Chapter 7 - Input / Output

Luis Tarrataca
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Table of Contents I
1 Motivation
2 Generic I/O Module
3 Generic Peripheral Device

4 I/O Modules

Module Function
Control and Timing

Processor Communication

Device communication

Data buffering

Error detection

I/O Module structure

Programmed I/O
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Table of Contents II
I/O Commands

Interrupt-Driven I/O
Interrupt Processing

Interruption-based design issues

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Table of Contents I

5 DMA Module

6 Where to focus your study

7 References

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 Motivation

Motivation

Computers need the ability to communicate with I/O sources:

• Input: keyboard, mouse, etc.
• Output: monitor, printer, etc.
• Different devices have different requirements:
• Peripheral logic;
• Peripheral speed;
• Peripheral data protocol.

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 Generic I/O Module

Generic I/O Module

How can we perform this type of communication between processor and

external devices?

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 Generic I/O Module

How can we perform this type of communication between processor and

external devices?

Why not connect the peripherals directly to the bus? Any ideas?

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 Generic I/O Module

Why not connect the peripherals directly to the bus? Any ideas?

Reason 1: There are a wide variety of peripherals:

• Each with its method of operation;
• Impractical to incorporate diverse set of logic within the processor;

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 Generic I/O Module

Why not connect the peripherals directly to the bus? Any ideas?

Reason 2: Data transfer rates:

• Peripherals often operate much slower than processor speed or memory.
• Impractical to use the high-speed system bus to communicate directly;

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 Generic I/O Module

Why not connect the peripherals directly to the bus? Any ideas?

Reason 3: Data transfer rates:

• On the other hand:
• transfer rate may also be faster than that of the memory/processor;
• mismatch would lead to inefficiencies if not managed properly.

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 Generic I/O Module

Why not connect the peripherals directly to the bus? Any ideas?

Reason 4: Data formats:

• Peripherals often use different communication protocol:
• data format not necessarily the same as the computer;
• word length not necessarily the same as the computer;

• The processor would have to convert these back-and-forth...

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 Generic I/O Module

Succinctly:
• Processor speed is usually faster than peripherals:
• No need to slow down the processor to do interaction with I/O sources!

What can be done to solve this problem? Any ideas?

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 Generic I/O Module

What can be done to solve this problem? Any ideas?

Create a separate entity responsible for managing I/O sources:

• Manage the communication with the peripherals;
• Store the data input / output from and to peripherals;
• Detect errors.
This is known as the I/O module

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 Generic I/O Module

Generic I/O Module

An I/O module is required:

Address Lines

µP Data Lines
Control Lines

I/O Module

Links to peripheral devices

Figure: Generic Model of an I/O Module. (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

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 Generic Peripheral Device

Generic Peripheral Device

There is a wide assortment of external I/O devices:

• Means of exchanging data between environment and computer;
• External devices attaches to the computer by a link to an I/O module:
• link is used to exchange control, status, and data;

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 Generic Peripheral Device

We can broadly classify external devices into three categories:

• Human readable: Suitable for communicating with the computer user:
• E.g.: video display terminals and printers.

• Machine readable: Suitable for communicating with equipment

• E.g.: magnetic disks, tape systems, sensors and actuators

• Communication: Suitable for communicating with remote devices:

• E.g.: wifi, modem

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 Generic Peripheral Device

What do you think are the main components of an external device? Any
ideas?

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 Generic Peripheral Device

In very general terms:

Figure: Block Diagram of an External Device. (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

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 Generic Peripheral Device

Control Signals:
• To determine the function the device will perform, e.g.:
• Send data to the I/O module;
• Accept data from the I/O module;
• Report status;
• Perform function particular to the device (e.g.: position a disk head)

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 Generic Peripheral Device

Data signals:
• Set of bits to be sent to or received from the I/O module;
Status signals:
• To indicate the state of the device, e.g.:
• READY/NOT-READY to show whether the device is ready for data transfer

Control logic:
• Controls the device in response to direction from the I/O module;

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 Generic Peripheral Device

Transducer:
• Converts data:
• From electrical to other forms of energy during output;
• And from other forms to electrical during input

Buffer:
• To hold data.

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 I/O Modules Module Function

Module Function

Major functions of an I/O module fall into the following categories:

• Control and timing;
• Processor communication;
• Device communication;
• Data buffering;
• Error correction.

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 I/O Modules Module Function

Control and Timing (1/4)

At any time the processor:

• May communicate with external devices in unpredictable patterns;
• This depends on the program’s need for I/O;
This means that:
• Main memory and the system bus must be shared with the I/O function.
• Thus, the I/O function includes a control and timing requirement:
• Coordinates flow of traffic between resources;

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 I/O Modules Module Function

Control and Timing (2/4)

What do you think are the sequence of steps required for the processor
to interact with the I/O module? Any ideas?

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 I/O Modules Module Function

Control and Timing (3/4)

Interaction example between processor and I/O module:

1 Processor interrogates the I/O module to check device status;

2 I/O module returns the device status.

3 If the device is operational and ready to transmit:

• Processor requests data transfer to I/O module;
• I/O module issues a data transfer command to device ;

4 I/O module obtains data from device.

5 Data are transferred from the I/O module to the processor.

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 I/O Modules Module Function

Control and Timing (4/4)

Each one of these interactions between processor and I/O module:

• involves one or more bus arbitrations

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 I/O Modules Module Function

Preceding example illustrated that:

• I/O module must communicate with the processor and external device

What are the steps required to perform such a communication? Any

ideas?

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 I/O Modules Module Function

Processor Communication

Processor communication involves the following (1/3):

• Command decoding:
• I/O module accepts commands from processor:
• Control bus signals

• E.g.: I/O module commands for a disk drive:

• READ SECTOR;
• WRITE SECTOR;
• SEEK track number;
• SCAN sector ID.

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 I/O Modules Module Function

Processor Communication

Processor communication involves the following (2/3):

• Data:
• Exchanged between the processor and the I/O module (data bus).

• Status reporting:
• Important to know the status of the I/O module;
• E.g.:
• Processor asks to read data from I/O module;
• But I/O module may not be ready;
• This happens because it may still be working on previous I/O command;
• This needs to be reported with a status signal;

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 I/O Modules Module Function

Processor Communication

Processor communication involves the following (3/3):

• Address recognition:
• Recall that each word of memory has an address;
• The same is valid for each I/O device;
• I/O module has one unique address for each peripheral it controls
Remember from the laboratory?
• Memory address for screen (FFFEh);
• Memory address for keyboard (FFFFh);
• Memory address for timer (FFF7h);

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 I/O Modules Module Function

Device communication
I/O module must be able to perform device communication, involving:

• Commands;

• Status information;

• Data

Figure: Block Diagram of an External Device. (Source:

[Stallings, 2015])
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 I/O Modules Module Function

Data buffering (1/4)

An essential task of an I/O module is data buffering:

• High transfer rate between main memory and processor;
• Whereas the rate is orders of magnitude lower for external devices.

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 I/O Modules Module Function

Data buffering (2/4)

Main memory data are sent to an I/O module in a rapid burst:

• Data are buffered in the I/O module;
• Then sent to peripheral device at a data rate it can sustain;

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 I/O Modules Module Function

Data buffering (3/4)

In the opposite direction (I/O module to main memory):

• Data are buffered from peripheral;
• This is done so as not to tie up the memory in a slow transfer operation.

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 I/O Modules Module Function

Data buffering (4/4)

If the I/O device operates at a rate higher than the memory access rate:
• I/O module performs the needed buffering operation.

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 I/O Modules Module Function

Error detection

I/O module is often responsible for error detection and reporting, e.g.:
• Mechanical and electrical malfunctions reported by the device:
• E.g.: paper jam, bad disk track

• Unintentional bit changes during device transmission:

• Remember error detection and correction? (Chapter 5)

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 I/O Modules I/O Module structure

I/O Module structure

Lets take a closer look at a generic I/O module.

Figure: Block Diagram of an of an I/O Module. (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

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 I/O Modules I/O Module structure

Organization of a generic I/O module (1/2):

• Module connects to computer through a set of signal lines;
• Data transferred to and from the module are buffered in data registers.
• Status registers provide status information:
• Also function as control registers, to accept processor control info;

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 I/O Modules I/O Module structure

Organization of a generic I/O module (2/2):

• Logic within the module interacts with the processor via control lines:
• Processor uses the control lines to issue commands to the I/O module;
• Some of the control lines may be used by the I/O module
• E.g. arbitration and status signals;

• Module must also be able to recognize and generate addresses:

• for each device it controls

• I/O module contains logic specific for a set of interfaces;

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 I/O Modules I/O Module structure

I/O module allows processor to view peripherals in a simple way:

• Presents a high-level interface to the processor;
• Taking most of the I/O processing burden away from the processor;
• Also called an I/O processor =)

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 I/O Modules I/O Module structure

Now that we have an idea of the main components...

How can we manage the communication between the µP and the I/O
module?

• Any ideas?

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 I/O Modules I/O Module structure

Essentially, there are three techniques are possible for I/O operations:

Figure: I/O Techniques (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

Lets have a look at each one of these =)

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 I/O Modules Programmed I/O

Programmed I/O

Data are exchanged between the processor and the I/O module:

1 Processor executes program controlling I/O operation;

• E.g.: sensing device status, read/write command, data transfer.

2 Once the processor issues a command to the I/O module:

• Processor must wait until the I/O operation is complete;

3 If the processor is faster than the I/O module:

• Wasteful of processor time =’(

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 I/O Modules Programmed I/O

I/O Commands

To execute an I/O-related instruction:

• Processor issues an address:
• Specifying the particular I/O module and external device;

• An I/O command which can be of the following type:

• Control, Test, Read and Write

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 I/O Modules Programmed I/O

I/O commands the processor can issue are of the following type (1/2):
• Control: Used to activate a peripheral and tell it what to do:
• E.g.: Rewind magnetic-tape; move to HD track;

• Test: test I/O module and its peripherals. E.g.:

• Is the peripheral powered on?
• Is the peripheral available for use?
• Has the most recent I/O operation completed? Did any errors occur?

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 I/O Modules Programmed I/O

I/O commands the processor can issue are of the following type (2/2):
• Read: I/O module obtains a data item from the peripheral:
• Placing the data in an internal buffer;
• Processor requests I/O module to place data on bus;

• Write: I/O module writes a data item to the peripheral:

• I/O module reads data from bus;
• I/O module transmits data to peripheral;

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 I/O Modules Programmed I/O

In flowchart form:

Figure: Programmed I/O technique for input of a block of data (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

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 I/O Modules Programmed I/O

Can you characterize the system from an efficiency perspective?

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 I/O Modules Programmed I/O

Very wasteful! Recall that:

• Processor issues a command to the I/O module:
• then waits for I/O operation to complete.
• While waiting, processor repeatedly interrogates status of I/O module.

• If processor is faster than I/O module: wasteful of processor time.

Is it possible to do any better?

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 I/O Modules Interrupt-Driven I/O

Interrupt-Driven I/O

What is the ideal scenario for processor performance?

• Do not wait for I/O module;
• Instead, continue processing other tasks;
• And be notified when I/O module has something for processor;

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 I/O Modules Interrupt-Driven I/O

This is the concept of interruption, I.e.:

1 Ask for something from the I/O module;

2 Continue processing without waiting for the I/O module;

3 Be interrupted when the I/O module has something ready.

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 I/O Modules Interrupt-Driven I/O

From the point of view of the I/O module:

4 Module waits for processor to request data:

5 When request is made:

• When possible: module interacts with peripheral;
• Once the data is completely buffered;
• data are place on data bus;

6 An interrupt signal is sent to the processor over a control line;

7 Module becomes available for another I/O operation.

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 I/O Modules Interrupt-Driven I/O

From the point of view of the processor (1/2):

1 A READ command is issued to I/O module;

2 Processor goes off to do something else;

3 Processor checks for interrupts at the end of each instruction cycle;

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 I/O Modules Interrupt-Driven I/O

From the point of view of the processor (2/2):

4 When the interrupt from the I/O module occurs:

• processor saves program context;
• processor proceeds to read data from I/O module
• processor stores data in memry;

5 Processor then restores previous program context;

6 Processes resumes execution of previous program

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 I/O Modules Interrupt-Driven I/O

In flowchart form:

Figure: Interrupt-driven I/O (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

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 I/O Modules Interrupt-Driven I/O

Interrupt Processing

Lets take a closer look at the interruption-based strategy.

• Interruption triggers a number of events
• Processor, hardware and software.

• Automatically, we can pose a series of questions:

• What happens to the program that is executing?
• What happens to the processor?
• How is the interruption processed?

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 I/O Modules Interrupt-Driven I/O

Figure: Simple Interrupt Processing (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

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 I/O Modules Interrupt-Driven I/O

When an I/O device completes an I/O operation (1/4):

1 Device issues an interrupt signal to the processor.

2 Processor finishes execution of the current instruction

• before responding to the interrupt;

3 Processor tests for an interrupt:

• determines if there is one;
• if one exists, sends an acknowledgement signal to peripheral;
• acknowledgment allows the device to remove its interrupt signal.

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 I/O Modules Interrupt-Driven I/O

When an I/O device completes an I/O operation (2/4):

4 Processor needs to transfer control to the interrupt routine;

• This is done by saving the program context:
• processor status word;
• program counter;

5 Processor then loads the program counter associated with the

interrupt-handling routine.

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 I/O Modules Interrupt-Driven I/O

When an I/O device completes an I/O operation (3/4):

6 Interruption routine may use the registers:

• This means that these registers need to be saved;
• Remember Push and Pops from the laboratory?

7 Typically, the interrupt handler will begin by saving all registers on the stack;

8 Interrupt handler next processes the interrupt

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 I/O Modules Interrupt-Driven I/O

When an I/O device completes an I/O operation (4/4):

9 When interrupt processing is complete:

• the saved registers need to retrieved from the stack and restored;

10 Final act is to restore the PSW and program counter

• Next instruction to be executed will be from the previously interrupted
program.

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 I/O Modules Interrupt-Driven I/O

Recall the instruction cycle:

Figure: Instruction Cycle State Diagram (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

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 I/O Modules Interrupt-Driven I/O

Interruption-based design issues

Almost invariably there will be multiple I/O modules...

How does the processor determine which device issued the interrupt?

If multiple interrupts have occurred, how does the processor decide which
one to process?

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 I/O Modules Interrupt-Driven I/O

How does the processor determine which device issued the interrupt?

• Multiple interrupt lines:

• Impractical to dedicate more than a few bus lines to interrupt lines;
• Low number of interruption lines still means that we have to multiplex them.

• Software poll:
• Processors calls an interrupt routine that polls each I/O module.
• The I/O module responds positively if it set the interrupt.
• Disadvantage: time consuming!

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 I/O Modules Interrupt-Driven I/O

How does the processor determine which device issued the interrupt?

• Daisy chain method:

• All I/O modules share a common interrupt request line;
• When an interruption is detected an interrupt acknowledge (ACK) is sent;
• ACK goes through the I/O modules until it gets to the requesting module;
• Requesting module responds by placing a word on the data lines;
• Word is either:
• Address of the I/O module or;
• Address of an adequate interruption handling technique.

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 I/O Modules Interrupt-Driven I/O

If multiple interrupts have occurred, how does the processor decide which
one to process?

• Multiple interrupt lines

• Each line can have a predetermined priority;
• Just choose the highest priority interrupt line.

• Software polling / Daisy chain:

• The order with each the modules are polled determines the priority.

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 I/O Modules Interrupt-Driven I/O

Interruption-based model is computationally more efficient, however:

• Processor has a ‘‘test and service a device’’ rate:
• This limits the I/O transfer rate...
• And accessing main memory is expensive...

• Processor is tied up in managing an I/O transfer:

• A number of instructions must be executed for each I/O transfer
• This time could be spent doing something more useful: real processing!

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 I/O Modules Interrupt-Driven I/O

Interrupt I/O is more efficient than programmed I/O:

• Eliminates needless waiting...

Despite the improvement, can you see any potential upgrade that can
be performed with interrupt I/O?

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 I/O Modules Interrupt-Driven I/O

Despite the improvement, can you see any potential upgrade that can
be performed with interrupt I/O?

Interrupt I/O still consumes a lot of processor time:

• Data is exchanged between memory and I/O module...
• But this exchange still needs to go through the processor....
• Processor spends time transferring data
• while it could be doing something more useful..

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 DMA Module

DMA module

Idea: Copy data directly to memory, bypassing processor:

• Memory accesses are performed by DMA module;
• Unburdens the processor;
• Combine with interruption scheme for optimum efficiency.
This strategy is called Direct Memory Access (DMA)

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 DMA Module

DMA involves an additional module on the system bus:

Figure: Typical DMA block diagram (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

• Uses the bus only when the processor does not need to or...
• ...Forces the processor to suspend bus operations temporarily;
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 DMA Module

Processor issues a command to the DMA module:

• Command contains (1/2):
• Whether a read or write is requested:
• transmitted over the bus control lines;

• Address of the I/O device involved

• transmitted over the bus data lines;

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 DMA Module

Processor issues a command to the DMA module:

• Command contains (2/2):
• Starting location in memory to read from or write to:
• communicated on the data lines and...
• stored by the DMA module in its address register;

• Number of words to be read or written:

• communicated via the data lines and stored in the data count register;

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 DMA Module

Processor then continues with other work, i.e.:

• I/O operation delegated to DMA module;

• DMA module transfers block of data:

• bypassing the processor;

• When the transfer is complete:

• DMA module sends interrupt signal;

• Processor is involved only at:

Figure: DMA-driven I/O (Source: [Stallings, 2015])
• beginning of transfer;

• end of transfer;

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 DMA Module

Now that we know more about the DMA module:

How can the DMA module use the bus? Any ideas?

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 DMA Module

Idea:
• Processor is potentially suspended just before it needs to use the bus;
• DMA module transfers one word and returns control to the processor

Figure: DMA and interrupt breakpoints during an instruction cycle (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

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 DMA Module

Processor suspend procedure is not an interrupt:

• Processor does not save a context and do something else;
• Rather, the processor pauses for one bus cycle;
• Overall effect: processor executes more slowly;
• Still, DMA is more efficient than interrupt-driven or programmed I/O.

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 DMA Module

Now that we know more about the DMA module:

Where should the DMA module be placed? Any ideas?

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 DMA Module

DMA mechanism can be configured in a variety of ways (1/3):

Figure: Single-bus, detached DMA (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

In this example:
• All modules share the same system bus;
• DMA module uses programmed I/O to:
• Exchange data between memory and an I/O module;

• Inexpensive but inefficient:

• Each transfer of a word consumes multiple bus cycles.

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 DMA Module

DMA mechanism can be configured in a variety of ways (2/3):

Figure: Single-bus, integrated DMA-I/O (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

In this example:
• Number of bus cycles can be cut by integrating DMA and I/O;
• DMA module and I/O share a non-system bus connection.

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 DMA Module

DMA mechanism can be configured in a variety of ways (3/3):

Figure: I/O bus (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

In this example:
• I/O modules are connected to the DMA module using an I/O bus;
• Reduces the number of I/O interfaces in the DMA module to one;
• Providing for an easily expandable configuration.

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 DMA Module

In essence:
• DMA is a co-processor: unburdens CPU;
• I/O module also used to unburden CPU;

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 Where to focus your study

Where to focus your study

After this class you should be able to:

• Explain the use of I/O modules as part of a computer organization.
• Understand the difference between programmed I/O and interrupt-driven
I/O and discuss their relative merits.
• Present an overview of the operation of direct memory access.

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 Where to focus your study

Less important to know how these solutions were implemented:

• details of specific programmable peripheral interfaces;
• details of specific DMA controllers;
• details of specific external interfaces.
Your focus should always be on the building blocks for developing a solution
=)

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 References

References I

Stallings, W. (2015).

Computer Organization and Architecture: Designing for Performance.

Pearson Education, 10th edition edition.

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