency ωgc,
then the control system is marginally stable.
• If the phase cross over frequency ωpcis less than the gain crosses over frequency ωgc,
then the control system is unstable.
Gain Margin
Gain margin GMGM is equal to negative of the magnitude in dB at phase cross over frequency.
GM=20log(1Mpc)=20logMpc
Where, MpcMpc is the magnitude at phase cross over frequency. The unit of gain margin (GM)
is dB.
Phase Margin
The formula for phase margin PMPM is
PM=1800+ gc
Where, gc is the phase angle at gain cross over frequency. The unit of phase margin is degrees.

NOTE:
The stability of the control system based on the relation between gain margin and phase margin
is listed below.
• If both the gain margin GM and the phase margin PM are positive, then the control
system is stable.
• If both the gain margin GM and the phase margin PM are equal to zero, then the control
system is marginally stable.
If the gain margin GM and / or the phase margin PM are/is negative, then the control system is
unstable.
POLAR PLOTS
Polar plot is a plot which can be drawn between magnitude and phase. Here, the magnitudes
are represented by normal values only.

This graph sheet consists of concentric circles and radial lines. The concentric circles and the
radial lines represent the magnitudes and phase angles respectively. These angles are
represented by positive values in anti-clock wise direction. Similarly, we can represent angles
with negative values in clockwise direction. For example, the angle 2700 in anti-clock wise
direction is equal to the angle −900 in clockwise direction.
Rules for Drawing Polar Plots
Follow these rules for plotting the polar plots.
• Substitute, s=jω in the open loop transfer function.
• Write the expressions for magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω)
• Find the starting magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω) by substituting ω=0. So, the
polar plot starts with this magnitude and the phase angle.
• Find the ending magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω) by substituting ω=∞ So, the
polar plot ends with this magnitude and the phase angle.
• Check whether the polar plot intersects the real axis, by making the imaginary term of
G(jω)H(jω) equal to zero and find the value(s) of ω.
• Check whether the polar plot intersects the imaginary axis, by making real term of
G(jω)H(jω) equal to zero and find the value(s) of ω.
• For drawing polar plot more clearly, find the magnitude and phase of G(jω)H(jω) by
considering the other value(s) of ω.
Example
Consider the open loop transfer function of a closed loop control system.

So, the polar plot starts at (∞,−900) and ends at (0,−2700). The first and the second terms within
the brackets indicate the magnitude and phase angle respectively.
Step 3 − Based on the starting and the ending polar co-ordinates, this polar plot will intersect
the negative real axis. The phase angle corresponding to the negative real axis is −1800 or 1800.
So, by equating the phase angle of the open loop transfer function to either −1800 or 1800, we
will get the ω value as √2.
By substituting ω=√2 in the magnitude of the open loop transfer function, we will get M=0.83.
Therefore, the polar plot intersects the negative real axis when ω=√2 and the polar coordinate
is (0.83,−1800).
So, we can draw the polar plot with the above information on the polar graph sheet.
Nyquist Plots
Nyquist plots are the continuation of polar plots for finding the stability of the closed loop
control systems by varying ω from −∞ to ∞. That means, Nyquist plots are used to draw the
complete frequency response of the open loop transfer function.

Nyquist Stability Criterion

The Nyquist stability criterion works on the principle of argument. It states that if there are
P poles and Z zeros are enclosed by the ‘s’ plane closed path, then the corresponding
G(s)H(s)G(s)H(s) plane must encircle the origin P−ZP−Z times. So, we can write the number
of encirclements N as,
N=P−ZN=P−Z
• If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only poles, then the direction of the
encirclement in the G(s)H(s)G(s)H(s) plane will be opposite to the direction of the enclosed
closed path in the ‘s’ plane.
• If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only zeros, then the direction of the
encirclement in the G(s)H(s)G(s)H(s) plane will be in the same direction as that of the enclosed
closed path in the ‘s’ plane.
Let us now apply the principle of argument to the entire right half of the‘s’ plane by selecting
it as a closed path. This selected path is called the Nyquist contour.
We know that the closed loop control system is stable if all the poles of the closed loop transfer
function are in the left half of the‘s’ plane. So, the poles of the closed loop transfer function are
nothing but the roots of the characteristic equation. As the order of the characteristic equation
increases, it is difficult to find the roots. So, let us correlate these roots of the characteristic
equation as follows.
• The Poles of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the open loop
transfer function.
• The zeros of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the closed loop
transfer function.
We know that the open loop control system is stable if there is no open loop pole in the the
right half of the ‘s’ plane.
i.e.,P=0 N=−ZP=0 N=−Z
We know that the closed loop control system is stable if there is no closed loop pole in the right
half of the ‘s’ plane.
i.e.,Z=0 N=PZ=0 N=P
Nyquist stability criterion states the number of encirclements about the critical point (1+j0)
must be equal to the poles of characteristic equation, which is nothing but the poles of the open
loop transfer function in the right half of the ‘s’ plane. The shift in origin to (1+j0) gives the
characteristic equation plane.
Rules for Drawing Nyquist Plots
Follow these rules for plotting the Nyquist plots.
• Locate the poles and zeros of open loop transfer function G(s)H(s) in ‘s’ plane.
• Draw the polar plot by varying ω from zero to infinity. If pole or zero present at s = 0,
then varying ω from 0+ to infinity for drawing polar plot.
• Draw the mirror image of above polar plot for values of ω ranging from −∞ to zero (0−
if any pole or zero present at s=0).
• The number of infinite radius half circles will be equal to the number of poles or zeros
at origin. The infinite radius half circle will start at the point where the mirror image of the
polar plot ends. And this infinite radius half circle will end at the point where the polar plot
starts.
After drawing the Nyquist plot, we can find the stability of the closed loop control system using
the Nyquist stability criterion. If the critical point (-1+j0) lies outside the encirclement, then
the closed loop control system is absolutely stable.
Stability Analysis using Nyquist Plots
From the Nyquist plots, we can identify whether the control system is stable, marginally stable
or unstable based on the values of these parameters.
• Gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency
• Gain margin and phase margin
Phase Cross over Frequency
The frequency at which the Nyquist plot intersects the negative real axis (phase angle is 1800)
is known as the phase cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωpc.
Gain Cross over Frequency
The frequency at which the Nyquist plot is having the magnitude of one is known as the gain
cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωgc.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between phase cross over frequency
and gain cross over frequency is listed below.
• If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is greater than the gain cross over frequency ωgc,
then the control system is stable.
• If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is equal to the gain cross over frequency ωgc,
then the control system is marginally stable.
• If phase cross over frequency ωpc is less than gain cross over frequency ωgc, then the
control system is unstable.

Gain Margin
The gain margin GM is equal to the reciprocal of the magnitude of the Nyquist plot at the phase
cross over frequency.

Where, Mpc is the magnitude in normal scale at the phase cross over frequency.
Phase Margin
The phase margin PM is equal to the sum of 1800 and the phase angle at the gain cross over
frequency.
PM=1800+ gc
Where, gc is the phase angle at the gain cross over frequency.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between the gain margin and the phase
margin is listed below.
• If the gain margin GM is greater than one and the phase margin PM is positive, then
the control system is stable.
• If the gain margin GMs equal to one and the phase margin PM is zero degrees, then the
control system is marginally stable.
• If the gain margin GM is less than one and / or the phase margin PM is negative, then
the control system is unstable.