Map Text

Placing text on a map is called map lettering.

Importance of Text

1. Confirming the location of features

2. Reflects their character and shape
3. Indicates relationship between features
4. Symbolizes data associated with the text
5. Identifies and labels features
 6. Makes map content understandable
Nature of Typography

Type

The term type is used in two ways. It may refer to the shape of the letter image; and it may refer to the actual
piece of metal, or the photographic image, from which the printed image is derived.

Type Characteristics

Beard – the space on the shoulder between the base-line and the front of the body.

Baseline – line along which letters are arranged.

Fig. 173: Characteristics and measurements of metal used in letterpressing Type face - the part of the type
which actually prints.

Shoulder – a plane of the body. It controls the minimum space the piece of type can occupy.

Nick/notch – interrupt the front plane of the body, enabling the compositor to identify the front quickly.

a) Type Size (Point Size)

The size of type, which refers to its height as on a printed page, is commonly designated by

points. One point is about 0.35 mm.

Point size refers to the distance between the upper and lower edges of the cast metal block on which the
typeface appears. It could also be approximated by:

 the distance between the upper limit of an ascender and the lower limit of a descender or

 the normal height of the capital letters.

b) Type Forms/Faces/Styles
Typographic form refers to whether type is uppercase or lowercase, whether its stance is upright or slanted,
whether it is roman or italic, and combinations of these and similar elements.

Names requiring considerable separation of the letters are commonly limited to capitals. Hydrography,
landform, and other natural features are usually labeled in slant or italic, and cultural features identified in
upright forms.

(i). Roman

Roman type styles consist of vertical letters with small terminating lines, called serifs, at the extremities of the
main lines of the letter. These serifs may be straight, curved, tapered, squared off (slab serifs), or wedge-shaped
(Campbell, 1984).

Figure 5.24: Types of serif

(ii).Slab/square serifs

These type forms are characterized by even stroke widths and usually have unbracketed slab- like serifs.

(iii). Sans serifs (Gothic)

Figure 5.24: Sans serif

Includes all of the styles which, as the name suggests, lack serifs.

(iv). Italic

Type styles drawn on a slant are called italic.

(v).Uppercase and Lowercase

Uppercase refers to capital letters whereas lowercase refers to noncapital letters.

(vi). Boldness

Refers to the weight of the individual strokes that make up the letters, relative to the size of the letter.

(vii). Width/Set

Fig. 5.26: Variations in the boldness and width of type faces

Refers to the overall set dimension of individual letters.

c) Type Font
A font of type consists of a complete range of characters in a given style and size, consisting of capital, small
capital, and lowercase letters, and numerals, joined letters, and assorted signs that have been designed for that
style.
 d) Type Color
Refers to the value and actual hue (such as black, blue, gray, or white) of the letters relative to that of the
background on which it appears.

Fig. 22.12: Perceptibility and legibility depend on lettering-background contrast

The legibility of lettering on a map depends on the amount of visual contrast between the type and its
background. Black type on a white ground is the most readable,

Functions Of Lettering

(i). Literal symbol

The individual letters of the alphabet, when arrayed, encode sounds that are the names of the features shown
on the map.

(ii). Locative symbol

 It helps to indicate the location of points (such as cities).

 its spacing may show linear or areal extent (as of mountain ranges and national areas).
 by its arrangement with respect to the graticule, it can clearly indicate orientation. (iii). Nominal symbol
Design attributes such as upright/slant, standard/italic, serif/sans serif, and color (hue), can help cartographers
show nominal classes to which features belong e.g., blue for rivers.

(iv). Nominal symbol

By variations of size, upper/lowercase, tone, and boldness, type can also serve as an ordinal symbol, showing
hierarchy among geographical phenomena. Thus, cartographers may use type to rank features with respect to
size, importance, and so on.

Assignment

1. Illustrate the following as used in toponym: (i). serif;

(ii). slab serif:

(iii). san serif. (3 marks)

2. Explain giving examples, how each of the following variables of lettering are applied in mapping:
i). Style;

ii). Point size; iii). Spacing;

iv). Placement (20 marks)
Methods of Lettering/Text Production

1. Freehand Lettering
It is lettering by hand.

Guidelines for Freehand Lettering

1. Sit comfortably with the drawing in the most suitable position on the table.

2. Draw fine sharp guidelines for your lettering with a pencil. For lower case lettering such as b, d and f,
the guideline indicates the waist height.

FIGURE 15.13: Guidelines.

3. Always keep a piece of paper on your work on which to rest your hand; thus avoiding making the
drawing dirty.

4. To begin with always make an outline of the letters in pencil.

5. Before beginning up-right lettering it is a good idea to rule lines which are vertical to the guidelines.
This should be done at intervals so that the lull length of the words to be printed is covered. ln
slopping lettering, the same should be done with the slope lines at about 20° from the vertical at
intervals along the guidelines.

6. Space the letters so that the lettering appears even, although the actual spacing between the letters
varies. There should be a shorter distance between OO than II (round and straight letters).

7. Try and make strokes with the motion of the full arm and not with the fingers and wrist only.

8. Do not try to rule in letters with a ruling pen and straight edge when the lettering is less than 2.5cm. in
height.

Advantages

i). Curved and spaced names are as easy to produce e.g. those of rivers which will almost certainly follow
the river’s curved path

ii). No expensive equipment is required

iii). Names can be added easily to the same sheet as the line drawing
Disadvantages

i). Slow

ii). Requires much more skill than most cartographers enjoy iii). extremely difficult to learn to perfect
iv). It is difficult to achieve standard results, from the same person over time and from different
draughtsmen
 v). Very small sizes cannot be produced

vi). Most draughtsmen are capable of producing only a few, simple styles
Freehand lettering is now largely restricted to the compilation phase and the occasional special map produced
by free-lance cartographers and illustrators.

2. Mechanical Lettering (Stenciling)

Mechanical lettering devices require a special pen, which is guided either mechanically or by hand.

1. Lettering system involving perforated template or guides and a special pen (Wrico)

The pen is held in the hand and is moved around the stencil cut into the guide to form the various parts of a
word. A different guide is necessary for each size.

Wrico is the patented name of a lettering system involving perforated templates or guides and special pens.

2. Lettering system involving templates, a scriber and a special pen (Leroy Lettering)

In this system, templates are made of laminated plastic with the characters engraved in the face so that the
lines serve as guide grooves for the scriber.

The template is moved along a T- square or steel straight-edge and the scriber traces the depressed letters of
the template and reproduces them with the pen beyond the template.

A different template is necessary for each size of lettering.

Leroy is the patented name of lettering system involving the above-described device.

Advantages

1. Not much skill is needed to form an individual letter and curved and spaced names are as easy to
produce.

2. Letters are uniform

3. The equipment is fairly cheap and has a long life
4. Names can be added easily to the same sheet as the line drawing
Disadvantages
 1. The spacing and aligning of letters is difficult
2. Styles are limited to sans-serif, using constant line width
3. Small sizes cannot be produced.
4. Except for Leroy, the letters are rather 'characterless' and not attractive.
5. It is a slow system, although faster than hand lettering

3. Photo-type Setting Method

Letter characters are held in negative form around a disc (Fig. 181).

Fig. 181: A Diatype letter disc.

Individual letters are photographed from a master disk onto a white bromide paper and stripping film. These
intense black letters and hence words are then cut up and stuck down on the map drawing in the appropriate
places.

In a photo-setting machine, each face has to have a separate master disc from which each letter is
photographed. Letters when ready are waxed and mounted ready for use.

Advantages

1. Where a map contains many names, this is the fastest method.

2. It requires less manual skill than the methods mentioned so far
3. Letters and spacing are uniform
4. A wide variety of styles are available
5. It can produce smaller sizes than any of the methods mentioned so far.
6. If a name has not been placed in the best position at the first attempt, it can easily be lifted and
moved

7. A good system for producing blocks of letters.

Disadvantages
1. It requires expensive equipment and material (stripping film)
2. Dark room facilities are required
3. The equipment requires careful maintenance and regular servicing
4. There must be a constant supply of stripping film and its adhesive (wax, stripping film cement)
 5. Curved and spaced names are difficult to apply
6. Where a map has many names, these must be mounted on a separate overlay otherwise the layer(s)
of overlapping stripping films causes reproduction difficulties.

7. The edges of stripping film can collect dirt and names can fall off. Therefore a negative must be made
immediately from a names overlay and all unwanted masks opaqued out.

4. Letterpress/Relief Process
Letterpress refers to the composing of letters with inked-coated, raised relief (extruded letters) and pressing
the composed letters on paper to get an image. The method by which this is done called process engraving.

5. Pre-printed Lettering (Stick-Up Placement)

Pre-printed letters on some medium are made to adhere to the map. These letters are transferred individually
to the working surface, building up the required names. The printing is done on a thin transparent material
with adhesive at the back.

Advantages

1. Clean and dry; not much skill is required to rub down an individual letter.
2. Letters are uniform
3. A very wide variety of styles is available (the most of any system of lettering)
4. Smaller sizes are available than when using stencils.
5. Names can be added easily to the same sheet as the line drawing
Disadvantages

1. The spacing and aligning of letters is difficult

2. It is not possible to produce the very small sizes sometimes used on maps

3. For much used styles it is rather expensive, constant supply is essential

4. It is slow, about the same speed as stencil lettering

5. Some of the letters may be used more than the others depending on the language. The unused ones
will be a waste
 6. Computer-Assisted Placement

Can be automated or semi-automated.

 i). Semi-Automated Methods
Computer software give the option of entering type from a keyboard, importing digital text lists, or importing a
digital cartographic file with the location of type defined.

One can select from a variety of typefaces options, and can specify type design parameters. The cartographer
can place the type at the desired map location.

ii).Automated Methods
The computer automatically does the placement based on the cartographer’s instruction. Uses placement
programs engines such as Maplex.

General Rules for Text Positioning

1. The general rule is that straight sided letters together are spaced wider apart than round letters
together.

2. The arrangement of names in the map sheet should be regular i.e. if possible parallel to the lower rim
of the map or parallel to the parallels and meridians. If a deviation from the above is necessary, then
the names should be written below upward if in the left side of the map and from above downwards
in the right part of it.

3. Names of areas or countries should occupy about 2/3 of the length of that area.
4. The placing of the name should indicate as far as possible the characteristic shape or shape of the
area.

5. The distance between the letters of a spaced name should be visually equal.
6. Names may not cross each other unless at least one of the names is clearly spaced.
7. Place names near rivers, coasts, boundaries and other dividing linear features should, if possible, not
be written down over these features.

8. Names should be either entirely on the land or on the water.

9. Type should not be curved unless it is necessary to do so.
10. Curved lettering should never be set in a straight line, but should always have a slight
curve.

11. Names should be letter spaced as little as necessary.

12. Names should not be unnecessarily interrupted - Where the continuity of names and other map data,
such as lines and tones, conflicts with the lettering, the data, not the names, should be interrupted.

13. Names for linear features e.g., rivers should be adopted to the form/shape of the objects. The name
should be preferably placed slightly above the object.

14. The height value of a contour line is written down in a gap between the contour line or above the
contour line in such a way that the number is perpendicular to the slope.
Construction of Rectangular Grid

Grids may be plotted by machine methods or constructed by hand. The instrument or machine which is used
for plotting a grid is called a CO-ORDINATOGRAPH.

Constructing a grid by hand

The equipment needed to plot a grid by hand are:

a) A stainless-steel metre scale divided into centimetres on which at one end is a diagonal scale, so that
measurements to a 10th of a millimetre can be made.

b) A beam compass of good quality, the beam being rigid, preferably made of metal. The length required
approximately 120cm.

c) A straight-edge of suitable length made of stainless steel

d) A hard pencil sharpened to along conical point.
Size of the Grid

Before the construction of a grid can begin, its overall size must be determined. Supposing it is required to
construct a grid 30 km. East - West by 20 km. North- South at the scale of 1:50,000 the first task is to calculate
the overall size of the grid.

Map Distance (MD) Ground Distance (GD)

Scale (S ) =
∴ MD  S GD
 1 301000 100cm

50000

= 60cm

The distance East – West is 60cm while the distance North – South is 40 cm. The overall grid size is 60×40 cm.

To ensure a perfect rectangle has been constructed, diagonals must be calculated after plotting the grid. They
are calculated using the Pythagoras theorem.

c a2  b2


602  402
= 72.11 cm

Stages in the hand construction of the grid

1. Find the approximate centre of the drawing material by drawing diagonals from corner to corner using the
straight-edge and well sharpened pencil. The centre O is the point where the diagonals cross.

2. Through 'O' the centre, draw two lines at right angles to each other. The way to do this is as follows:
a) First describe arcs to cut the diagonals using the beam compass and the centre 'O'. The arcs cut the
diagonals at A, B, C and D.

b) Set the beam compass at 'A' and describe arc 'a' in the top quarter of the sheet. Without altering the
beam compass, set the point at 'B' and describe the arc 'b' so that it cuts arc 'a'

c) Carry out the same procedure from points 'C' and 'D' to form arcs 'c' and 'd'. Draw a straight line
passing through the intersections ab, O and cd.
 d) Repeat this procedure from A and D, and B and C ending up by drawing the horizontal line
passing through ad, O and bc. The two lines will cross at right angles.

e) Rub out the two diagonals etc. so that only the straight lines at 90° to each other are left.
Uses of a Rectangular Grid

(i). Aids in precisely plotting locations of places on maps

(ii). Calculation of areas when rectangular coordinates are given – using the method of
squares or area by coordinates.

(iii). Bearing and distance can computed if rectangular coordinates are given. (iv). Essential in
transferring details from one location to another

(v). Aids in location of features in a map.