CLAUSE: AN OVERVIEW

CLAUSE. A clause is a group of words that has both a subject and a predicate.
Every complete sentence is made up of at least one clause.

 Michael bought a new computer. (One sentence, one clause)

 Michael bought a new computer, but he still has the old one. (One
sentence, two clauses)
 Although he still has his old one, Michael now has a new computer. (One
sentence, two clauses)

INDEPENDENT CLAUSE. An independent clause is a group of words that

contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. An independent
clause is a sentence.

 Michael bought a new computer. (One independent clause)

 Michael bought a new computer, but he still has the old one. [Two
independent clauses (Coordinating conjunctions don't count as part of
the clause.)]
 Although he still has his old one, Michael now has a new computer.
(Only the second clause is independent.)

DEPENDENT CLAUSE. A dependent clause (or subordinate clause) is a group

of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete
thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence.

A dependent clause usually begins with a subordinating conjunction, a relative

pronoun, or some other word that causes it to become dependent. A dependent
clause will make sense only when attached to an independent clause.

 Although he still has his old one. (Although is a subordinating

conjunction.)
He still has his old one. (Without the conjunction, the clause becomes
independent.)
 Michael now has a new computer although he still has his old one.
(Combined with an independent clause, the dependent clause makes
sense.)

Dependent clauses can come after, before, or in the middle of the independent
clause.

 Michael now has a new computer although he still has his old one.
(Dependent clause after an independent clause)
  Although he still has his old one, Michael now has a new computer.
(Dependent clause before the independent clause)
 Michael, although he still has his old one, now has a new computer.
(Dependent clause inside the independent clause)

SENTENCE

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. In order to

express a complete thought, every sentence must have two basic parts; the
subject and the predicate.

A sentence is a set of words that is complete in itself, typically containing a

subject and predicate, conveying a statement, question, exclamation, or
command, and consisting of a main clause and sometimes one or more
subordinate clauses. – Oxford Dictionary

PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

The parts of the sentence are a set of terms for describing how people
construct sentences from smaller pieces. There is not a direct correspondence
between the parts of the sentence and the parts of speech -- the subject of a
sentence, for example, could be a noun, a pronoun, or even an entire phrase or
clause. Like the parts of speech, however, the parts of the sentence form part of
the basic vocabulary of grammar.

Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a predicate. The
subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about, while the predicate tells
something about the subject.

1. SUBJECT. Part of the sentence that tells what or whom the sentence is
about. The subject of a sentence is the person, place, thing or idea that is
performing the action of the sentence.

To determine the subject of a sentence, first isolate the verb and then make a
question by placing "who?" or "what?" before it -- the answer is the subject.

The audience littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled popcorn.

The verb in the above sentence is "littered." Who or what littered? The audience
did. "The audience" is the subject of the sentence. The predicate (which always
includes the verb) goes on to relate something about the subject: what about
the audience? It "littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled
popcorn."
The subject of a sentence may be:
1. A noun; as, Birds have feathers.
2. A pronoun; as, They went home.
3. A phrase; as, To see the sun is pleasant.
4. A clause; as, What he said was true.

TYPES OF SUBJECT

Simple subject (only subject): This refers to the main topic of the
sentence. The simple subject of a sentence is the main word in the
complete subject.

Compound subject: It is a subject with two or more simple subjects

joined with a conjunction. In other words, when the subject of a sentence
is made up of two or more elements, it's a compound subject.

Complete subject (subject with a modifier): This contains all of the

words that tell us whom or what a sentence is about. It contains all the
words that modify the simple subject.

2. PREDICATE. Part of the sentence that tells what the subject in the sentence
is doing. The predicate expresses action or being within the sentence. The
predicate of the sentence is the part that contains the action. It is the part
of the sentence that is not the subject, and includes all the descriptions of
the action and the objects that are affected by the action.

TYPES OF PREDICATE

Simple predicate. A simple predicate does not contain any object or

modifier; it just contains only a verb, verb string, or compound verb.

Complete predicate. The complete predicate of a sentence is everything

except the subject i.e. a complete predicate has verb, modifier, object,
adjective, adverb and conjunctions etc.

Compound Predicate. A compound predicate is a predicate that has two

verbs shared by the same object. The verbs are joined by a conjunction
and make the sentence more declarative and expressive.

Predicate Nominative. A predicate nominative is a noun which

identifies the subject and follows a linking verb as – is, was, has been,
can be etc.
 Predicate Adjective. A predicate adjective is an adjective which tells
more information about the subject of a verb. It comes after a linking
verb in a sentence.

Just focus on the fact that even really complicated sentences are divided
between the subject and the predicate.

3. OBJECT. An object in grammar is a part of a sentence, and often part of the

predicate. It refers to someone or something involved in the subject's
"performance" of the verb. It is what the verb is being done to. As an
example, the following sentence is given:

Leila wrote the poem

subject verb object

"Leila" is the subject, the doer or performer,

"wrote" is a verb that refers to the action,
"the poem" is the object involved in the action.

Transitive and intransitive verbs

A verb can be classified as transitive or intransitive according to whether it

takes or doesn't take an object.

If a verb takes objects, then it is a transitive verb.

Example:

They played soccer. → (The verb played takes ONE object 'soccer')

They sent him a postcard. → (The verb sent takes TWO objects 'him' and 'a
postcard')

If a verb doesn't take an object, then it is an intransitive verb.

Example:

She lies. → (The verb 'lies' doesn't take any object)

The building collapsed. → (The verb 'collapsed' doesn't take any object)

TYPES OF OBJECTS

There are two types of objects: direct and indirect objects:

Direct object. A direct object answers the question "what?" or "who?"

Examples:

David repaired his car → his car is the direct object of the verb repaired. ( What
did David repair?)
He invited Mary to the party → Mary is the direct object of the verb invited.
(Who did he invite?)

Indirect Object. An indirect object answers the question "to whom?", "for
whom?" An indirect object is the recipient of the direct object, or an otherwise
affected participant in the event. There must be a direct object for an indirect
object to be placed in a sentence. In other words an indirect object cannot exist
without a direct object.

Examples:

They sent him a postcard - him is the indirect object of the verb sent. (To whom
did they send a postcard?)

He bought his son a bike - his son is the indirect object of the verb bought. (For
whom did he buy a bike?)

COMPLEMENTS

A complement is any word or phrase that adds more information and

completes the sense of a subject, an object, or a verb. Complements are one of
the five major elements of clause structures in English grammar. All objects
are complements, but not vice versa.

According to the additional details provided by the complement, there are two
main types of complements in English grammar: subject complement and
object complement.

SUBJECT COMPLEMENT is a clause that adds information to the subject. It

follows a linking verb and is normally an adjective or a noun that renames or
defines the subject in some way. Usually, these sentences do not contain a
clear object, rather a subject complement.

Adjective complements are also called predicate adjectives; noun complements

are also called predicate nominatives.

Predicate nominatives effectively "rename" the subject in the sentence,

answering who they are in the form of another noun. You can also use
pronouns as predicate nominatives when describing more about the subject.
Examples:

Every morning is a gift. (Providing more information about “every morning”)

I am a writer. (Providing more information about "I")

Brenna is a gifted singer. (Providing more information about Brenna)

They were employees there. (Providing more information about "they")

The winner of the contest is her. (Providing more information about “the
winner”)

The person you’re looking for is me. (Providing more information about “the
person”)

Predicate adjectives describe or modify the subject the way an adjective

would. They identify more about the subject without renaming it. Here are
some examples of predicate adjectives:

Examples:

Mary looked frustrated. (Providing more information about Mary)

She seemed nice. (Providing more information about "she")

He appears smart. (Providing more information about "he")

The bread smells amazing. (Providing more information about “the bread”)

Shiloh is talented. (Providing more information about “Shiloh”)

We are all generous. (Providing more information about “we”)

OBJECT COMPLEMENT is a clause that adds additional information to the

direct object. Object complements can also be a noun, an adjective, a single
word, or a group of words that act like a noun or adjective.

Examples:

He makes me very sad. (Providing more information about the object "me")

A wool scarf will keep your neck warm in the winter. (Providing more
information about the object "your neck")
We appointed Barry treasurer. (Providing more information about the object
"Barry")

The gentle music rendered Janine quite drowsy. (Providing more information
about the object "Janine")

Darren found his son fast asleep under his blanket. (Providing more information
about the object "son")

THE FOUR TYPES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO FUNCTION

There are two main ways that we can categorize sentences. One is based on a
sentence's purpose or function. That's what we're looking at in this lesson. The
other way is based on a sentence's structure (simple, compound, complex, and
compound-complex).

We use different types of sentences for different purposes, and when we

categorize sentences based on their purpose, we get four types of
sentences: statements, questions, exclamations, and commands.

STATEMENTS/DECLARATIVE SENTENCES. We use them to make

statements. The fancy name for a statement is a declarative sentence.
Declarative sentences end with periods. These are the most common type of
sentence.

We own a cat. Dinosaurs lived millions This is my favorite movie.

of years ago.

QUESTIONS/INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. When we want to ask

questions, we use interrogative sentences. These sentences end with question
marks.

Where is the cat? When did the dinosaurs What is your favorite
live? movie?

Interrogative sentences are usually written in kind of a funny word order.

Usually, our sentences begin with the subject, but the word order for questions
is a bit strange. Questions often have an auxiliary verb (helping verb) or
another word before the subject.

EXCLAMATIONS/EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES. We can define exclamations,

a.k.a. exclamatory sentences, in two ways: by their function and by their form.

Exclamatory in Function Exclamatory in Form

Sentences that are exclamatory in Sentences that are exclamatory in
function make statements with form start with what or how, are not
emotion. They end with interrogative, and have a shift in the
an exclamation mark. typical word order.
I can't find the cat! What big ears you have!
The tyrannosaurus rex was huge! What big eyes you have!
I love this movie! What a terrible, big mouth you have!

COMMANDS/IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. Commands are sentences that give

commands or make requests. The fancy name for a command is an imperative
sentence.

Feed the cat. Please get me dinosaur Play the movie.

socks.

When commands are used with a noun of direct address, they're still
commands.

Bob, feed the cat. Mom, please get me Jenny, play the movie.
dinosaur socks.

THE FOUR TYPES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE

To know what type of structure a sentence has, we are actually looking on the
physical nature of a sentence and how the elements of that sentence are
presented. We are looking for how many subjects, verbs, completeness in terms
of thoughts, and combinations of these does a particular sentence has.

SIMPLE SENTENCE. A simple sentence contains only one independent clause.

Remember that an independent clause is a group of words that has both a
subject and a verb, and expresses a complete thought.

I kicked the ball.

COMPOUND SENTENCE. A compound sentence contains at least two
independent clauses. These clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction or
a semicolon. When you join two independent clauses with only a comma, it’s a
mistake called a comma splice.

A coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) is a word that glues
sentence elements (words, phrases, clauses) together that are the same.

I kicked the ball, and it hit Tom.

 “I kicked the ball” is an independent clause.

 “it hit Tom” is also an independent clause.
 “and” is a coordinating conjunction.
 “I kicked the ball, and it hit Tom” is a compound sentence.

COMPLEX SENTENCE. A complex sentence contains a subordinate clause and

an independent clause. Remember that a subordinate clause is a group of
words that has a subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought.

Subordinating conjunctions are words and phrases that connect dependent

clauses to independent clauses. They usually show a cause-and-effect
relationship or a shift in time or place.

Time-related Conjunctions after, as soon as, as long as, before, once, still,
until, when, whenever, while, every time
Concession and although, as though, even though, just as,
Comparison Conjunctions though, whereas, in contrast to
Cause Conjunctions as, because, in order that, since, so that
Condition Conjunctions even if, if, in case, provided that, unless
Place Conjunctions Where, wherever, whereas
 Tom cried because the ball hit him.

 “Tom cried” is an independent clause.

 “because the ball hit him” is a dependent clause modifying the verb
“cried.”
 “Tom cried because the ball hit him” is a complex sentence.

Relative pronouns are words that also introduce a dependent (or relative)
clause and connect it to an independent clause. A clause beginning with a
relative pronoun is poised to answer questions such as Which one? How many?
or What kind? Some examples of relative pronouns include: who, whom, which,
what, that, whose, whoever, whomever, whichever, and whatever.

COMPOUND – COMPLEX SENTENCE. A compound-complex sentence is just

what it seems like it would be. It’s basically a combination of a compound
sentence and a complex sentence. It means that these type of sentences
contain at least two independent clauses and a t least one subordinate clause.

Tom cried because the ball hit him, and I apologized immediately.
  “Tom cried” and “I apologized immediately” are both independent clauses.
 “because the ball hit him” is a dependent clause modifying the verb
“cried.”
 The whole sentence is a compound-complex sentence.

SENTENCE FRAGMENTS, RUN-ON SENTENCES, AND COMMA SPLICES

WHAT ARE SENTENCE FRAGMENTS?

Some groups of words don't have what it takes to be a complete sentence. If a

group of words is missing one of those key elements we talked about (subject,
predicate, and complete thought), it is a sentence fragment.

A sentence fragment is a group of words that does not express a complete

thought. We talk about sentence fragments in contrast to complete sentences.
A complete sentence expresses a complete thought. They are fine to use in
conversation or in informal writing, but they are a no-no when it comes to
formal writing.

When you read a sentence fragment, you are left wondering whom or what the
sentence is about or what happened in the sentence. You can change a
sentence fragment into a complete sentence by adding the missing information.

Sentence Fragment Sentence

in the butter My glasses fell in the butter!
early this morning I awoke early this morning.
running across the field I saw you running across the field.

When a group of words is missing important information, it no longer

expresses a complete thought.

FOUR REASONS WHY A GROUP OF WORDS IS A FRAGMENT

It is missing a subject. Subjects tell whom or what sentences are about.

If the subject is missing, we are left wondering who or what performed the
action.

Ran around the tree.

(Who ran around the tree?)

Will walk into the room.

(Who will walk into the room?)
Shot through the sky.
(What shot through the sky?)

We can fix each of those fragments and turn them into sentences by adding a
subject.

The dog ran around the tree.

The President will walk into the room.

A rocket shot through the sky.

It is missing a verb. Verbs tell what the subject did or is. If the verb is
missing, we are left wondering what the subject did or what the subject is.

My little sister. My cute little dog.

(My little sister did what?) (The cute little dog did or is what?)

We can fix these types of fragments by adding a verb.

My little sister ran away. My cute little dog is cuddly.

It is missing a subject and a verb. Some fragments are missing both subjects
and verbs. That means that we don't know whom the sentence is about or what
they did or are.

On the table. Over there.

Do you know how to change these from fragments into complete sentences?
You guessed it! We need to add a subject and a verb.

The corn is on the table. My doggie ran over there

It is a subordinate clause. Subordinate clauses (dependent clauses) are

groups of words that contain a subject and a verb, but they don't express
complete thoughts. If you use them alone, they are sentence fragments.

Whenever I walk the dog.

Until my little sister walks into the

room.
You can fix these kinds of fragments by connecting dependent clauses to
independent clauses. Independent clauses are groups of words that contain a
subject and a verb, and they also express complete thoughts. You can add
independent clauses before or after dependent clauses.

Whenever I walk the dog, I feel great.

Here, we added “I feel great”, an independent clause, after the dependent

clause. If you add your independent clause after the dependent clause, notice
that you need to use a comma to separate them.

I will stay here until my little sister walks into the room.

For this one, we added the independent clause “I will stay here” before the
dependent clause. When you do this, you don't need a comma between the two.

WHAT ARE RUN-ON SENTENCES?

Some groups of words have more than one of those two essential elements that
we talked about. Grammatically speaking, that can be perfectly legit. However,
you can also find yourself with a run-on sentence, and you probably want to
avoid those.

A run-on sentence is bad news, folks. It's two or more independent

clauses that are not separated with a colon, semicolon, or period.

Incorrect (Run-on): My dog is cute his name is George.

Correct: My dog is cute. His name is George.

This is a run-on because it consists of two independent clauses that are not
punctuated properly.

Independent Clause #1: My dog is cute.

Independent Clause #2: His name is George.

Both of those clauses have a subject and a verb, and they tell a complete idea.
You can't squish them both together without any punctuation. That is simply
illegal in the world of grammar.

COMMON CAUSES OF RUN-ONS

We often write run-on sentences because we sense that the sentences involved
are closely related and dividing them with a period just doesn’t seem right. We
may also write them because the parts seem too short to need any division, like
in “She loves skiing but he doesn’t.” However, “She loves skiing” and “he
doesn’t” are both independent clauses, so they need to be divided by a comma
and a coordinating conjunction—not just a coordinating conjunction by itself.

Another common cause of run-on sentences is mistaking adverbial

conjunctions for coordinating conjunctions. For example, if we were to write,
“She loved skiing, however he didn’t,” we would have produced a comma splice.
The correct sentence would be “She loved skiing; however, he didn’t.”

HOW TO FIX RUN-ONS

Before you can fix a run-on sentence, you’ll need to identify the problem. When
you write, carefully look at each part of every sentence. Are the parts
independent clauses, or are they dependent clauses or phrases? Remember,
only independent clauses can stand on their own. This also means they have to
stand on their own; they can’t run together without correct punctuation.

Let’s take a look at a few run-on sentences and their revisions:

Most of the hours I’ve earned toward my associate’s degree do not transfer,
however, I do have at least some hours the University will accept.

The opposite is true of stronger types of stainless steel they tend to be more
susceptible to rust.

Some people were highly educated professionals, others were from small villages
in underdeveloped countries.

Let’s start with the first sentence. This is a comma-splice sentence.

The adverbial conjunction however is being treated like a coordinating
conjunction. There are two easy fixes to this problem. The first is to turn the
comma before however into a period. If this feels like too hard of a stop
between ideas, you can change the comma into a semicolon instead.

Most of the hours I’ve earned toward my associate’s degree do not transfer.
However, I do have at least some hours the University will accept.

Most of the hours I’ve earned toward my associate’s degree do not transfer;
however, I do have at least some hours the University will accept.

The second sentence is a run-on as well. “The opposite is true of stronger types
of stainless steel” and “they tend to be more susceptible to rust.” are both
independent clauses. The two clauses are very closely related, and the second
clarifies the information provided in the first. The best solution is to insert a
colon between the two clauses:
The opposite is true of stronger types of stainless steel: they tend to be more
susceptible to rust.

What about the last example? Once again, we have two independent clauses.
The two clauses provide contrasting information. Adding a conjunction could
help the reader move from one kind of information to another. However, you
may want that sharp contrast. Here are two revision options:

Some people were highly educated professionals, while others were from small
villages in underdeveloped countries.

Some people were highly educated professionals. Others were from small
villages in underdeveloped countries.

WHAT IS A COMMA SPLICE?

A comma splice is a particular kind of comma mistake that happens when you
use a comma to join two independent clauses. Here’s an example:

Koala bears are not actually bears, they are marsupials.

How can you tell that’s a comma splice? Look at the group of words before the
comma.

Koala bears are not actually bears, they are marsupials.

Did you notice that this group of words can stand by itself as a complete
sentence? That means it’s an independent clause.

Now look at the group of words after the comma.

Koala bears are not actually bears, they are marsupials.

This group of words can also stand by itself as a complete sentence. It’s
another independent clause.

When you have two independent clauses, a comma is not strong enough to
glue them together.

HOW TO FIX A COMMA SPLICE

There are three common ways to fix a comma splice. Let’s look at a new
example with comma splices:
I am not angry with you, I am not happy with you, either.

Fix #1: Add a Conjunction

One way to fix a comma splice is to add a conjunction immediately after the
comma. With most comma splices, the conjunction you’ll want to add is
probably and, but, or so.

I am not angry with you, but I am not happy with you, either.

Fix #2: Change the Comma to a Semicolon

If adding a conjunction doesn’t seem to work, you can change the comma to a
semicolon instead. Unlike commas, semicolons are strong enough to glue two
independent clauses together.

I am not angry with you; I am not happy with you, either.

If you decide to use a semicolon, make sure there is a close, logical connection
between the two independent clauses.

Fix #3: Make Separate Sentences

If adding a conjunction doesn’t seem to work and using a semicolon feels too
stuffy, you can fix a comma splice by simply making each independent clause a
separate sentence.

I am not angry with you. I am not happy with you, either.