I!

I
± it it
-

is in

it title ! '

II
HISTORY OF THE ATOM : THEORIES AND MODELS

Solid Model ( John Dalton

Sphere 1803 ) →

Atoms are indivisible .

Plum
pudding Model 4904 ) → J .
J .
Thomson

scattered
e- are
throughout the cloud
of
positive charge
.

Nuclear loNdel ( 1911 ) → Ernest Rutherford

Positive concentrated at (
charge is center nucleus )
and most part
rest
of empty
the is .

Planetary Model 119133 → Neils Bohr

Energy of e- is quantized ,
electrons can
only
be in levels
present energy
.

Quantum Model ( ) Erwin

1926
Schrodinger
→

It is impossible to
find exact location
of e- .

Electrons to
are most
likely
be
found
in space called as orbitals .
 STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

Atoms consist electrons protons and neutrons

of ,
.

Protons and neutrons are present at nucleus .

Electrons are outside the maidens .

The atoms
of different elements
differ in
the number elections protons and
of ,

neutrons

To Election Proton Neutron

pesty
I
Discovery
J J Thomson E Goldstein James Chadwick
' . .

2.
Symbol e
f n

3 .
Nature
negative positive neutral

4. Relative I I 0
charge
- +

'
" 'S
5. Absolute 1602×10 C 1.602×15 C
change
O

6- Relative Mass I I I
1837

1.6725×10-24
"
Absolute Mass 1.6748×10-2
7 .
9.109×10
-26g g g
REPRESENTATION OF AN ELEMENT

:L
E¥:
A where

X X
symbol of element
=

2 -
: in
et
eg
:
If A 39 and 2=19
find Ci )
of Iii )
of
- -
-
no e no
p
.
.

I proton Civ ) nucleons

no
of no
of
.
.
.

19
¥ of of protons
2=19 no 2
-

: no .
e = . = =

A 39
of
no .
neutrons = -

2 = -
Ig =
20

nucleons
of A 39
no =
mtp
. = =

Symbol of elements :

Ouygen
→
using first letter
of
name
of element :

Hydrogen
→ H
Nitrogen → N
Phosphorous → P

Fluorine → F Boson → B → O

using first and second letter

of element
→

of
name :

Beri liam → Be Lithium → Li Helium→ He

using first and third letter

of of element
→ :
name

→ zu Chromiumzinc → Cr Chlorine → U

letters
latin
of
→
Using
name :
-

Ison → Ferrum → Fe .

Gold
Argentum Aurum Au
→
→ .

Silver
Ag
→ → .
 ISOTOPES Atoms
:
of an element which have same

atomic number but different mass number .

has 3 isotopes Protium ( in )

egg Hydrogen
: -
:

Deuterium ( TH )
tritium 1,341

ISOBARS Atoms
of different elements
having same

but
mass no .

different atomic no .

YEAR and isobars

efi are
-
a .

ISOTONE Atoms neutrons but

having of
:
's same no .

'
different mass
'
no .

36C and YN isotone

efi
-
are

}
'
for C
,
no .

of neutrons =
13-6=7

for YN neutrons
no
of 14-7=7
. =
,

ISOELECTRONIC Species electrons

having same
of
no .

U
-

Az let Cat
¥ 18 18 electrons
of
18 18 ← no .
.

ISODIAPHERS Species having of

: same no .
excess

neutrons
,
which is
difference between
neutron C ) and proton Cp)
of
no .

of n no .
.

"

egi
ago Th and 2382kt are
isodiaphezs .

goth
"
for
}
(n (144-90)
→
p) 54
- = =
,
Same
for 238,4 (
→ C n
p,
=
146 gz ) Sy
-
- =

,
 Orbitals : An orbital is defined as the
zone
in the

electron
space
where is most
likely
to be
found .

Sub shells : set

of particular orbitals

Shells : set
of particular subshells .
shells are

also known orbits levels

as or
Energy .

Atoms → Shells → Sub Orbitals

shells →

Orbitals are
represented by set of 3
quantum No .

1 .

Principle quantum no .
Cn )
2 .

Azimuthal quantum no . Ll )
3 .

Magnetic quantum no .
( m ?

One more
quantum number is required to

categorise -
the
spin of
e- :

4 .

Spin quantum no .
c s )
 THEORY O QUANTUM NUMBERS

PRINCIPLE QUANTUM NUMBER ( n )

symbolised by
' '
It is n .

Permissible values
of
'
n
'
are
from ( L to a ) .

L
th
(n =L ) ⇒ K shell m

th
⇒ L
( n 2) shell K
-
-

Mth
"

( n =3 ) ⇒ shell = i

4=2

h =3
'
.

It distance orbital from

gives an idea
of of nucleus .

T shell T
value
of n distance
of from nucleus .

orbital
It
gives an idea
of energy of electron present in
of
a shell .

T distance T orbital T
n
from nucleus
energy of
in
-

e .

Coulombs force of

present
attraction between
positively
is

nucleus
.

charged and
negatively charged
electron
,

with of n!
'

the increase increase

energy
so

Maximum shell ( )
of
shells
sub in
given h h
no .
a =

Maximum orbitals shell ( ) 42

of given
no .
in a n =

Maximum Shell ( )
of
electron
'
in 2n
given
no . a n =
A do
of increases with
Why e- increase
energy
-

distance orbital ?
in
of from nucleus

SOI
k9j9I
k9jI=
:
f =
& PE .
= -

- f . V

q , 92
t F is positive RE
negative
+
is
-
-
⇒
Repulsive force
-

F is
- +
negative RE is
positive
⇒ Attractive force

In case
of attractive force :

: one [& nucleus tone ]

-

e → →

distance
from
→ as Ir ) nucleus T

force attraction I
of on e-

orbital
Energy of e- in an T
+ re
I
Energy required
to remove e- .

[Link]

f
.

-
HE
L .
) AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM NUMBER ( l ) :

Subsdianylttngularlsecondaoy quantum number .

Symbol used
for
' '

it is l .

depends
'
' '
Permissible values l l (n
'

to
of on n : → o i
)
-

Representation :

Value Notation Name

Shape
1=0 s sharp I
e-
-
I
p principal
spherical\
Dumbed

e- -
2 d
diffused Double Dumbed

}
fundamental Triple Dumbed
e- 3 f
-

b- 4
g
. .
. . . . . .

f- 5 h
- - - -
- -
. -

f- G i
.
-
- . . . .
-

i : : :

and
gives information of
It also distance
energy
orbital
of e-
of an
of
a sub shell .

for particular value

a
of n : -

T
Ci ) e T distance
from nucleus .

dit et T distance T
energy
as
.

and
energy distance
from nucleus :
scpcdcf . - - -

Maximum

subshell
orbitals ( )
of
in h = Let I

siebshell
no .
a

Maximum ( ) 212 D
of
no .
electron in a n = et
 Subshell of
¥
i Shell no
of orbitals no e- Total
of Total
of
-

.
.
no .
no .

=
In ) = o toy y-

inasubshell in a sub shell orbitals in electrons in

'
( Lett ) shell Shell
'
I=Lsett ) 2h
-

= n a
-

a
-
-

h =L b- O ( 25 ) (2×0+1)=1 2×1=2 22=4 2122 ) = 8

let Xp ) (2×1+1)=3 2×3=6 or C 1+3 ) or

(2+6)=8

M =3 f- O ( 3D (2×0+1)=1 2×1=2 32=9 2132 ) =

18

f- I L3p) (2×11-1)=3 2×3=6 or (1+3+5) Or (2+6+10)

1=2 C 3d ) (2×2+1)=5 2×5=10

n=4 b- O ( 4S ) (2×0+1)=1 2×1

=
2 42=16 21423=32
f- I kelp) ( ) (
1=214 2×3=6
2x
2×5=10
Iti 3

2×7=14 (2++6,40)
=3 or It or

d) (2×2+1)=5
tst
)
f- 3
4f) (2×3+1)=7

M - I

Atone
: sum
of first n odd numbers =
E C Lett ) = m2
f- O

¥ sum
of e-
of
=
all

2 t
the

6 t
subshells
10 t 14 t 18
of
t .
a

- -
shell :

- -

2 ( 3+5 t 9 t
)
=
It 7 t . - - - .

( Sum odd 's )

of
=
2 no .

e-D'
)
2
-
-

=
2 m2
=
Total no
-

in shell
of
.
e a
3) MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER ( m or
Me
) :
' ' ' '

Symbolised by m or
me .

' '

Permissible
'

of
'

values m
depends on l ,
m → e)
C- to He )

Representation

213
m = o Css ) → Ix s - orbital -

-1213dm
m =
-

I 131pm)

S -
1=0
Sub
C 35

Shell
) m = o (
3py ) }3 xp -
orbitals

in = tl (31oz )
l I
=3 Csp )
-

n
day )
-

m
-
=

shell to sub shell

13
-

m = -
I dyz )
b- 2 d) m = o Gaza , tfdorbitals
d- Sub shell in = -11 ( 3dL )
m = )
yz
.

orbitals value and l but

The
having
same
of n

different have
value
of us
,
same
energy
in

and
magnetic feild
absence external electric
of .

These orbitals known

having
same
energy
are

as DEGENERATED ORBITALS .

to shell has orbitals with

¥
:
.

sub 3 same
energy
-

subshell =3
⇒
degeneracy of p
-

⇒ fo sub shell is 3 -

fold degenerated .

⇒ of orbitals in sub shell =3

no
degenerated p
-

'

determines shift
'
orbital
in the in
energy of an

in the presence
of external
magnetic field ,

this is known as Zeeman

effect .

orientation orbitals
determines
of
Hence it .
 SHAPES OF ORBITALS : -

i) s - subs hell C l
-

- o )

s - orbital ( m = o )

1.
Y "
→ It is spherical in
shape
→ electron
density
is
uniformly
distributed a sound nucleus .

.
→ Non directional in nature .

"

→ No Nodal plane .

→
geared ( symmetrical ) .

) p hell

Clea
met
D
ii - subs

No
of nodal
planes
→ .
=L

→
Directional
→

angered ( unsymmetrical )
Axial present along axis
→

density
⇒ is
-

e .

orbital ( p orbital ( O ) orbital ( )

p p
m
-
- m = - - -
-

u
y 2

y a Y z
y a

f)
- -
- .

i :

&
'

"
a n
a

I
.

,
. .
.

Nodal
plane Nodal plane =y2
U2 Nodal Plane
-

my
-

=
.
 d-
) hell

2)
subs

l=2
ii C )

No
of nodal
planes

=L
→ .

→
Directional
→
aered I symmetrical )
tag ( dug
axial
dye den )
→
, ,
are .

C dzz dxz axial

yr )
non
eg are
-

-
,

day orbital ( orbital ( I ) dai orbital ( m

-
o
)
dye
-
m = -
m = - -

y y I

f
a

aka
Nodal

planes
Nodal planes Nodal

Planes
=
= =

&
yah z u

ng
& an
my ya

dzz
-

orbital ( m =
+1
) dm -

orbital ( m = -12
)
ya
.

Y a y

0¥
- -
a
-

,
;
'
'
'
'

. are at

450 to
handy
2 nodal cones Nodal planes
=

A ,
2 & Azz
Nodal cones
 de is contribution dzz
formed by of [Link]
&
. ur

dzz ut d 22 di
- -

yr

shell spherical which consist

fo sub is a zone
of
-

three dumbed shaped p orbitals pal

C
pm by
-

,
.

the Pa
Py

f -
sub shell

th
pg

Pa
 4

shell

also
fo -
sub is a
spherical zone which consist
bell shaped orbitals
of five double deem C
day , dyz ,

dan ,
due -

yr
and dzz ) .

dat -

y2

day dyz

I 22

In 2

tag eg

d -
sub shell
4.) SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER ( s or Ms ) :

Symbolised by Ms or S .

Deals spin of its axis

'

with the
-

e on
own .

It is an
arbitrary constant
,
not from

Schrodinger
's equation .

Representation
Cloak wise

Anticlockwise
S = t I
2
s = -
I
2

T t

⇐ do electrons in orbital have ?

Why
an
opposite spin

And - A
moving charged particle posses a
magneticdue
has
field so also
magnetic field
-

.
an e

to it spin .

electrons with
when
opposite spins are

put together , zerothe net

magnetic field is as

positive and
negative magnetic field due to

positive and negative electron spin respectively

cancelseach
out other .
 YI
)

1.6
Pd
day )
" I
(
m
3
=
M= -2
-

m=

) )

epa
m=o
is

Had
Glad
§du2
) )

(3dz4
Py )
dye
m
-
-
o m
-
-
- I

M=O(
Coded
n=2(
m=oKPy
m=o(2S
orbitals
, m=o
m⇒ , me

Mitt .

m= -12

,
zpl 2kg 312

3pm
Hon
Subshells
3kg

f- of is ) l=0(2s ) b- ) b- 0135 ) f- I fo ) 1=2 d)

,

3d
2B
3p
IS 25
35

Shells

n
-
-
I ) L ) CK n =3 ( M )
M

k
Atom
POINTS To REMEMBER : -

of
shell orbital
→
size
→
n .

shell
l sub
shape of orbital
→ → .

orbital orbital
orientation
of
m → → .

spin electron
of
s → .

No .

of angular nodes in an orbital =L

No lobes in orbital Le
of
=
.
an

Orbital
angular Momentum = e Ceti )
/h⇒

slsnti
spin angular Momentum )
/ ÷) f-z ]
=

-
I (h⇒
=