Psychogen|c amnes|a (a|so ca||ed lurcl|ora| arres|a) |s a lorr ol amnes|a Wr|cr occurs |r olrerW|se rea|lry peop|e -- |.e.

, |l |s rol lre resu|l ol a ora|r |rjury. ll |rvo|ves |oss

ol |rporlarl persora| |rlorral|or. Arolrer lerr lor lr|s cord|l|or |s lurcl|ora| arres|a. lr ore lorr ol psycroger|c arres|a, ca||ed lugue slale, |rd|v|dua|s ray lorgel rol or|y
lre|r pasls oul lre|r very |derl|l|es. 0esp|le lre rary lo||yWood rov|es dep|cl|rg lr|s preroreror, lugue slale |s exlrere|y rare |r rea| ||le. Fugue state rorra||y reso|ves W|lr
l|re, parl|cu|ar|y W|lr lre re|p ol lrerapy. A rore corror lorr ol psycroger|c arres|a |s d|ssoc|al|ve arres|a. lr lr|s slale, ar |rd|v|dua| ray exper|erce rerory |oss Wr|cr
|s reslr|cled lo a parl|cu|ar per|od ol l|re, sucr as lre dural|or ol a v|o|erl cr|re.
psychogen|c fugue - d|ssoc|al|ve d|sorder |r Wr|cr a persor lorgels Wro lrey are ard |eaves rore lo creales a reW ||le; dur|rg lre lugue lrere |s ro rerory ol lre lorrer
||le; aller recover|rg lrere |s ro rerory lor everls dur|rg lre d|ssoc|al|ve slale
0|ssoc|at|ve |dent|ty d|sorder (prev|ous|y |roWr as ru|l|p|e persora||ly d|sorder) |s a la|r|y corror ellecl ol severe lraura dur|rg ear|y cr||drood, usua||y exlrere, repel|l|ve
prys|ca|, sexua|, ard/or erol|ora| aouse. 0|ssoc|al|ve |derl|ly d|sorder |s a severe lorr ol d|ssoc|al|or, a rerla| process, Wr|cr produces a |ac| ol correcl|or |r a persor's
lrougrls, reror|es, lee||rgs, acl|ors, or serse ol |derl|ly. 0|ssoc|al|ve |derl|ly d|sorder |s craracler|zed oy lre preserce ol lWo or rore d|sl|rcl or sp||l |derl|l|es or persora||ly
slales lral corl|rua||y rave poWer over lre persor's oerav|or. w|lr d|ssoc|al|ve |derl|ly d|sorder, lrere's a|so ar |rao|||ly lo reca|| |ey persora| |rlorral|or lral |s loo lar-
reacr|rg lo oe exp|a|red as rere lorgellu|ress. w|lr d|ssoc|al|ve |derl|ly d|sorder, lrere are a|so r|gr|y d|sl|rcl rerory var|al|ors, Wr|cr l|ucluale W|lr lre persor's sp||l
persora||ly.
Tre a|lers or d|llererl |derl|l|es rave lre|r oWr age, sex, or race. Eacr ras r|s or rer oWr poslures, geslures, ard d|sl|rcl Way ol la|||rg. 3orel|res lre a|lers are |rag|rary
peop|e; sorel|res lrey are ar|ra|s. As eacr persora||ly revea|s |lse|l ard corlro|s lre |rd|v|dua|s' oerav|or ard lrougrls, |l's ca||ed sW|lcr|rg. 3W|lcr|rg car la|e secords lo
r|rules lo days. wrer urder rypros|s, lre persor's d|llererl a|lers or |derl|l|es ray oe very respors|ve lo lre lrerap|sl's requesls.
0epersona||zat|on d|sorder |s craracler|zed oy ar urp|easarl slale ol d|sluroed percepl|or |r Wr|cr exlerra| oojecls or parls ol lre oody are exper|erced as crarged |r lre|r
qua||ly, urrea|, rerole, or auloral|zed. Tre pal|erl |s aWare ol lre suojecl|ve ralure ol lr|s exper|erce. Tre syrplor ol depersora||zal|or |s qu|le corror as a r|ror lealure
ol olrer syrdrores, oul depersora||zal|or d|sorder |s qu|le rare.
0epersona||zat|on 0|sorder |s Wrere a persor |oo|s al lrerse|ves lror lre ouls|de, ard ooserves lre|r oWr prys|ca| acl|ors or rerla| processes as |l lrey Were ar
ooserver |rslead ol lrerse|ves. Tr|s oller or|rgs a serse ol urrea||ly, ard ar a|leral|or |r lre percepl|or ol lre erv|rorrerl arourd lrer, as We|| as lre persor lear|rg lrey
are rol |r lu|| corlro| ol lrerse|ves.
Trey lee| separaled lror lrerse|ves or ouls|de lre|r oWr ood|es. Peop|e W|lr lr|s d|sorder lee| |||e lrey are go|rg crazy ard lrey lrequerl|y oecore arx|ous ard depressed.
Ar ep|sode ol depersora||zal|or d|sorder car oe as or|el as a leW secords or corl|rue lor severa| years.
Pers|slerl or recurrerl exper|erces ol lee||rg delacred lror, ard as |l ore |s ar ouls|de ooserver ol, ore's rerla| processes or oody (e.g., lee||rg |||e ore |s |r a drear).
0ur|rg lre depersora||zal|or exper|erce, rea||ly lesl|rg rera|rs |rlacl.
Tre depersora||zal|or causes c||r|ca||y s|gr|l|carl d|slress or |rpa|rrerl |r soc|a|, occupal|ora|, or olrer |rporlarl areas ol lurcl|or|rg.
3|rce d|ssoc|al|ve d|sorders seer lo oe lr|ggered as a resporse lo lraura or aouse, lrealrerl lor |rd|v|dua|s W|lr sucr a d|sorder ray slress psycrolrerapy, a|lrougr a
coro|ral|or ol psycroprarraco|og|ca| ard psycrosoc|a| lrealrerls |s oller used. Vary ol lre syrplors ol d|ssoc|al|ve d|sorders occur W|lr olrer d|sorders, sucr as arx|ely
ard depress|or, ard car oe corlro||ed oy lre sare drugs used lo lreal lrose d|sorders. A persor |r lrealrerl lor a d|ssoc|al|ve d|sorder r|grl oerel|l lror arl|depressarls or
arl|arx|ely red|cal|or.
0lrer lealures |rc|ude lre /F;: preroreror (lre |||usory serse ol rav|rg prev|ous|y exper|erced percepls recorded |r currerl exper|erce) ard parorar|c rerory, |r Wr|cr
pal|erls reporl recap|lu|al|or |r lre|r r|rds ol a success|or ol, or a|| ol, lre exper|erces |r a |arge parl ol lre|r ||lespar. Trese lealures are rer|r|scerl ol d|sluroarce |r lre
acl|v|ly ol lre ||ro|c sysler due lo a slruclura| |es|or sucr as lral |r lerpora| |ooe ep||epsy ard olrer reuro|og|ca| |es|ors. Perl|e|d ard Jasper (191Z) reporled lral sl|ru|al|rg
lre exposed lerpora| |ooe dur|rg reurosurgery cou|d gererale depersora||zal|or, arorg olrer ellecls. 8ul lre EE0 |s a|rosl |rvar|ao|y rorra|.

Canser syndrome |s a lype ol lacl|l|ous d|sorder, a rerla| |||ress |r Wr|cr a persor acls as |l re or sre ras a prys|ca| or rerla| |||ress Wrer |r lrulr, re or sre ras caused lre
syrplors. Peop|e W|lr lacl|l|ous d|sorders acl lr|s Way oecause ol ar |rrer reed lo oe seer as ||| or |rjured, rol lo acr|eve a corcrele oerel|l, sucr as l|rarc|a| ga|r. Trey are
ever W||||rg lo urdergo pa|rlu| or r|s|y lesls ard operal|ors |r order lo oola|r lre syrpalry ard spec|a| allerl|or g|ver lo peop|e Wro are lru|y |||. Facl|l|ous d|sorders are
cors|dered rerla| |||resses oecause lrey are assoc|aled W|lr severe erol|ora| d|ll|cu|l|es.
0arser syrdrore |s a lype ol lacl|l|ous d|sorder |r Wr|cr lre persor r|r|cs oerav|or lral |s lyp|ca| ol a rerla| |||ress, sucr as scr|zoprrer|a. 0arser syrdrore |s sorel|res
ca||ed pr|sor psycros|s oecause |l Was l|rsl ooserved |r pr|sorers.
Peop|e W|lr 0arser syrdrore rave srorl-lerr ep|sodes ol odd oerav|or s|r||ar lo lral sroWr oy peop|e W|lr ser|ous rerla| |||resses. Tre persor r|grl appear corlused,
ra|e aosurd slalererls, ard reporl ra||uc|ral|ors (lre exper|erce ol sers|rg lr|rgs lral are rol lrere; lor exarp|e, rear|rg vo|ces). A c|ass|c syrplor ol 0arser syrdrore |s
voroe|reoen, or approx|rale arsWers, |r Wr|cr lre persor g|ves rorserse arsWers lo s|rp|e quesl|ors. A persor W|lr lr|s d|sorder r|grl reporl prys|ca| proo|ers, sucr as ar
|rao|||ly lo rove parl ol lre oody, ca||ed rysler|ca| para|ys|s. Loss ol rerory (arres|a) lor lre everls lral occurred dur|rg ar ep|sode |s corror.
ll |s oe||eved lo oe a reacl|or lo exlrere slress. Arolrer laclor lral r|grl corlr|oule lo 0arser syrdrore |s a des|re lo avo|d respors|o|||ly or ar urp|easarl s|lual|or. Prys|ca|
proo|ers a|so r|grl cause syrplors ol 0arser syrdrore. Trese |rc|ude a|coro||sr, read |rjury, Tourelle's syrdrore, slro|e, ard lrorla|-lerpora| |ooe dererl|a.
how |s Canser syndrome treated?
Tre l|rsl goa| ol lrealrerl |s lo oe sure lre persor does rol rurl r|rse|l or rerse|l, or olrers. Tre persor r|grl reed lo oe rosp|la||zed |l lre syrplors are exlrere ard/or |l
lre persor cou|d oe dargerous. lr rosl cases, lre syrplors ol 0arser syrdrore go aWay orce lre slress lral lr|ggered lre ep|sode |s sell|ed.
3upporl|ve psycrolrerapy (a lype ol course||rg), ard ror|lor|rg lor salely ard a relurr ol syrplors are lre ra|r e|ererls ol lrerapy lor 0arser syrdrore. Ved|c|re usua||y
|s rol used, ur|ess lre persor a|so sullers lror depress|or, arx|ely, or a persora||ly d|sorder.

|ntroduct|on
Tre ao|||ly lo corducl researcr |s oecor|rg ar ever |rporlarl s||||. Tre u|l|rale purpose ol rurs|rg |s lo prov|de r|gr-qua||ly pal|erl care. C||r|ca| pracl|ce W|lroul researcr |s
pracl|ce oased or lrad|l|or W|lroul va||dal|or. Researcr |s reeded lo eva|uale lre ellecl|veress ol rurs|rg lrealrerl roda||l|es, lo delerr|re lre |rpacl ol rurs|rg care or lre
rea|lr ol lre pal|erls or lo lesl oul lreory. Nurs|rg pracl|ce |s urdergo|rg lrererdous crarges ard cra||erges. lr order lo reel soc|a| cra||erges ard reeds, rurs|rg pracl|ce
rusl oe researcr oased (Laruza,1999).
As lre corlexl ol rea|lr care |s crarg|rg due lo lre prarraceul|ca| serv|ces ard lecrro|og|ca| advarces, rurses ard olrer rea|lr care proless|ora|s reed lo oe prepared lo
respord |r |roW|edgeao|e ard pracl|ca| Ways. Researcr |r rurs|rg evo|ved predor|rarl|y Wrer rurs|rg educal|or oecare a parl ol r|grer educal|or ard Was see||rg |ls oWr
oody ol |roW|edge, d|llererl lror lral ol red|c|re. Nurs|rg's l|rsl researcrers Were oe|rg prepared |r l|e|ds olrer lrar rurs|rg ard rave orougrl lo rurs|rg lre var|ous
parad|grs lror lrose l|e|ds (Vurra||, 2001).
3c|erl|l|c researcr |s a sysleral|c ard oojecl|ve allerpl lo prov|de arsWers lo cerla|r quesl|ors. Tre purpose ol sc|erl|l|c researcr |s lo d|scover ard deve|op ar orgar|zed
oody ol |roW|edge. Nurs|rg researcr relers lo lre use ol sysleral|c, corlro||ed, erp|r|ca|, ard cr|l|ca| |rvesl|gal|or |r allerpl|rg lo d|scover or corl|rr lacls lral re|ale lo
spec|l|c proo|er or quesl|or aooul lre pracl|ce ol rurs|rg. Nurs|rg researcr |s del|red as lre app||cal|or ol sc|erl|l|c |rqu|ry lo lre prerorera ol corcerr lo rurs|rg. Tre
sysleral|c |rvesl|gal|or ol pal|erls ard lre|r rea|lr exper|erce |s lre pr|rary corcerr ol rurs|rg (3crolleldl, 19ZZ).
6haracter|st|cs of Research
A sc|erl|l|c researcr ras sore craracler|sl|cs (3|rgr, 2002)
O Researcr |s a|Ways d|recled loWards lre so|ul|or ol a proo|er.
O Researcr |s a|Ways oased or erp|r|ca| ard ooserval|ora| ev|derce.
O Researcr |rvo|ves prec|se ooserval|or ard accurale descr|pl|or.
O Researcr erpras|ze lo lre deve|oprerl ol lreor|es, pr|rc|p|es, ard gerera||zal|ors.
O Researcr |s craracler|zed oy sysleral|c, oojecl|ve ard |og|ca| procedures.
O Researcr |s rar|ed oy pal|erce, courage ard urrurr|ed acl|v|l|es.
O Researcr requ|res lral lre researcrer ras lu|| exper|erce ol lre proo|er oe|rg slud|ed.
O Researcr |s rep||cao|e.
O Researcr uses sysleral|c relrod ol proo|er-so|v|rg.
O lr researcr lre laclors Wr|cr are rol urder sludy are corlro||ed.
O Researcr requ|res lu|| s|||| ol Wr|l|rg reporl
|mportance of nurs|ng research
Trere are severa| reasors lor corducl|rg researcr |rvesl|gal|ors, descr|pl|or ol prerorera, exp|oral|or, or pred|cl|or ol occurrerce ol a spec|l|c preroreror. lr rurs|rg lre
purpose ol researcr are
O lo ou||d a oody ol rurs|rg |roW|edge
O lo va||dale |rprovererls |r rurs|rg pracl|ce
O lo ra|e rea|lrcare ell|c|erl ard cosl ellecl|ve
APPR0A6hE8 T0 NUR8|NC RE8EAR6h
O Trere car oe lWo oroad approacres lo rurs|rg researcr, quarl|lal|ve ard qua||lal|ve approacr. (8roc|opp & lasl|rgs-To|sra, 2003).
O Approacres ray a|so oe c|ass|l|ed as oas|c researcr ard app||ed researcr.
0uant|tat|ve Research
O "uarl|lal|ve Researcr |s ar approacr lo slruclur|rg |roW|edge oy delerr|r|rg roW rucr ol a g|ver oerav|our, craracler|sl|c or preroreror preserl.
O "uarl|lal|ve Researcr relrods are parl|cu|ar|y corcerred W|lr oojecl|v|ly ard ao|||ly lo gerera||ze lre l|rd|rgs lo olrers.
O ll |s oased or lre lurdarerla| assurpl|ors ol pred|cl|or, rar|pu|al|or, ard corlro|.
O 8y quarl|lal|ve relrod ol researcr We rear lre lrad|l|ora| sc|erl|l|c relrods craracler|zed oy deducl|ve reasor|rg, oojecl|v|ly, quaz|-exper|rerls, slal|sl|ca|
lecrr|ques, ard corlro|. lr corlrasl lre qua||lal|ve relrod |s craracler|zed oy |rducl|ve reasor|rg, suojecl|v|ly, d|scovery, descr|pl|or, ard process or|erl|rg
(Re|crardl & Coo|, 19Z9).
O Tre oulcore deperd|rg or lre relrod car oe der|ved lror descr|pl|or, |rlerprelal|or, ard ara|ys|s (AsrWorlr, 199Z).
0a||tat|ve Research
O "ua||lal|ve researcr |s ar approacr lo slruclur|rg |roW|edge lral ul|||zes relrods ol |rqu|ry lral erpras|ze suojecl|v|ly ard lre rear|rg ol lre exper|erce lo lre
|rd|v|dua|.
O "ua||lal|ve researcr |s ar |rducl|ve approacr lo d|scover|rg or expard|rg |roW|edge. ll requ|res lre |rvo|vererl ol lre researcrer |r lre |derl|l|cal|or ol lre
rear|rg or re|evarce ol a parl|cu|ar preroreror lo lre |rd|v|dua|. Ara|ys|s ard |rlerprelal|or |r lr|s relrod are rol gerera||y deperderl upor lre quarl|l|cal|or ol
ooserval|ors (8roc|opp &lasl|rgs-To|sra, 2003).
O "ua||lal|ve researcr approacr car oe ol severa| lorrs;
4 prerorero|og|ca|,
4 pr||osopr|ca|,
4 r|slor|ca|,
4 grourded lreory relrod or
4 elrrograpr|c researcr.
O Tre d|llererl|al|or oelWeer qua||lal|ve ard quarl|lal|ve researcr |s |ess lrar c|ear-cul (Po||l & lug|er, 1999).
O Furlrer calegor|zal|or ol researcr approacres a|so |rc|udes oas|c researcr, app||ed researcr ard ep|der|o|og|ca| researcr.
as|c Research
O 8as|c researcr relers lo lrose slud|es lral are des|gred lo see| |roW|edge lor |ls oWr sa|e ard does rol lrerelore spec|ly ar app||cal|or ol lre l|rd|rgs.
O 8as|c researcr |s corducled |r order lo urderslard lre re|al|orsr|p arorg prerorera. 8as|c researcr |s rol a|red loWard lre so|ul|or ol proo|ers or lre
lac|||lal|or ol dec|s|or ra||rg (Lo8|ordo-wood, 0. & laoer, J. 199Z).
App||ed Research
O App||ed researcr |s researcr lral |s des|gred lo produce l|rd|rgs lral car oe used lo rered|ale or rod|ly a g|ver s|lual|or.
O Tre lerr relers lo lrose slud|es lral rave lre|r purpose ar |derl|l|ed pracl|ca| use or app||cal|or.
O A proo|er |s |rvesl|galed, ard sore reso|ul|or |s sougrl oy Way ol researcr l|rd|rgs (Po||l & lurg|er, 1995).
Ep|dem|o|og|c Research
O Ep|der|o|ogy |s ar approacr lo gereral|rg |roW|edge lral uses quarl|lal|ve researcr relrods lo urderslard lre |rc|derce, d|slr|oul|or, ard corlro| rea|lr
proo|ers W|lr|r a popu|al|or.
O Ep|der|o|og|c slud|es car oe calegor|zed as ooserval|ora| or exper|rerla|.
O 0oserval|ora| slud|es |rc|ude cororl, case corlro|, cross-secl|ora| ard eco|og|ca| des|grs.
O Exper|rerla| slud|es |rc|ude rardor|zed corlro||ed lra||s ard lre cross-over des|grs.
O 0bservat|ona| 8tud|es do rol allerpl lo rar|pu|ale var|ao|es |r a sysleral|c lasr|or; |rslead, |rlererces are rade or lre oas|s ol ar orgo|rg ser|es ol
ooserval|ors.
O 3ore ol lre rosl corror ooserval|ora| slud|es |rc|ude lre cororl sludy, lre pare| sludy, ard lre case-corlro| sludy.
O lr a cohort study, groups ol peop|e Wro srare sore corror craracler|sl|cs are lo||oWed over lre course ol l|re.
O Trese slud|es, Wr|cr are oller prospecl|ve, resarp|e lre sare popu|al|or ol |rd|v|dua|s or repealed occas|ors
O loWever, lre exacl parl|c|parls |r lre sludy ray rol oe lre sare or repealed ooserval|ors.
O A pane| study |s s|r||ar lo a cororl sludy; roWever, |l ras lre slr|cler requ|rererl lral exacl|y lre sare |rd|v|dua|s Wro Were |r lre or|g|ra| sarp|e are lo||oWed al
eacr repealed assessrerl.
O Cororl ard pare| slud|es are cors|dered lo oe |org|lud|ra| des|grs, Wr|cr ra|e |rlererces aooul crarges over lre course ol l|re.
O Cross-secl|ora| slud|es d|ller lror |org|lud|ra| slud|es |r lral lrey exar|re d|llererl groups ol |rd|v|dua|s al lre sare po|rl |r l|re.
O To ra|e |rlererces aooul drug use |r co||ege, lor exarp|e, lre cross-secl|ora| relrod Wou|d requ|re sarp||rg ol eacr currerl c|ass sucr lral lresrrer cou|d oe
corpared lo soprorores, jur|ors, ard ser|ors.
O Trese |rd|v|dua|s Wou|d rol oe reroers ol lre sare c|ass or o|rlr cororl.
O A case-6ontro| methodo|ogy corpares a group ol peop|e W|lr a d|agrosed d|sease (cases) W|lr ore or rore groups lral rave rol oeer g|ver lre sare
d|agros|s.
O Case-corlro| slud|es are lyp|ca||y relrospecl|ve oecause lrey ra|e |rlererces aooul everls lral rave caused currerl|y d|agrosed cases.
O Lorg|lud|ra| slud|es are oller prospecl|ve ard rave lre advarlage ol docurerl|rg lre arlecederls ol reW cases.
O 0oserval|ora| slud|es oller used corre|al|ora| ard ru|l|var|ale slal|sl|ca| lecrr|ques.
O 'ar|ao|es lral are urcorlro||ed lrrougr lre exper|rerla| des|gr are oller adjusled lor us|rg slal|sl|ca| relrods.
O lr corlrasl lo ooserval|ora| slud|es |r Wr|cr |rporlarl var|ao|es are rol corlro||ed, exper|rerla| slud|es lyp|ca||y |rvo|ve lre sysleral|c rar|pu|al|or ol var|ao|es.
O Velrodo|og|ca| approacres lo rurs|rg researcr car oe ol lo||oW|rg ralure.
Exper|menta| 0es|gns
O Exper|rerl |s a des|gr lral |s corror|y used |r ralura| or oas|c sc|erces.
O ll relers lo a researcr des|gr lral |s craracler|zed oy a corpar|sor arorg groups lral are as equa| as poss|o|e, lre rar|pu|al|or ol lre |rdeperderl var|ao|e, lre
use ol |rlererl|a| slal|sl|cs, ard slr|rgerl corlro| ol exlrareous laclors.
O Tre des|gr perr|ls lre researcrer lo eslao||sr cause-ellecl re|al|orsr|ps ard lrerelore accurale|y pred|cl ard exp|a|r prerorera.
O lere lre |rvesl|galor allerpls lo eslao||sr lral lre resu|ls ol lre sludy car oe accurale|y allr|ouled lo lre rar|pu|al|or ol lre var|ao|e urder exar|ral|or.
6haracter|st|cs of Exper|ments
O TWo or rore groups
O Tre resu|ls ol lre sludy car oe allr|ouled lo lre rar|pu|al|or ol lre var|ao|e ard rol lo d|llererces oelWeer lre groups.
O Corlro|||rg exlrareous laclors
Exper|rerla| slud|es are eas|er lo corducl |r ralura| sc|erces lrar |r lre soc|a| sc|erces oecause lre oojecls or ur|ls car oe rore read||y corlro||ed ard rar|pu|aled.
Non-exper|menta| des|gn or 0escr|pt|ve 8tud|es
Nor-exper|rerla| slud|es are preserl-or|erled. ll allerpls lo descr|oe Wral ex|sls. 'ar|ao|e are rol de||oerale|y rar|pu|aled, ror |s lre sell|rg corlro||ed. Tre ara|ys|s ol dala
oller |eads lo lre lorral|or ol rypolres|s lral car lrer oe lesled exper|rerla||y.
Nor-exper|rerla| or descr|pl|ve slud|es car oe exp|oralory (s|rp|y exp|or|rg Wral ex|sls W|lroul rav|rg ary researcr dala |r lre area), exp|aralory researcr (exp|a|r|rg a
parl|cu|ar preroreror), ard corre|al|ora| des|grs (exp|or|rg lre re|al|orsr|p oelWeer d|llererl slales)
RE8EAR6h PR06E88
Researcr process |s lre exar|ral|or ard ara|ys|s ol sysleral|ca||y galrered lacls aooul a parl|cu|ar proo|er. Tre a|r ol researcr process |s lre d|scovery or va||dal|or ol
|roW|edge. ll |s lre sysleral|c process ol proo|er so|v|rg. Researcr process ras lo||oW|rg sleps:
1. Corceplua||zal|or ol Researcr proo|er
2. 0eve|oprerl ol Corceplua| lrareWor|
O lderl|ly|rg assurpl|ors
O 0el|r|rg var|ao|es
O 3lal|rg rypolres|s
3. Researcr 0es|gr
O 3e|ecl|rg Researcr Approacr
O P|arr|rg lor dala co||ecl|or
O 3e|ecl|or ol 3arp|e
O P||ol 3ludy
O P|arr|rg ol 0ala Process|rg
O P|arr|rg lor 0ala ara|ys|s
O P|arr|rg lor lrlerprelal|or
1. 0ala Co||ecl|or
5. 0ala Ara|ys|s
. lrlerprelal|or ol Resu|ls
Z. wr|l|rg lre Reporl
8. Cr|l|que ard Puo||cal|or
9. App||cal|or Resu|ls
1. 6onceptua||zat|on of Research prob|em
O Corceplua||zal|or researcr proo|er ray |rc|ude severa| acl|v|l|es, sucr as slal|rg lre proo|er, del|r|rg lre oojecl|ves, purposes ard lerrs lo oe used |r lre
sludy.
O Researcr proo|er or|g|rales lror a s|lual|or ol reed, Wrere urreso|ved d|ll|cu|l|es occur.
O Corceplua||zal|or ol researcr proo|er oeg|rs W|lr |derl|l|cal|or ol proo|er area ard researcr proo|er, ard del|r|l|or ol proo|er.
O Tre proo|er urder sludy |s Wr|ller ard ca||ed as '3lalererl ol Proo|er.
O Tre proo|er srou|d oe s|gr|l|carl lo rurs|rg, pracl|ca| |r ralure, leas|o|e ard lre l|rd|rgs add lo lre |roW|edge ol rurs|rg.
O Tre researcrer reed lo oe |rleresled |r do|rg lre sludy ard srou|d possess requ|red qua||l|cal|or.
O Researcr quesl|ors ray ar|se lror persora| |rlu|l|or ard persora| ooserval|or ol lre erv|rorrerl or persora| oe||els, oul |deas are rore oller deve|oped lrrougr
|rleracl|or W|lr olrers.
O 3|r||ar|y, researcr quesl|ors lerd lo ar|se lror ar exar|ral|or ol olrers' Wor| Wr|cr car oe lourd |r lre researcr jourra|s ard lexlooo|s ol delererl sc|erl|l|c
d|sc|p||res.
O 'A quesl|or We|| as|ed |s a quesl|or ra|l arsWered: lre Way lre quesl|or (or rypolres|s) |s slaled sroWs Wral dala W||| oe recessary lo arsWer (or lesl) |l, ard
prooao|y suggesls a|so roW ard lror Wrere or lror Wror lre dala W||| oe oola|red
2. 0eve|opment of 6onceptua| framework
O '|s|l Research and Nurs|ng Theor|es
3. Research 0es|gn
ETh|6AL |88UE8 |N NUR8|NC RE8EAR6h
lssues ol elr|ca| oerav|or are cerlra| lo rea|lr proless|ors. lr corducl|rg c||r|ca| lr|a|s ard researcr projecls elr|ca| |ssues srou|d oe la|er |r lo cors|deral|or. ll |s urelr|ca| lor
ar |rvesl|galor rol lo g|ve pal|erls lre oesl poss|o|e lrealrerl. 0lrer Way, |l |s urelr|ca| rol lo d|scover Wrelrer a reW lrealrerl |s ar |rprovererl, s|rce lr|s Wou|d dery
lulure pal|erls lre poss|o|||ly ol a cure. ll |s a|so urelr|ca| lo perlorr oad lr|a|s lral g|ve r|s|ead|rg resu|ls, ard lrere oy ercourage olrers rol lo use a lrealrerl lral |s
oerel|c|a|, or lo use a lrealrerl lral |s rol oerel|c|a|, or ray |rdeed rave rarrlu| ellecls.
TWo |rporlarl areas ol elr|ca| cors|deral|or are r|grls ol rurar suojecls ard lreedor lror rarr. Trree laclors are |rporlarl regard|rg lre r|grls ol lre parl|c|parls,
corl|derl|a||ly, aroryr|ly ard lre vo|urlary parl|c|pal|or. ll car oe ersured lrrougr ar |rlorred corserl Wr|cr c|ear|y exp|a|rs lre sludy oojecl|ves ard slales parl|c|parls' r|grl
lo accepl or reluse lo parl|c|pale (FoW|er & Crevarres, 2002).
Research Part|c|pants at R|sk
Researcr parl|c|parls al r|s| are |rd|v|dua|s Wro ray oe rarred prys|ca||y, erol|ora||y, sp|r|lua||y, ecoror|ca||y, soc|a||y, or |ega||y lrrougr parl|c|pal|or |r a researcr sludy. A
oas|c respors|o|||ly ol lre researcrer ard lrose ass|sl|rg |r carry|rg oul lre projecl, |s lo prolecl a|| researcr parl|c|parls lror rarr ard Wr||e lrey are parl|c|pal|rg |r ar
|rvesl|gal|or or as a resu|l ol lre sludy.
|nformed 6onsent
lrlorred corserl |s lre process ol prov|d|rg ar |rd|v|dua| W|lr sull|c|erl urderslardao|e |rlorral|or regard|rg r|s or rer parl|c|pal|or |r a researcr projecl. ll |rc|udes prov|d|rg
polerl|a| parl|c|parls W|lr |rlorral|or aooul lre|r r|grls ard respors|o|||l|es W|lr |r lre projecl ard docurerl|rg lre ralure ol lre agreererl. A|| corserl lorrs reed lo assure
polerl|a| parl|c|parls ol lre|r r|grl lo W|lrdraW lror a researcr sludy al ary l|re. . lrlorred corserl |s lre researcrer's corsc|ous ard de||oerale allerpl lo c|ear|y ard lu||y
prov|de lre polerl|a| parl|c|parl W|lr |rlorral|or aooul lre sludy.
ll |s a lurdarerla| respors|o|||ly ol lre |rvesl|galor |r rurar researcr lo ersure researcr parl|c|parls urderslard lre ralure ol lre projecl ard lre |rp||cal|ors ol parl|c|pal|or
ard lre |rd|v|dua| |s ao|e lo dec|de lree|y Wrelrer lo parl|c|pale |r a projecl, W|lroul lear or repr|sa|. wrer lre researcrer la||s lo adequale|y |rlorr polerl|a| researcr
parl|c|parls aooul lu|| ralure ol lre researcr, lrere oy preverl|rg lrer lror ra||rg ar |rlorred dec|s|or or lre|r parl|c|pal|or |s ca||ed decepl|or.
6onf|dent|a||ty & Anonym|ty
Corl|derl|a||ly relers lo lre researcrer's respors|o|||ly lo prolecl a|| dala galrered W|lr|r lre scope ol lre projecl lror oe|rg d|vu|ged lo olrers. Aroryr|ly relers lo lre acl ol
|eep|rg |rd|v|dua|s rare|ess |r re|al|or lo lre|r parl|c|pal|or |r a researcr projecl.
Regu|atory od|es
Tre researcrer ray reed lo la|e perr|ss|or lror regu|alory ood|es lor corducl|rg researcr |rvesl|gal|ors, ra|r|y Wrer suojecls are rurar oe|rgs. Trere are regu|alory
ood|es |r rosl ol lre courlr|es Wr|cr grarl perr|ss|or aller cors|der|rg elr|ca| |ssues ol lre sludy. lrd|ar Courc|| ol Ved|ca| Researcr (lCVR) re|eased '9|oa| u|oe||nes lor
o|omeo|oa| researo |n uman suoeo9s' |r lre year 2000, Wr|cr are s|r||ar lo 0ood C||r|ca| Pracl|ce (0CP) gu|de||res ard lre preva|erl |rlerral|ora| gu|de||res. Trese
gu|de||res regu|ale a|| o|ored|ca| researcr |r rurar suojecls |r lrd|a.
REV|Ew 0F L|TERATURE
A rev|eW ol ||leralure |s a corprerers|ve descr|pl|or as We|| as ar eva|ual|or ol lre ev|derce re|aled lo a g|ver lop|c. Rev|eW ol ||leralure sels lre slage lor lre rer|rder ol lre
arl|c|e. Ar ellecl|ve re|evarl ||leralure |rc|udes lrose slud|es Wr|cr rave oeer corp|ele|y execuled, c|ear|y reporled ard c|ose|y re|aled lo lre researcr proo|er. we||-Wr|ller
rev|eWs ol ||leralure |rc|ude eva|ual|ve slalererls regard|rg lre slud|es descr|oed. Correrl aooul sarp|e s|ze, |rslrurerls used, researcr des|gr, ard olrer corporerls ol
lre researcr process car oe re|plu| lo lre reader |r oeller urderslard|rg lre va|ue ol lre resu|ls ol lre |rvesl|gal|[Link] corducl|rg ar |r-deplr searcr ol lre ||leralure, lre
|rvesl|galor reeds lo |derl|ly a|| re|evarl puo||cal|ors |r lre area ol |rleresl.
Tre |rvesl|galor slarls W|lr lre rosl recerl puo||cal|ors |r order lo l|rd lre rosl re|evarl |rlorral|or. wrer searcr|rg lre ||leralure oolr pr|rary ard secordary sources ray
reed lo oe cors|dered A pr|rary source relers lo lre puo||cal|or |r |ls or|g|ra| lorr. A secordary source relers Wrer lre aulror Wr|les aooul arolrer aulrors Wor|. Pr|rary
sources are gerera||y prelerred oecause a d|slorl|or ol |deas car occur |r a secordary source (Po||l & lurg|er, 1999).
Tre |rvesl|galor cr|l|ca||y eva|uales lre |rlorral|or galrered oy exar|r|rg eacr corporerl ol lre puo||cal|or. Ara|ys|s ol a c||r|ca| op|r|or arl|c|e requ|res lre reader lo
eva|uale lre |og|c lo va||dale lre aulror's corc|us|or. wrer exar|r|rg a researcr reporl, lre reader rusl exar|re eacr corporerl ol lre researcr process ard ra|e
judgrerls aooul lre appropr|aleress ol lre relrods used |r re|al|or lo lre corc|us|or draWr (8roc|opp & lasl|rgs-To|sra, 2003).
Trere are lWo relrods ol searcr|rg ||leralure, perlorr|rg corpuler searcr |r dalaoases, ard exar|r|rg ooo|s ard per|od|ca|s rarua||y. A coro|ral|or ol lWo relrods car
oe corprerers|ve. For rarua| searcr lor |rlorral|or re|aled lo a g|ver lop|c lre |rvesl|galor car use ||orary lac|||l|es W|lr lre re|p ol ||orary recrar|srs |||e card cala|ogs or
corpuler cala|[Link]|zed dalaoases are |rcreas|rg|y popu|ar ard recessary as lre vo|ure ol puo||sred raler|a| corl|rues lo groW.
Corpuler searcres are rore advarlageous lrar rard searcres ol |rdexes oecause lrey la|e |ess l|re ard a||oW corcepls lo oe ||r|ed (3|rc|a|r, 198Z). 3earcr|rg oy
corpuler car oe accorp||sred us|rg a ||orary-oased corpuler sysler or a persora| corpuler ard or||re resources |r lre rore or Wor|p|ace. Tre corpuler a|so a||oWs lre
researcrer lo croose or|y lre relererces ol |rleresl lorr lrose preserled ard lo oola|r a pr|rled ||sl ol arl|c|es croser lro rev|eW.
8earch|ng nurs|ng ||terature on the |nternet
Tre |rlerrel possesses ar erorrous ruroer ol red|ca| ard rurs|rg dalaoases, Wr|cr are very uselu| lor rurs|rg proless|ora|s. ll |s qu|el |rposs|o|e lo ca|cu|ale lre quarl|ly
ol red|ca| |rlorral|or or lre lrlerrel. 3o rary reW resources are crealed eacr day lral rooody cou|d poss|o|y |eep aoreasl ol lrer ard preserl ar exrausl|ve ara|ys|s ol a||
ex|sl|rg red|ca| resources. VE0LlNE |s a corprerers|ve dalaoase lor rea|lr ||leralure Wr|cr |s raraged oy Nal|ora| L|orary ol Ved|c|re, u3A. lrlerral|ora| rurs|rg |rdex
ard lrdexVed|cus are |rc|uded |r VE0LlNE. Cocrrare Rev|eW (http:||[Link]|) |s arolrer dalaoase Wr|cr g|ves exlers|ve searcr opl|ors. Curu|al|ve lrdex lo
Nurs|rg ard A|||ed lea|lr L|leralure (http:||[Link]|c|nah||) |s a dalaoase ol exc|us|ve rurs|rg arl|c|es. lrlerrel searcr erg|re 0oog|e ras deve|oped 0oog|e
3cro|ar (http:||scho|[Link]|[Link] ), Wr|cr re|ps lo corl|re searcr opl|ors lo acader|c papers or|y. 0per access jourra|s (http:||[Link]) are arolrer source ol
searcr|rg ||leralure. Trese jourra|s are access lree ard car oe used W|lroul reslr|cl|or prov|ded lre po||c|es are accepled. Vary slardard jourra|s prov|de lre|r arcr|ves lor
lree or||re access searcr aller a per|od ol l|re lo deve|op|rg courlr|es. E|sev|er puo||cal|ors' |rlerrel dalaoase lor rurs|rg jourra|s |s access|o|e al http:||sc|enced|[Link]|.
Tre Nurs|rg Cerler (http:||nurs|[Link] ) |s lre or||re access s|le lor L|pp|rcoll w||||ars & w||||rs' rurs|rg jourra|s. Trese jourra|s are lo oe suoscr|oed ard rosl ol
lrer are |rdexed |r VE0LlNE ard ClNAlL. Vary ol lre jourra|s are puo||sred oy lre orgar|zal|or lrerse|ves. Tre lrd|ar Ved|ars Cerlre ol Nal|ora| lrlorral|cs Cerlre, NeW
0e|r|, ras des|gred lWo dalaoases, lrdVE0, a o|o||ograpr|c dalaoase ol peer rev|eWed lrd|ar o|ored|ca| jourra|s ard redlN0, lu||-lexl ol se|ecled lrdVE0 jourra|s. Trese
are access|o|e lree ol cosl lror lre Cerler's s|le <rllp://|rdred.r|c.|r/> (Areer, 2001).
radford-h||| gu|de||nes
8radlord-l||| cr|ler|a are r|re spec|l|c cr|ler|a lral are used lo eva|uale slud|es lor lre ex|slerce ol a cause-ard -ellecl re|al|orsr|p. Tre r|re cr|ler|a are lre slrerglr ol lre
assoc|al|or, corlourd|rg var|ao|es ard o|as, lerpora||ly, o|o|og|c grad|erl, spec|l|c|ly, cors|slercy, o|o|og|c p|aus|o|||ly, slud|es appropr|ale|y dore(rav|rg c|ear corpar|sor
group, o||rd|rg descr|pl|or ol lre relrods used, ara|ys|s cors|slerce W|lr sludy des|gr), ard lreedor lror o|as ard corlourd|rg var|ao|es. Cors|slerl use ol lre cr|ler|a re|ps
|r lre delerr|ral|or lral lre |rcreased re|al|ve r|s| |s rol |||e|y lre resu|l ol o|as or olrer laclors (8radlord-l|||, 19Z1).
hYP0ThE8|8 AN0 E8T|HAT|0N
hypothes|s
lypolres|s |s slalererl or dec|aral|or ol lre expecled oulcore ol a researcr sludy. ll |s oased or |og|ca| ral|ora|e ard ras erp|r|ca| poss|o|||l|es lor lesl|rg. lypolres|s |s
lorru|aled |r exper|rerla| researcr. lr sore ror-exper|rerla| corre|al|ora| slud|es, rypolres|s ray a|so oe deve|oped. Norra||y, lrere are lour e|ererls |r a rypolres|s:
1. deperderl ard |rdeperderl var|ao|es,
2. sore lype ol re|al|orsr|p oelWeer |rdeperderl ard deperderl var|ao|e,
3. lre d|recl|or ol lre crarge, ard
1. |l rerl|ors aooul lre suojecls, |.e. popu|al|or oe|rg slud|ed.
ll |s del|red as 'A lerlal|ve assurpl|or rade |r order lo draW oul ard lesl |ls |og|ca| or erp|r|ca| corsequerces (weosler, 198).3lardards |r lorru|al|rg a rypolres|s (Aruja,
R. 2001):
1. ll srou|d oe erp|r|ca||y leslao|e, Wrelrer |l |s r|grl or Wrorg.
2. ll srou|d oe spec|l|c ard prec|se.
3. Tre slalererls |r lre rypolres|s srou|d rol oe corlrad|clory.
1. ll srou|d spec|ly var|ao|es oelWeer Wr|cr lre re|al|orsr|p lo oe eslao||sred
5. ll srou|d descr|oe ore |ssue or|y.
6haracter|st|cs of a hypothes|s (Treece & Treece, 1989)
1. ll |s leslao|e
2. ll |s |og|ca|
3. ll |s d|recl|y re|aled lo lre researcr proo|er
1. ll |s laclua||y or lreorel|ca||y oased
5. ll slales a re|al|orsr|p oelWeer var|ao|es
. ll |s slaled |r sucr a lorr lral |l car oe accepled or rejecled
hypothes|s format|on
0|recl|ora| rypolres|s pred|cls ar oulcore |r a parl|cu|ar d|recl|or, ard rord|recl|ora| rypolres|s s|rp|y slales lral lrere W||| oe d|llererce oelWeer lre groups. Trere car oe
lWo rypolreses, researcr rypolres|s ard ru|| rypolres|s. Tre ru|| rypolres|s |s lorred lor lre slal|sl|ca| purpose ol regal|rg |l. ll lre researcr rypolres|s slales lrere |s
pos|l|ve corre|al|or oelWeer sro||rg ard carcer, lre ru|| rypolres|s slales lrere |s ro re|al|or oelWeer sro||rg ard carcer. ll |s easy lo regale a slalererl lrar lry|rg lo
eslao||sr |l.
0ependent and |ndependent var|ab|es
1. Ar |rdeperderl var|ao|e |s presured lo cause ol lre deperderl var|ao|e-lre presured ellecl.
2. Tre |rdeperderl var|ao|e |s ore Wr|cr exp|a|rs or accourls lor var|al|ors |r lre deperderl var|ao|e.
3. A deperderl var|ao|e |s ore Wr|cr crarges |r re|al|orsr|p lo crarges |r arolrer var|ao|e.
1. Ar |rdeperderl var|ao|e |s ore Wrose crarge resu|ls |r crarge |r olrer var|ao|e.
5. lr exper|rerls, lre |rdeperderl var|ao|e |s lre var|ao|e rar|pu|aled oy lre exper|rerler.
. A var|ao|e Wr|cr |s deperderl |r ore sludy ray oe |rdeperderl |r arolrer.
Z. lrlerver|rg var|ao|e |s ore lral cores oelWeer lre |rdeperderl ard deperderl var|ao|e.
8. |N8TRUHENT8 |N NUR8|NC RE8EAR6h
9. Ar |rslrurerl |r a researcr sludy |s a dev|ce used lo reasure lre corcepl ol |rleresl |r a researcr projecl. ll |s used lo reasure a corcepl ol |rleresl. Ar |dea|
reasur|rg |rslrurerl |s ore Wr|cr resu|ls |r reasures lral are re|evarl, accurale, oojecl|ve, sers|l|ve ard ell|c|erl. Veasures Wr|cr are Prys|ca| ard prys|o|og|ca|
rave r|grer crarce ol success |r alla|r|rg lrese goa|s lrar reasures lral are psycro|og|ca| ard oerav|ora|. lrslrurerls car oe ooserval|or sca|es,
quesl|orra|res or |rlerv|eW scredu|es.
10. 'a||d|ly ard re||ao|||ly are lWo slal|sl|ca| properl|es used lo eva|uale lre qua||ly ol researcr |rslrurerls (Araslas|, 198). ll |s |rporlarl lral assessrerl lecrr|ques
possess oolr va||d|ly ard re||ao|||ly.
11. Va||d|ty
12. 'a||d|ly |r re|al|or lo researcr |s a judgrerl regard|rg lre degree lo Wr|cr lre corporerls ol lre researcr rel|ecl lre lreory, corcepl, or var|ao|e urder sludy
(3lre|rer& Norrar. 199). Tre va||d|ly ol lre |rslrurerl used ard va||d|ly ol lre researcr des|gr as Wro|e are |rporlarl cr|ler|a |r eva|ual|rg lre Worlr ol lre
resu|ls ol lre resu|ls corducled. lrlerra| va||d|ly relers lo lre |||e||rood lral exper|rerla| rar|pu|al|or |rdeed Was respors|o|e lor lre d|llererces ooserved.
Exlerra| va||d|ly relers lo lre exlerl lo Wr|cr lre resu|ls ol lre sludy car oe gerera||zed lo lre |arger popu|al|or (Po||l & lurg|er, 1999).
13. Four lypes ol va||d|ly are used lo judge lre accuracy ol ar |rslrurerl:
11. (1) corlerl va||d|ly
15. (2) pred|cl|ve va||d|ly
1. (3) corcurrerl va||d|ly, ard
1Z. (1) corslrucl va||d|ly.
18. 6ontent va||d|ty |s lre exlerl lo Wr|cr d|llererl |lers |r lre assessrerl reasure lre lra|l or preroreror lrey Were rearl lo. l|gr |eve| ol corlerl va||d|ly
|rd|cales lral lesl |lers accurale|y rel|ecl lre lra|l oe|rg reasured. A quesl|orra|re lo assess arx|ely, lor exarp|e, Wou|d oe r|gr |r corlerl va||d|ly |l |l |rc|uded
quesl|ors aooul |roWr syrplors ol arx|ely sucr as rusc|e lers|or ard a rap|d pu|se rale.
19. Pred|ct|ve va||d|ty |s lre ao|||ly ol ar assessrerl reasure lo pred|cl soreore's lulure oerav|our |r re|aled oul d|llererl, s|lual|or. Ar assessrerl reasure W|lr
r|gr pred|cl|ve va||d|ly |s capao|e ol ra||rg accurale pred|cl|ors ol lulure oerav|our. LoW pred|cl|ve va||d|ly rears lral a reasure |s ol ||ll|e use |r pred|cl|rg a
parl|cu|ar oerav|our.
20. 6oncurrent va||d|ty rel|ecls roW We|| d|llererl reasures ol lre sare lra|l agree W|lr arolrer. ll a lesl possesses r|gr degree ol corcurrerl va||d|ly, lrer |l car oe
expecled lo g|ve resu|ls very s|r||ar lo olrer reasures ol sare craracler|sl|c.
21. 6onstruct va||d|ty |s lre exlerl lo Wr|cr a lreorel|ca| corslrucl sucr as a persora||ly lra|l car oe erp|r|ca||y del|red.
22. Re||ab|||ty
23. Re||ao|||ly ol ar |rslrurerl rel|ecls |ls slao|||ly ard cors|slercy W|lr|r a g|ver corlexl. Re||ao|||ly |s lre cors|slercy ol reasurererl over l|re, Wrelrer |l prov|des
lre sare resu|ls or repealed lra||s. ll |s del|red as a craracler|sl|c ol ar |rslrurerl lral rel|ecls lre degree lo Wr|cr lre |rslrurerl provo|es cors|slerl resporses.
For exarp|e, a sca|e deve|oped lo reasure |rle|||gerce r|grl rol oe re||ao|e lor reasurererl ol persora||ly. Trree craracler|sl|cs ol re||ao|||ly are corror|y
eva|ualed:
21. (1) slao|||ly,
25. (2) |rlerra| cors|slercy, ard
2. (3) equ|va|erce.
2Z. Test-retest re||ab|||ty or stab|||ty relers lo degree lo Wr|cr researcr parl|c|parls' resporse crarge overl|re. Tesl-relesl relrod |s used lo lesl slao|||ly ol lre loo|.
lr lr|s relrod ar |rslrurerl |s g|ver lo lre sare |rd|v|dua|s or lWo occas|ors W|lr|r re|al|ve|y srorl dural|or ol l|re. A corre|al|or coell|c|erl |s ca|cu|aled lo
delerr|re roW c|ose|y lre parl|c|parls' resporses or lre secord occas|or ralcred lre|r resporses or lre l|rsl occas|or.
28. ha|f-sp||t re||ab|||ty or |nterna| cons|stency |s a reasure ol re||ao|||ly lral |s lrequerl|y used W|lr sca|es des|gred lo assess psycrosoc|a| craracler|sl|cs.
lrslrurerls car oe assessed lor |rlerra| cors|slercy us|rg ra|l-sp||l lecrr|que (|.e. arsWers lo ore ra|l ol lre |lers are corpared W|lr arsWers lo lre olrer ra|l ol
lre |lers) or oy ca|cu|al|rg lre a|pra coell|c|erl or us|rg Kuder-R|crardsor lorru|a. lr lre case a|pra coell|c|erl ard Kuder-R|crardsor lorru|a, a coell|c|erl lral
rarges lror 0 lo 1.00 usua||y resu|ls.
29. |nterrater re||ab|||ty or the not|on of equ|va|ence |s oller corcerr Wrer d|llererl ooservers are us|rg lre sare |rslrurerl lo co||ecl dala al lre sare l|re. A
coell|c|erl car oe ca|cu|aled or olrer slal|sl|ca| or rorslal|sl|ca| procedure car oe used lo see lre corre|al|or ol va|ues.
30. 8AHPL|NC, 0ATA 60LLE6T|0N AN0 ANALY8|8
31. 0ata 6o||ect|on
32. 0rce lre proo|er ras oeer dec|ded ard relrodo|ogy |s p|arred, lre sysleral|c co||ecl|or ol re||ao|e ard va||d ev|derce |s lre rexl slep |r lre researcr process.
0ala co||ecl|or srou|d oe sysleral|c ard rel|cu|ous. Tre purpose ol galrer|rg |s lo lrarslorr lrer |rlo |rlorral|or |r order lo |derl|ly var|ao|e, reasure var|ao|es,
descr|oe oerav|our ard oola|r erp|r|ca| ev|derce.
33. lr v|eW ol lre slal|sl|ca| ara|ys|s, lre |eve|s ol reasurererl srou|d oe del|red, as ror|ra|, ord|ra|, |rlerva| or ral|o |eve| dala. Tre sources lor co||ecl|or ol dala lor
a researcr sludy vary W|lr |rleresl ol lre researcrer ard lype ol lre sludy. 3ources ol dala car oe docurerlary sources as pr|rary ard secordary sources, l|e|d
sources as suojecls |r persor, cord|l|ors, erv|rorrerl ard everls lral are ooservao|e ard reasurao|e, ard r|slor|ca| dala. Tre relrods ol co||ecl|rg |rc|ude
quesl|or|rg us|rg |rlerv|eW scredu|e ard quesl|orra|res, ooserval|or lecrr|ques W|lr lre re|p ol slruclured or urslruclured |rslrurerls, ard reasur|rg W|lr
slardard|zed |rslrurerls.
31. A p||ol sludy |s dore lo eslao||sr lre leas|o|||ly ard pracl|cao|||ly ol lre Wro|e researcr des|gr. ll re|ps lo l|rd oul Wrelrer ary crarges |r lre relrodo|ogy are
requ|red.
35. 8amp||ng
3. 3arp||rg car oe prooao|||ly sarp||rg or ror-prooao|||ly sarp||rg. Prooao|||ly sarp||rg, a|so ca||ed rardor sarp||rg, |s a se|ecl|or process lral ersures eacr
parl|c|parl lre sare prooao|||ly ol oe|rg se|ecled. Rardor sarp||rg |s lre oesl relrod lor ersur|rg lral a sarp|e |s represerlal|ve ol lre |arger popu|al|or.
Rardor sarp||rg car oe s|rp|e rardor sarp||rg, slral|l|ed rardor sarp||rg, ard c|usler sarp||rg. Norprooao|||ly sarp||rg |s lre se|ecl|or process |r Wr|cr lre
prooao|||ly lral ary ore |rd|v|dua| or suojecl se|ecled |s rol equa| lo lre prooao|||ly lral arolrer |rd|v|dua| or suojecl ray oe croser. Tre prooao|||ly ol |rc|us|or
ard lre degree lo Wr|cr lre sarp|e represerls lre popu|al|or are ur|roWr. Tre rajor proo|er W|lr rorprooao|||ly sarp||rg |s lral sarp||rg o|as car occur.
Norprooao|||ly sarp||rg car oe corver|erce sarp||rg, purpos|ve sarp||rg or quola sarp||rg
3Z. Extraneous Var|ab|e
38. Exlrareous var|ao|e are lrose var|ao|es lral car |rl|uerce lre re|al|orsr|p oelWeer lre |rdeperderl deperderl var|ao|es. Trey rusl oe corlro||ed lrrougr
slal|sl|ca| ara|ys|s or researcr des|gr.
39. Trere are s|x relrods ol corlro|||rg exlrareous var|ao|e (Po||l & lug|er, 1999). Trey are (1) ersur|rg suojecls are rorogerous, |rc|ud|rg lre exlrareous var|ao|e
as |rdeperderl var|ao|e
10. (3)ralcr|rg suojecls |r re|al|or lo exlrareous var|ao|es,
11. (1) us|rg slal|sl|ca| procedures lo corlro| urdes|rao|e var|ao|es,
12. (5) rardor|y ass|gr|rg suojecls lo exper|rerla| ard corlro| groups, ard us|rg
13. () repealed reasures des|gr.
11. Ara|ys|s
15. Tre purpose ol ara|yz|rg dala |r a sludy |s lo descr|oe lre dala |r rear|rglu| lerrs. 3lal|sl|cs re|p lo arsWer |rporlarl researcr quesl|ors ard |l |s lre arsWers lo
sucr quesl|ors lral lurlrer our urderslard|rg ol lre l|e|d ard prov|de lor acader|c sludy. ll |s requ|red lre researcrer lo rave ar urderslard|rg ol Wral loo|s are
su|lao|e lor a parl|cu|ar researcr sludy. 0eperd|rg or lre ||rds ol var|ao|es |derl|l|ed (ror|ra|, ord|ra|, |rlerva|, ard ral|o) ard lre des|gr ol parl|cu|ar sludy, a
ruroer ol slal|sl|ca| lecrr|ques |s ava||ao|e lo ara|yze dala.
1. Trere are lWo approacres lo lre slal|sl|ca| ara|ys|s ol dala lre descr|pl|ve approacr ard |rlererl|a| approacr. 0escr|pl|ve slal|sl|cs corverl dala |rlo p|clure ol lre
|rlorral|or lral |s read||y urderslardao|e. Tre |rlererl|a| approacr re|ps lo dec|de Wrelrer lre oulcore ol lre sludy |s a resu|l ol laclors p|arred W|lr|r des|gr ol
lre sludy or delerr|red oy crarce. Tre lWo approacres are oller used sequerl|a||y |r lral l|rsl, dala are descr|oed W|lr descr|pl|ve slal|sl|cs, ard lrer add|l|ora|
slal|sl|ca| rar|pu|al|ors are dore lo ra|e |rlererces aooul lre |||e||rood lral lre oulcore Was due lo crarce lrrougr |rlererl|a| slal|sl|cs. lrlerprel|rg lre
resu|lsTre resu|l secl|or ol lre researcr reporl |s lo||oWed oy secl|or Wr|cr locuses or |rlerprelal|or ol lre resu|ls. lr lr|s las|, lre |rvesl|galor lr|es lo |rlerprel lre
resu|ls W|lr|r lre g|ver corceplua| lrareWor|. lere lre researcrer draWs corc|us|ors oased or lre resu|ls. ll rypolreses rave oeer lorred, lr|s secl|or d|scusses
lre supporl or |ac| ol supporl rypolres|s, ard |l rypolres|s rave rol oeer lorred lre descr|pl|ve l|rd|rgs are d|scussed.
REP0RT|NC AN0 60HHUN|6AT|0N 0F RE8EAR6h F|N0|NC8
Research Report
Tre purpose Wr|l|rg researcr reporl |s lo docurerl lre researcr l|rd|rgs, lo srare lre resu|ls W|lr olrer |rleresled groups, ard app|y lre resu|ls |r pracl|ce. ll |s a cra||erg|rg
joo ard requ|res |rag|ral|or, creal|v|ly, ard resourcelu|ress. Tre researcr reporl a|rs al le|||rg lre readers lre proo|er |derl|l|ed, |rvesl|galed ard relrods adopled, lre
resu|ls lourd ard lre corc|us|or reacred. Tre r|gresl slardard ol correcl usage ol Word ard serlerces |s [Link] oulcore ol lre sludy srou|d oe preserled |r a Way
lral lre corsurer srou|d urderslard lre l|rd|rgs.
Tre resu|ls car oe preserled lrrougr Wr|ller Word or lrrougr var|ous ||rds ol p|clor|a| d|sp|ays. 0raprs ard lao|es are lre lWo corror relrods ol corrur|cal|rg resu|ls.
0raprs are gerera||y used lo descr|oe lre dala |r quesl|or, ard lao|es are used lo surrar|ze lre l|rd|rgs (8roc|opp &lasl|rgs-To|sra, 2003). Cr|ler|a lor eva|ual|rg lre
ellecl|veress ol oolr graprs ard lao|es |rc|ude lre c|ar|ly ol lre preserlal|or, |ls corc|seress, ard |ls adequacy |r corvey|rg appropr|ale |rlorral|or (w||sor, 198Z, p.295).
8ar grapr, r|slograr, lrequercy po|ygor, p|e d|agrar, p|clor|a| crarls are lre corror relrods ol d|sp|ay|rg resu|ls d|agrarral|ca||y.
Tao|es are gerera||y used lo surrar|ze lre rear|rglu| resu|ls ol a sludy. Trey srou|d oe ruroered |r sequerce ard are relerred W|lr |r lre lexl. Tao|es srou|d oe
accorpar|ed oy laclua|, prec|se descr|pl|or ol lre|r rear|rg. 3c|erl|l|c Wr|l|rg |s lre preserlal|or ol a sel ol reasors |r supporl ol a lres|s, or propos|l|or. Tre lorral
suggesled oy lre Puo||cal|or Varua| ol lre Arer|car Psycro|og|ca| Assoc|al|or, car oe corsu|led lor dela||ed rallers ol sly|e (Weo address). A sc|erl|l|c reporl requ|res lre
sare allerl|or lo good Wr|l|rg as does ary olrer lorr ol Wr|ller persuas|or. Key corcepls are c|ar|ly, orev|ly, ard le||c|ly. Aulrors srou|d oe carelu| lo avo|d sex|sr ard elrr|c
o|as
Relererces are c|led |r lre lexl oy aulror rare ard dale ol puo||cal|or. larvard sly|e ard 'arcouver sly|e are lre corror|y used relrods ol Wr|l|rg relererces. Tre
relererce ||sl corla|rs ar erlry lor eacr Wor| c|led |r lre lexl, ard ro olrers. Tre parls ol a paper are:
O (1) l|l|e,
O (2) aulrors ard lre|r all|||al|ors,
O (3) aoslracl,
O (1) |rlroducl|or,
O (5) relrod,
O () resu|ls,
O (Z) d|scuss|or,
O (8) relererces,
O (9) loolroles,
O (10) lao|es,
O (11) l|gure capl|ors, ard
O (12) l|gures.
Tre l|l|e srou|d corvey lre ra|r |dea ol lre paper |r a leW Words. Tre aulrors ol lre paper are ||sled |r lre order ol lre |rporlarce ol lre|r corlr|oul|ors. Tre aoslracl |s a
or|el surrary ol lre paper ard |rc|udes e|ererls lror lre |rlroducl|or, relrod, resu|ls, ard d|scuss|or secl|ors. Tre |rlroducl|or slales lre gerera| proo|er lre paper dea|s
W|lr, d|scusses lre re|evarl ||leralure, ard slales Wral lre paper W||| corlr|oule lo lre urderslard|rg ol lre proo|er. Tre relrod secl|or le||s Wral you d|d |r lre exper|rerl |r
sucr a Way lral arolrer persor car eva|uale lre va||d|ly ol lre corc|us|ors ol lre sludy ard car repeal |l |r a|| esserl|a|s.
Tre relrod secl|or descr|oes lre suojecls, apparalus, des|gr, ard procedure. Tre resu|ls secl|or descr|oes lre resu|ls ard lre|r slal|sl|ca| ara|ys|s. 0raprs ard lao|es are
descr|oed rere. Tre d|scuss|or secl|or |rlerprels lre resu|ls ard re|ales lrer lo lre ||leralure. ll slales lre corlr|oul|ors lral lre sludy ra|es lo lre urderslard|rg ol lre
proo|er posed |r lre |rlroducl|or, ard |l dea|s W|lr ary Wea|ress |r lre dala or ary qua||l|cal|ors ol lre corc|us|ors.
6ommun|cat|ng Research Resu|ts
3c|erl|l|c corrur|cal|or la|es p|ace |r rary Ways, |rc|ud|rg arcr|va| puo||cal|or |r scro|ar|y jourra|s ard |rlorra| corrur|cal|or arorg groups ol sc|erl|sls, |roWr as
|rv|s|o|e co||eges. Researcr oulcore reeds lo oe srared W|lr olrer proless|ora|s, regard|ess ol lre sludy's oulcore. Tre |rvesl|galor car preserl lre l|rd|rgs |r ar ora| lorral
(corlererce preserlal|ors) or Wr|ller lorral (jourra|s or sc|erl|l|c puo||cal|ors). Nurs|rg |s a re|al|ve|y a reW proless|or ard lre oody ol |roW|edge reeds lo oe deve|oped.
Puo||cal|or ol researcr l|rd|rgs |r |rlerral|ora| jourra|s ra|es lre l|rd|rgs ol lre sludy ava||ao|e lo proless|ora|s ol olrer courlr|es.
Tre |rvesl|galor srou|d dec|de lre appropr|ale lorral lor preserl|rg lre l|rd|[Link] sleps |r lre puo||cal|or process |rc|ude croos|rg lre jourra|, suor|ll|rg lre l|ra|
raruscr|pl a|org W|lr a cover |eller, rev|s|rg lre paper lo accourl lor rev|eWers' correrls, resuor|ll|rg lre paper, rev|eW|rg lre copyed|led raruscr|pl ard read|rg lre page
prools.0ra| preserlal|ors |rc|ude rosl ol lre e|ererls ol lre Wr|ller paper |r spec|l|ed lorral.
Pracl|c|rg lre la|| oelore a syrpalrel|c aud|erce, prepar|rg good v|sua| a|ds, ard spea||rg lror ar oul||re ralrer lrar read|rg lre paper d|recl|y are |eys lo a good
preserlal|[Link] preserlal|ors are ar |rcreas|rg|y popu|ar lorr ol corrur|cal|rg resu|ls al sc|erl|l|c reel|rgs. Tre var|ous parls ol lre paper are p|aced or a verl|ca|
surlace |r sucr a Way lral lrey car oe read lror a d|slarce ol severa| leel. Tre aulror rera|rs rear lre posler lo d|scuss lre resu|ls W|lr passersoy.
Research Ut|||zat|on
Nurs|rg researcr corlr|oule pos|l|ve|y lo lre rea|lr care sysler. Researcr ul|||zal|or |s lre process ol lrarslerr|rg researcr |roW|edge |rlo pracl|ce, lrus lac|||lal|rg ar
|rroval|ve crarge |r pracl|ce or lre ver|l|cal|or ol ex|sl|rg pracl|ce proloco|s. KroW|edge aooul puo||sred raler|a|s ard Wral olrer peop|e rave lr|ed |s v|la| Wrer exp|or|rg
so|ul|ors lo a proo|er. ll |s lre proless|ora| respors|o|||ly ol lre rurses lo delerr|re lre oesl pracl|ce, urder Wral cord|l|ors, |r Wr|cr c|rcurslarces.
To errarce lre |rlegral|or ol researcr ard pracl|ce, rurses rusl rave ar orgar|zal|ora| erv|rorrerl lo |r Wr|cr erqu|ry ard cr|l|ca| lr|r||rg are va|ued. Researcr ul|||zal|or |s
re|ps |r |rprov|rg rurs|rg pracl|ce oy prov|d|rg process oy arsWers lo c||r|ca| quesl|ors, eva|ual|rg ellecl|veress ol lre rurs|rg acl|rs, lesl|rg lreor|es re|evarl lo rurs|rg
pracl|ce ard expard|rg rurs|rg |roW|edge (Laruza,1999).
wR|T|NC RE8EAR6h PR0P08AL8
Researcr Proposa|Tre Wr|l|rg ol a researcr proposa| |s ar |rporlarl aspecl ol researcr process. A researcr proposa| |s a dela||ed p|ar ol lre researcr lo oe corducled. A
Wr|ller researcr proposa| lo||oWs a gerera| lorral ol a jourra| arl|c|e W|lr lre lo||oW|rg r|re gerera| sleps:
1. Proo|er
2. 0el|r|l|ors, assurpl|ors, ||r|lal|ors or de||r|lal|ors
3. Rev|eW ol re|aled ||leralure
1. lypolres|s
5. Velrods
. T|re scredu|e
Z. Expecled resu|ls
8. Relererces
9. Apperd|x
0ua||t|es of a Cood Research Proposa|
O Prov|des a rea||sl|c p|ar lor |rvesl|gal|or ol your researcr quesl|or
O Prov|des jusl|l|cal|or ol a relrodo|og|ca| perspecl|ve, ard relrods ol |rvesl|gal|or
O Prov|des dala Wr|cr ras lre capac|ly lo arsWer your researcr quesl|or
O Adequale|y cors|ders re|evarl elr|ca| |ssues
T|ps on wr|t|ng Cood Proposa|s
O F|ra||se your researcr quesl|or/ proo|er slalererl/ rypolres|s
O Va|e sure your proposa| |s |og|ca|.
O lderl|ly poss|o|e Wea|resses |r your researcr des|gr, ac|roW|edge lrer ard exp|a|r Wry lrey are lrere.
O Cr|l|ca||y rev|eW/ ed|l your oWr Wr|l|rg, see| olrers re|p W|lr lr|s
O Learr lo read |||e a Wr|ler - exar|re slruclure, sly|e, orgar|sal|or elc..
O wr|le W|lr aulror|ly (|e oac| up your slalererls W|lr relrerces)
O wr|le lor c|ar|ly rol '|rpress|veress'
O 3roW lral you are p|arr|rg your researcr carelu||y (lr|r| aooul pragral|c |ssues - agercy supporl/ elr|cs/ resources you ray reed/ polerl|a| rurd|es).
O ou are lre experl or your lop|c. le|p lre reader lo grasp your |deas.
O Ed|l lor c|ar|ly (dor'l jusl proolread)
O NUR8|NC RE8EAR6h TERH|N0L0CY
O [Link]|b|||ty
O Feas|o|||ly ol a sludy relers lo lre ease W|lr Wr|cr lre parl|cu|ar sludy car oe corp|eled.
O 2. Purpose of the study
O Tre purpose ol lre sludy descr|oes Wry lre sludy ras oeer des|gred. Tre purpose rel|ecls lre |rlerl ol lre |rvesl|galor ard use ol lre |roW|edge der|ved.
O 3. .Theory
O A lreory |s corposed ol spec|l|c corcepls ard propos|l|ors lral allerpls lo accourl lor a parl|cu|ar rol|or lral |s ooserved |r lre rea| Wor|d. Treory assures lral a
parl|cu|ar corceplua| rode| |s ul|||zed. Tre purpose ol us|rg lreory |s lo descr|oe a rol|or, lo exp|a|r ar |dea, or lo pred|cl Wral r|grl oe ooserved.
O 4. Propos|t|ons
O Propos|l|ors are slalererls lral suggesl a spec|l|c re|al|orsr|p oelWeer lWo or rore corcepls. A propos|l|or ray la|e lre lorr ol ar ax|or or lreorer. Ar ax|or
|s a slalererl lral ||r|s lre corcepls ol a lreory. Tre ||r|s or re|al|orsr|p oelWeer corcepls |s assured lo oe lrue. A lreorer |s a slalererl lral des|grales a
re|al|orsr|p oelWeer corcepls lral are deduced lror re|al|orsr|p a|ready lorred oy ax|ors.
O 5. 6onstruct
O A corslrucl rel|ecls lre spec|l|c, polerl|a||y ooservao|e craracler|sl|cs ol a corcepl ard lrus lac|||lales lesl|rg ol lre |dea.
O . Var|ab|e
O A var|ao|e |s a corcepl (corslrucl) lral ras oeer so spec|l|ca||y del|red lral prec|se ooserval|ors ard lrerelore reasurererl car oe accorp||sred.
O 7. 0educt|ve Reason|ng
O 0educl|ve reasor|rg |s relrod ol lr|r||rg lral oeg|rs W|lr a gerera| slalererl ol oe||el ard roves lo oola|r spec|l|c ooserval|ors. Reasor|rg roves lror lre
gerera| lo lre spec|l|c.
O 8. |nduct|ve Reason|ng
O lrducl|ve reasor|rg |rvo|ves lre co||ecl|or ol ooserval|ors re|aled lo a parl|cu|ar everl. Fror lrese ooserval|ors, a lreory or gerera| exp|aral|or regard|rg lre
everl car evo|ve. Reasor|rg roves lror spec|l|c lo lre gerera|
O 9. |as
O 8|as |s a lee||rg or |rl|uerce lral slrorg|y lavors lre oulcore ol a parl|cu|ar l|rd|rg |r a researcr projecl. wrer lre crarce ol o|as |s rol addressed, lre re||ao|||ly ol
lre sc|erl|l|c l|rd|rgs |s cors|dered lo oe r|gr|y quesl|orao|e.
O 10. The Prob|em 8tatement
O Tre proo|er slalererl preserls lre lop|c urder sludy, prov|des a ral|ora|e lor lre cro|ce ol lop|c, represerls a syrlres|s ol lacl ard lreory, ard d|recls lre
se|ecl|or ol lre des|gr
O 11. 0ua||tat|ve and quant|tat|ve var|ab|es
O "uarl|lal|ve var|ao|e |s ore Wrose va|ues or calegor|es cors|sls ol ruroers ard |l d|llererces oelWeer |ls calegor|es car oe expressed rurer|ca||y (age, |rcore,
s|ze, elc.). Tre qua||lal|ve var|ao|e |s ore Wr|cr cors|sls ol d|screle calegor|es ralrer lrar rurer|ca| (sex, re||g|or, elc). Re|al|orsr|p arorg quarl|lal|ve var|ao|es
ray oe e|lrer pos|l|ve or regal|ve (3|rg|elor ard 3lar|ls, 1999:Z). A pos|l|ve re|al|orsr|p ex|sls |l ar |rcrease |r lre va|ue ol ore var|ao|e |s accorpar|ed oy ar
|rcrease |r lre va|ue ol olrer, or decrease |r ore |s accorpar|ed oy olrer. Tre regal|ve re|al|orsr|p oelWeer var|ao|es ex|sls |l lre decrease |r lre va|ue ol ore
var|ao|e |s accorpar|ed oy ar |rcrease |r lre va|ue ol olrer.
O 12. 8cho|ar|y pub||cat|ons
O 3cro|ar|y puo||cal|ors are lre docurerls lral serve lo corrur|cale lo olrer proless|ora|s lre relrods ard acr|evererls produced lrrougr acader|c sludy ard
researcr |rvesl|gal|or. 3cro|ar|y puo||cal|ors are used lo d|sser|rale scro|ar|y Wor| W|lr|r d|sc|p||re, Wr|cr |s cruc|a| lor lre groWlr ol |ls reroers.
O 13. 0e||m|tat|on and L|m|tat|on
O 0e||r|lal|ors |rd|cale lre cul oll po|rls oeyord Wr|cr lre researcrer does rol |rlerl lo prooe. ll |rc|udes lrose reslr|cl|ors lre researcrer p|aced |r lre sludy pr|or
lo galrer|rg dala. 0e||r|lal|ors are cors|dered al every dec|s|or po|rl dur|rg p|arr|rg slage. L|r|lal|ors |rd|cale lre Wea|ress ol lre erl|re sludy, as lre
researcrer perce|ves lrer. 0e||r|lal|ors are sel dur|rg lre p|arr|rg slage, Wrereas ||r|lal|ors are exper|erced dur|rg |rp|ererlal|or slage ard lrese
urcorlro||ao|e e|ererls are reporled researcr reporl.
O 14. 0ependent and |ndependent var|ab|es
O Tre |rdeperderl var|ao|e (oller relerred lo |r ar exper|rerla| or quas|-exper|rerla| sludy as lre exper|rerla| or lrealrerl var|ao|e) |s ar arlecederl lo olrer
var|ao|es. lr ar exper|rerl or quas|-exper|rerl, |l |s lre var|ao|e lral |s rar|pu|aled, ard |ls ellecl or lre deperderl var|ao|e |s ooserved. Tre deperderl var|ao|e
represerls lre area ol |rleresl urder |rvesl|gal|or. ll rel|ecls lre ellecl ol or lre resporse lo lre |rdeperderl var|ao|e.
O 15. 0ef|n|ng Terms
O TWo lypes ol del|r|l|or: Corceplua| del|r|l|or or d|cl|orary del|r|l|or, ard operal|ora| del|r|l|or. 0peral|ora| del|r|l|or ass|grs rear|rg lo a var|ao|e ard descr|oes
lre acl|v|l|es requ|red lo reasure |l.
O 1. 0perat|ona| 0ef|n|t|on
O 0peral|ora| del|r|l|or ol var|ao|es relers lo del|r|l|or ol lerrs |r a Way lral lre exp|aral|or used |r lre sludy lral re|p |r del|r|rg var|ao|es |r reasurao|e ard
quarl|l|ao|e lerrs.
O 17. Probab|||ty 8amp||ng
O Prooao|||ly sarp||rg |s lre process ol se|ecl|rg sarp|es oased or prooao|||ly lreory. Prooao|||ly lreory slales lral poss|o|||ly lral everls occur oy crarce.
O 18. Popu|at|on
O Tre popu|al|or |s lre erl|re group ol persors or oojecls lral |s ol |rleresl lo lre |rvesl|galor.
O 19. 8amp|e
O Tre sarp|e |s a suosel ol lre popu|al|or se|ecled oy |rvesl|galor lo parl|c|pale |r a researcr sludy
O 20. Var|ab|e
O A var|ao|e |s a corcepl (corslrucl) lral ras oeer so spec|l|ca||y del|red lral prec|se ooserval|ors ard lrerelore reasurererl car oe accorp||sred.
O 21. Va||d|ty |n Re|at|on to Research 0es|gn
O Trere car oe lWo ||rds ol va||d|ly re|aled lo researcr des|gr: |rlerra| ard exlerra| va||d|ly (8roc|opp & lasl|rgs-To|sra (2003). lrlerra| va||d|ly relers lo Wrelrer
lre |rdeperderl var|ao|e aclua||y rade a delererce ard resu|ls are rol due lo exlrareous laclors. Exlerra| va||d|ly relers lo lre exlerl lo Wr|cr lre resu|ls ol lre
sludy car oe gerera||zed lo lre |arger popu|al|or.
O 22. Heta-ana|ys|s
O Vela-ara|ys|s |s lecrr|que Wrere lre l|rd|rgs lror severa| sra|| c||r|ca| lr|a|s are ara|yzed logelrer. A|lrougr, lre l|rd|rgs lror eacr sludy a|ore ray rol oe
poWerlu| erougr lo a||oW lor dec|s|ors allecl|rg c||r|ca| pracl|ce, Wrer ara|yzed logelrer, lre l|rd|rgs ray oe rucr uselu|. Vela-ara|ys|s |s a slal|sl|ca| procedure
lral corpares s|r||ar slud|es lo delerr|re read|ress ol lre oulcores lor |rp|ererlal|or |r c||r|ca| pracl|ce (Vassay & Loor|s, 1988)
O 23. |nc|dence
O lrc|derce |s a ralreral|ca| rel|ecl|or ol lre ruroer ol cases ol a rea|lr proo|er |r a g|ver popu|al|or. Tre lerr |rc|derce descr|oes lre ruroer ol reW cases
W|lr|r a spec|l|c l|re per|od.
O 24. Preva|ence
O Preva|erce |s a ralreral|ca| rel|ecl|or ol lre ruroer ol cases ol a rea|lr proo|er |r a g|ver popu|al|or. Tre lerr preva|erce descr|oes a|| cases ol a rea|lr
proo|er |r a g|ver popu|al|or.
0escr|pt|ve approach and |nferent|a| approach
0eperd|rg or lre ||rds ol var|ao|es |derl|l|ed (ror|ra|, ord|ra|, |rlerva|, ard ral|o) ard lre des|gr ol parl|cu|ar sludy, a ruroer ol slal|sl|ca| lecrr|ques |s ava||ao|e lo ara|yze
dala. Trere are lWo approacres lo lre slal|sl|ca| ara|ys|s ol dala lre descr|pl|ve approacr ard |rlererl|a| approacr. 0escr|pl|ve slal|sl|cs corverl dala |rlo p|clure ol lre
|rlorral|or lral |s read||y urderslardao|e. Tre |rlererl|a| approacr re|ps lo dec|de Wrelrer lre oulcore ol lre sludy |s a resu|l ol laclors p|arred W|lr|r des|gr ol lre sludy or
delerr|red oy crarce. Tre lWo approacres are oller used sequerl|a||y |r lral l|rsl, dala are descr|oed W|lr descr|pl|ve slal|sl|cs, ard lrer add|l|ora| slal|sl|ca| rar|pu|al|ors
are dore lo ra|e |rlererces aooul lre |||e||rood lral lre oulcore Was due lo crarce lrrougr |rlererl|a| slal|sl|cs. wrer descr|pl|ve approacr |s used, lerrs |||e rear,
red|ar, rode, var|al|or, ard slardard dev|al|or are used lo corrur|cale lre ara|ys|s |rlorral|or ol dala. wrer |rlererl|a| approacr |s used, prooao|||ly va|ues (!) are used lo
corrur|cale lre s|gr|l|carce or |ac| ol s|gr|l|carce ol lre resu|ls (3lre|rer & Norrar, 199).
Heasurement
Veasurererl del|red as 'ass|grrerl ol rurera| accord|rg lo ru|es (Ty|er 193:Z). Regard|ess ol lre var|ao|es urder sludy, |r order lo ra|e serse oul ol dala co||ecled, eacr
var|ao|e rusl oe reasured |r sucr a Way lral |ls ragr|lude or quarl|ly rusl oe c|ear|y |derl|l|ed. Tre spec|l|c slralegy lor a parl|cu|ar sludy deperds upor lre parl|cu|ar
researcr proo|er, lre sarp|e urder sludy, lre ava||ao|||ly ol |rslrurerls, ard lre gerera| leas|o|||ly ol lre projecl (8roc|opp & lasl|rgs-To|sra, 2003). A var|ely ol
reasurererl relrods are ava||ao|e lor use |r rurs|rg researcr. Four reasurererl sca|es are used: ror|ra|, ord|ra|, |rlerva| ard ral|o.
The nom|na| |eve| of measurement
Tre ror|ra| |eve| ol reasurererl |s lre rosl pr|r|l|ve or |oWesl |eve| ol c|ass|ly|rg |rlorral|or. Nor|ra| var|ao|es |rc|ude calegor|es ol peop|e, everls, ard olrer prerorera
are rared, are exrausl|ve |r ralure, ard are rulua||y exc|us|ve. Trese calegor|es are d|screle ard rorcorl|rous. lr case ol ror|ra| reasurererl adr|ss|o|e slal|sl|ca|
operal|or are courl|rg ol lrequercy, percerlage, proporl|or, rode, ard coell|c|erl ol corl|rgercy.
The ord|na| |eve| of measurement
Tre ord|ra| |eve| ol reasurererl |s secord |r lerrs ol |ls rel|rererl as a rears ol c|ass|ly|rg |rlorral|or. 0rd|ra| |rp||es lral lre va|ues ol var|ao|es car oe rar|-ordered
lror r|gresl lo |oWesl.
|nterva| Leve| of Heasurement
lrlerva| |eve| ol reasurererl |s quarl|lal|ve |r ralure. Tre |rd|v|dua| ur|ls are equ|d|slarl lror ore po|rl lo lre olrer. Tre |rlerva| dala does rol rave ar aoso|ule zero. For
exarp|e, lerperalure |s reasured |r Ce|s|us or Farrerre|l. lrlerva| |eve| ol reasurererl relers lo lre lr|rd |eve| ol reasurererl |r re|al|or lo corp|ex|ly ol slal|sl|ca|
lecrr|ques lral car oe used lo ara|yze dala. 'ar|ao|es W|lr |r lr|s |eve| ol reasurererl are assessed |rcrererla||y, ard lre |rcrererls are equa|.
Rat|o Leve| of Heasurement
Ral|o |eve| ol reasurererl |s craracler|zed oy var|ao|es lral are assessed |rcrererla||y W|lr equa| d|slarces oelWeer lre |rcrererls ard a sca|e lral ras ar aoso|ule zero.
Ral|o var|ao|es exr|o|l lre craracler|sl|cs ol ord|ra| ard |rlerva| reasurererl ard car a|so oe corpared oy descr|o|rg |l as lWo or lrree l|res arolrer ruroer or as ore-lr|rd,
ore-quarler, ard so or. 'ar|ao|e |||e l|re, |erglr ard We|grl are ral|o sca|es ard a|so oe reasured us|rg ror|ra| or ord|ra| sca|e. Tre ralreral|ca| properl|es ol |rlerva| ard
ral|o sca|es are very s|r||ar, so lre slal|sl|ca| procedures are corror lor oolr lre sca|es.
Errors of measurement
wrer a var|ao|e |s reasured lrere |s lre polerl|a| lor errors lo occur. 3ore ol lre sources ol errors |r reasurererl are, |rslrurerl c|ar|ly, var|al|ors |r adr|r|slral|ors,
s|lual|ora| var|al|ors, resporse sel o|as, lrars|lory persora| laclors, resporse sarp||rg, ard |rslrurerl lorral.
Popu|at|on, 8amp|e, Var|ab|e
Popu|al|or |s del|red as lre erl|re co||ecl|or ol a sel ol oojecls, peop|e, or everls, |r a parl|cu|ar corlexl. Tre popu|at|on |s lre erl|re group ol persors or oojecls lral |s ol
|rleresl lo lre |rvesl|galor. lr slal|sl|cs popu|al|or rears, ary co||ecl|or ol |rd|v|dua| |lers or ur|ls lral |s lre suojecl ol |rvesl|gal|or. Popu|al|or relers lo lre co||ecl|or ol a||
|lers upor Wr|cr slalererls W||| oe oased. Tr|s r|grl |rc|ude a|| pal|erls W|lr scr|zoprrer|a |r a parl|cu|ar rosp|la|, or a|| depressed |rd|v|dua|s |r a cerla|r corrur|ly.
Craracler|sl|cs ol a popu|al|or lral d|ller lorr |rd|v|dua| lo |rd|v|dua| are ca||ed var|ab|es. A var|ao|e |s a corcepl (corslrucl) lral ras oeer so spec|l|ca||y del|red lral prec|se
ooserval|ors ard lrerelore reasurererl car oe accorp||sred. Lerglr, age, We|grl, lerperalure, pu|se rale are a leW exarp|es ol var|ao|es.
Tre samp|e |s a suosel ol lre popu|al|or se|ecled oy |rvesl|galor lo parl|c|pale |r a researcr sludy. A sarp|e relers lo a suosel ol ooserval|ors se|ecled lror lre popu|al|or. ll
r|grl oe urusua| lor ar |rvesl|galor lo descr|oe or|y pal|erls W|lr scr|zoprrer|a |r a parl|cu|ar rosp|la| ard |l |s ur|||e|y lral ar |rvesl|galor W||| reasure every depressed
persor |r a corrur|ly. As |l |s rare|y pracl|cao|e lo oola|r reasures ol a parl|cu|ar var|ao|e lror a|| lre ur|ls |r popu|al|or, lre |rvesl|galor ras lo co||ecl |rlorral|or lror a
sra||er group or suo-sel lral represerls lre group as a Wro|e. Tr|s suo-sel |s ca||ed a sarp|e. Eacr ur|l |r lre sarp|e prov|des a record, sucr as reasurererl, Wr|cr |s
ca||ed ar observat|on. Tre sarp|e represerls lre popu|al|or ol lrose cr|l|ca| craracler|sl|cs lre |rvesl|galor p|ar lo sludy.
0ependent and |ndependent var|ab|es
Ar |rdeperderl var|ao|e |s presured cause ol lre deperderl var|ao|e-lre presured ellecl. Tre |rdeperderl var|ao|e |s ore Wr|cr exp|a|rs or accourls lor var|al|ors |r lre
deperderl var|ao|e. Ar |rdeperderl var|ao|e |s ore Wrose crarge resu|ls |r crarge |r olrer var|ao|e. lr exper|rerls, lre |rdeperderl var|ao|e |s lre var|ao|e rar|pu|aled oy
lre exper|rerler. A deperderl var|ao|e |s ore Wr|cr crarges |r re|al|orsr|p lo crarges |r arolrer var|ao|e. A var|ao|e Wr|cr |s deperderl |r ore sludy ray oe |rdeperderl |r
arolrer. lrlerver|rg var|ao|e |s ore lral cores oelWeer lre |rdeperderl ard deperderl var|ao|e.
hypothes|s
lypolres|s |s slalererl or dec|aral|or ol lre expecled oulcore ol a researcr sludy. ll |s oased or |og|ca| ral|ora|e ard ras erp|r|ca| poss|o|||l|es lor lesl|rg. lypolres|s |s
lorru|aled |r exper|rerla| researcr. lr sore ror-exper|rerla| corre|al|ora| slud|es, rypolres|s ray a|so oe deve|oped. Norra||y, lrere are lour e|ererls |r a rypolres|s:
O (1) deperderl ard |rdeperderl var|ao|es,
O (2) sore lype ol re|al|orsr|p oelWeer |rdeperderl ard deperderl var|ao|e,
O (3) lre d|recl|or ol lre crarge, ard
O (1) |l rerl|ors aooul lre suojecls, |.e. popu|al|or oe|rg slud|ed.
ll |s del|red as 'A lerlal|ve assurpl|or rade |r order lo draW oul ard lesl |ls |og|ca| or erp|r|ca| corsequerces (weosler 198).
3lardards |r lorru|al|rg a rypolres|s (Aruja, R. 2001):
O ll srou|d oe erp|r|ca||y leslao|e, Wrelrer |l |s r|grl or Wrorg.
O ll srou|d oe spec|l|c ard prec|se.
O Tre slalererls |r lre rypolres|s srou|d rol oe corlrad|clory.
O ll srou|d spec|ly var|ao|es oelWeer Wr|cr lre re|al|orsr|p lo oe eslao||sred
O ll srou|d descr|oe ore |ssue or|y.
Craracler|sl|cs ol a lypolres|s
O Craracler|sl|cs ol a lypolres|s (Treece & Treece, 1989)
O ll |s leslao|e
O ll |s |og|ca|
O ll |s d|recl|y re|aled lo lre researcr proo|er
O ll |s laclua||y or lreorel|ca||y oased
O ll slales a re|al|orsr|p oelWeer var|ao|es
O ll |s slaled |r sucr a lorr lral |l car oe accepled or rejecled
0|recl|ora| rypolres|s pred|cls ar oulcore |r a parl|cu|ar d|recl|or, ard rord|recl|ora| rypolres|s s|rp|y slales lral lrere W||| oe d|llererce oelWeer lre groups. Trere car oe
lWo rypolreses, researcr rypolres|s ard ru|| rypolres|s. Tre ru|| rypolres|s |s lorred lor lre slal|sl|ca| purpose ol regal|rg |l. ll lre researcr rypolres|s slales lrere |s
pos|l|ve corre|al|or oelWeer sro||rg ard carcer, lre ru|| rypolres|s slales lrere |s ro re|al|or oelWeer sro||rg ard carcer. ll |s easy lo regale a slalererl lrar eslao||sr|rg
|l.
Tre ru|| rypolres|s |s slal|sl|ca| slalererl lral lrere |s ro d|llererce oelWeer lre groups urder sludy. A slal|sl|ca| lesl |s used lo delerr|re lre prooao|||ly lral lre ru||
rypolres|s |s rol lrue ard rejecled, |.e. |rlererl|a| slal|sl|cs are used |r ar ellorl lo rejecl lre ru||, lrereoy sroW|rg lral a delererce does ex|sls. Tre ru|| rypolres|s |s a
lecrr|ca| recess|ly Wrer us|rg |rlererl|a| slal|sl|cs, oased or slal|sl|ca| s|gr|l|carce Wr|cr |s used as cr|ler|or.
Types of errors
wrer lre ru|| rypolres|s |s rejecled, lre ooserved d|llererces oelWeer groups are deered |rprooao|e oy crarce a|ore. For exarp|e, |l drug A |s corpared lo a p|aceoo lor |ls
ellecls or depress|or ard lre ru|| rypolres|s |s rejecled, lre |rvesl|galor corc|udes lral lre ooserved d|llererces rosl |||e|y are rol exp|a|rao|e s|rp|y oy sarp||rg error. Tre
|ey Word |r lrese slalererls |s prooao|e. wrer oller|rg lr|s corc|us|or, lre |rvesl|galor ras lre odds or r|s or rer s|de. loWever, Wral are lre crarces ol lre slalererl oe|rg
|rcorrecl?
lr slal|sl|ca| |rlererce lrere |s ro Way lo say W|lr cerla|rly lral rejecl|or or relerl|or ol lre ru|| rypolres|s Was correcl. Trere are lWo lypes ol polerl|a| errors. A lype l error
occurs Wrer lre ru|| rypolres|s |s rejecled Wrer |rdeed |l srou|d rave oeer rela|red; a lype ll error occurs |l lre ru|| rypolres|s |s rela|red Wrer |rdeed |l srou|d rave oeer
rejecled.
Type | Error
Type l errors occur Wrer lre ru|| rypolres|s |s rejecled oul srou|d rave oeer rela|red, sucr as Wrer a researcrer dec|des lral lWo rears are d|llererl. le or sre r|grl
corc|ude lral lre lrealrerl Wor|s or lrose groups are rol sarp|ed lror lre sare popu|al|or Wrereas |r rea||ly lre ooserved d|llererces are allr|oulao|e or|y lo sarp||rg error.
lr a corserval|ve sc|erl|l|c sell|rg, lype l errors srou|d oe rade rare|y. Trere |s a greal d|sadvarlage lo advocal|rg lrealrerls lral rea||y do rol Wor|.
Tre prooao|||ly ol a lype l error |s deroled W|lr lre 0ree| |eller a|pra (a). 8ecause ol lre des|re lo avo|d lype l errors, slal|sl|ca| rode|s rave oeer crealed so lral lre
|rvesl|galor ras corlro| over lre prooao|||ly ol a lype l error. Al lre .05 s|gr|l|carce or a|pra |eve|, a lype l error |s expecled lo occur |r 5 percerl ol a|| cases. Al lre .01 |eve|, |l
ray occur |r 1 percerl ol a|| cases. Trus, al lre .05 a |eve|, ore lype l error |s expecled lo oe rade |r eacr ol 20 |rdeperderl lesls. Al lre .01 a |eve|, ore lype l error |s
expecled lo oe rade |r eacr 100 |rdeperderl lesls.
Type || Error
Tre rol|val|or lo avo|d a lype l error r|grl |rcrease lre prooao|||ly ol ra||rg a secord lype ol error. lr lr|s case lre ru|| rypolres|s |s rela|red Wrer |l aclua||y Was Wrorg. For
exarp|e, ar |rvesl|galor ray reacr lre corc|us|or lral a lrealrerl does rol Wor| Wrer aclua||y |l |s ell|cac|ous. Tre prooao|||ly ol a lype ll error |s syroo||zed oy lre 0ree|
cap|la| |eller oela (8). lere lre dec|s|or |s rol lo rejecl lre ru|| rypolres|s Wrer |r aclua||ly lre ru|| rypolres|s Was la|se. Tr|s |s a lype ll error W|lr lre prooao|||ly ol oela (8).
8tat|st|ca| Power
Trere are severa| rareuvers lral W||| |rcrease corlro| over lre prooao|||ly ol d|llererl lypes ol errors ard correcl dec|s|ors. 0re lype ol correcl dec|s|or |s lre prooao|||ly ol
rejecl|rg lre ru|| rypolres|s ard oe|rg correcl |r lral dec|s|or. PoWer |s del|red as lre prooao|||ly ol rejecl|rg lre ru|| rypolres|s Wrer |l srou|d rave oeer rejecled. u|l|rale|y,
lre slal|sl|ca| eva|ual|or W||| oe rore rear|rglu| |l |l ras r|gr poWer.
ll |s parl|cu|ar|y |rporlarl lo rave r|gr slal|sl|ca| poWer Wrer lre ru|| rypolres|s |s rela|red. Rela|r|rg lre ru|| rypolres|s W|lr r|gr poWer g|ves lre |rvesl|galor rore
corl|derce |r slal|rg lral d|llererces oelWeer groups Were ror-s|gr|l|carl. 0re laclor lral allecls lre poWer |s lre sarp|e s|ze. As lre sarp|e s|ze |rcreases, poWer |rcreases.
Tre |arger lre sarp|e, grealer lre prooao|||ly lral a correcl dec|s|or W||| oe rade |r rejecl|rg or rela|r|rg lre ru|| rypolres|s.
Arolrer laclor lral |rl|uerces poWer |s lre s|gr|l|carce |eve|. As s|gr|l|carce |rcreases, lre poWer |rcreases. For |rslarce, |l lre .05 |eve| |s se|ecled ralrer lrar lre .01 |eve|,
lrere W||| oe a grealer crarce ol rejecl|rg lre ru|| rypolres|s. loWever, lrere W||| a|so oe a r|grer prooao|||ly ol a lype l error. 8y reduc|rg lre crarces ol a lype l error, lre
crarces ol correcl|y |derl|ly|rg lre rea| d|llererce (poWer) are a|so reduced. Trus, lre salesl rar|pu|al|or lo allecl poWer W|lroul allecl|rg lre prooao|||ly ol a lype l error |s lo
|rcrease lre sarp|e s|ze.
Tre lr|rd laclor allecl|rg poWer |s ellecl s|ze. Tre |arger lre lrue d|llererces oelWeer lWo groups, lre grealer lre poWer. Exper|rerls allerpl|rg lo delecl a very slrorg ellecl,
sucr as lre |rpacl ol a very polerl lrealrerl, r|grl rave suoslarl|a| poWer ever W|lr sra|| sarp|e s|zes. Tre delecl|or ol suol|e ellecls ray requ|re very |arge sarp|es |r
order lo acr|eve reasorao|e slal|sl|ca| poWer. ll |s Worlr rol|rg lral rol a|| slal|sl|ca| lesls rave equa| poWer. Tre prooao|||ly ol correcl|y rejecl|rg lre ru|| rypolres|s |s r|grer
W|lr sore slal|sl|ca| relrods lrar W|lr olrers. For exarp|e, rorpararelr|c slal|sl|cs are lyp|ca||y |ess poWerlu| lrar pararelr|c slal|sl|cs, lor exarp|e.
8amp||ng
Tre process ol se|ecl|rg a lracl|or ol lre sarp||rg ur|l (|.e. a co||ecl|or W|lr spec|l|ed d|rers|ors) ol lre largel popu|al|or lor |rc|us|or |r lre sludy |s ca||ed sarp||rg. 3arp||rg
car oe prooao|||ly sarp||rg or ror-prooao|||ly sarp||rg.
Probab|||ty 8amp||ng or Random samp||ng
Prooao|||ly sarp||rg, a|so ca||ed rardor sarp||rg, |s a se|ecl|or process lral ersures eacr parl|c|parl lre sare prooao|||ly ol oe|rg se|ecled. Prooao|||ly sarp||rg |s lre
process ol se|ecl|rg sarp|es oased or prooao|||ly lreory. Prooao|||ly lreory slales lral poss|o|||ly lral everls occur oy crarce. Rardor sarp||rg |s lre oesl relrod lor
ersur|rg lral a sarp|e |s represerlal|ve ol lre |arger popu|al|or. Rardor sarp||rg car oe s|rp|e rardor sarp||rg, slral|l|ed rardor sarp||rg, ard c|usler sarp||rg.
Nonprobab|||ty samp||ng
Norprooao|||ly sarp||rg |s lre se|ecl|or process |r Wr|cr lre prooao|||ly lral ary ore |rd|v|dua| or suojecl se|ecled |s rol equa| lo lre prooao|||ly lral arolrer |rd|v|dua| or
suojecl ray oe croser. Tre prooao|||ly ol |rc|us|or ard lre degree lo Wr|cr lre sarp|e represerls lre popu|al|or are ur|roWr. Tre rajor proo|er W|lr rorprooao|||ly
sarp||rg |s lral sarp||rg o|as car occur. Norprooao|||ly sarp||rg car oe corver|erce sarp||rg, purpos|ve sarp||rg or quola sarp||rg.

8amp||ng Error (8tandard Error}
3arp||rg error relers lo lre d|screparc|es lral |rev|lao|y occur Wrer a sra|| group (sarp|e) |s se|ecled lo represerl lre craracler|sl|cs ol a |arger group (popu|al|or). ll |s
del|red as lre delererce oelWeer a parareler ard ar esl|rale ol lral parareler Wr|cr |s der|ved lror a sarp|e (L|rdqu|sl, 198:8). Tre rears ard slardard dev|al|ors
ca|cu|aled lror lre dala co||ecled or a g|ver sarp|e Wou|d rol oe lre sare as lrose ca|cu|al|ors der|ved lror dala co||ecled lror lre erl|re popu|al|or. ll |s lre d|screparcy
oelWeer lre craracler|sl|cs ol lre sarp|e ard lre popu|al|or lral corsl|lules sarp||rg error.
0escr|pt|ve stat|st|cs
0escr|pl|ve slal|sl|cs are lecrr|ques Wr|cr re|p lre |rvesl|galor lo orgar|ze, surrar|ze ard descr|oe reasures ol a sarp|e. lere ro pred|cl|ors or |rlererces are rade
regard|rg popu|al|or pararelers. 0escr|pl|ve slal|sl|cs are used lo surrar|ze ooserval|ors ard lo p|ace lrese ooserval|ors W|lr|r corlexl. Tre rosl corror descr|pl|ve
slal|sl|cs |rc|ude reasures ol cerlra| lerdercy ard reasures ol var|ao|||ly.
6entra| tendency or "measures of the m|dd|e"
Trere are lrree corror|y used reasures ol cerlra| lerdercy: lre rear, lre red|ar, ard lre rode- are ca|cu|aled lo |derl|ly lre average, lre rosl lyp|ca| ard lre rosl
corror va|ues, respecl|ve|y arorg lre dala co||ecled. Tre rear |s lre ar|lrrel|c average, lre red|ar |s lre po|rl represerl|rg lre 50lr percerl||e |r a d|slr|oul|or, ard lre
rode |s lre rosl corror score. 3orel|res eacr ol lrese reasures |s lre sare; or olrer occas|ors, lre rear, lre red|ar, ard lre rode car oe d|llererl. Tre rear,
red|ar, ard rode are lre sare Wrer lre d|slr|oul|or ol scores |s rorra|. urder rosl c|rcurslarces lre rear, red|ar, ard rode W||| rol oe exacl|y lre sare. Tre rode |s
rosl |||e|y lo r|srepreserl lre urder|y|rg d|slr|oul|or ard |s rare|y used |r slal|sl|ca| ara|ys|s. Tre rear ard lre red|ar are lre rosl corror|y reporled reasures ol cerlra|
lerdercy.
Tre rajor cors|deral|or |r croos|rg oelWeer lrer |s roW rucr We|grl srou|d oe g|ver lo exlrere scores. Tre rear la|es |rlo accourl eacr score |r lre d|slr|oul|or; lre
red|ar l|rds or|y lre ra|lWay po|rl. As rear oesl represerls a|| suojecls ard oecause ol des|rao|e ralreral|ca| properl|es, lre rear |s lyp|ca||y lavored |r slal|sl|ca| ara|ys|s.
0esp|le lre advarlages ol lre rear, lrere are a|so sore advarlages lo lre red|ar. lr parl|cu|ar, lre red|ar d|sregards oul||er cases, Wrereas lre rear roves lurlrer |r lre
d|recl|or ol lre oul||ers. Trus, lre red|ar |s oller used Wrer lre |rvesl|galor does rol Warl scores |r lre exlrere ol lre d|slr|oul|or lo rave a slrorg |rpacl. Tre red|ar |s a|so
va|uao|e lor surrar|z|rg dala lor a reasure lral r|grl oe |rsers|l|ve loWard lre r|grer rarges ol lre sca|e. For |rslarce, a very easy lesl ray rave a ce|||rg ellecl oul does
rol sroW lre lrue ao|||ly ol sore lesl-la|ers. A ce|||rg ellecl occurs Wrer lre lesl |s loo easy lo reasure lre lrue ao|||ly ol lre oesl sluderls. Trus, |l sore scores slac| up al
lre exlrere, lre red|ar ray oe rore accurale lrar lre rear. ll lre r|gr scores rad rol oeer oourded oy lre r|gresl oola|rao|e score, lre rear ray aclua||y rave oeer
r|grer.
Tre rear, red|ar, ard rode are exacl|y lre sare |r a rorra| d|slr|oul|or. loWever, rol a|| d|slr|oul|ors ol scores rave a rorra| or oe||-sraped appeararce. Tre r|gresl po|rl
|r a d|slr|oul|or ol scores |s ca||ed lre roda| pea|. A d|slr|oul|or W|lr lre roda| pea| oll lo ore s|de or lre olrer |s descr|oed as s|eWed. Tre Word s|eW ||lera||y rears
s|arled.
Tre d|recl|or ol s|eW |s delerr|red oy lre |ocal|or ol lre la|| or l|al area ol lre d|slr|oul|or. Pos|l|ve s|eW occurs Wrer lre la|| goes oll lo lre r|grl ol lre d|slr|oul|or. Negal|ve
s|eW occurs Wrer lre la|| or |oW po|rl |s or lre |ell s|de ol lre d|slr|oul|or. Tre rode |s lre rosl lrequerl score |r lre d|slr|oul|or. lr a s|eWed d|slr|oul|or, lre rode rera|rs al
lre pea| Wrereas lre rear ard lre red|ar sr|ll aWay lror lre rode |r lre d|recl|or ol lre s|eWress. Tre rear roves lurlresl |r lre d|recl|or ol lre s|eWress, ard lre
red|ar lyp|ca||y la||s oelWeer lre rear ard lre rode. Vode |s lre oesl reasure ol cerlra| lerdercy Wrer ror|ra| var|ao|es are used. Ved|ar |s lre oesl reasure ol cerlra|
lerdercy Wrer ord|ra| var|ao|es are used. Vear |s lre oesl reasure ol cerlra| lerdercy Wrer |rlerva| or ral|o sca|es are used.
Heasures of Var|ab|||ty
ll lrere |s ro var|ao|||ly W|lr|r popu|al|ors lrere Wou|d oe ro reed lor slal|sl|cs: a s|rg|e |ler or sarp||rg ur|l Wou|d le|| us a|| lral |s reeded lo |roW aooul lre popu|al|or as a
Wro|e. Trree |rd|ces are used lo reasure var|al|or or d|spers|or arorg scores: (1) rarge, (2) var|arce, ard (3) slardard dev|al|or (Cozoy, 2000). Tre rarge descr|oes lre
delererce oelWeer lre |argesl ard sra||esl ooserval|ors rade: lre var|arce ard slardard dev|al|or are oased or average d|llererce or dev|al|or ol ooserval|ors lror lre
rear.
Veasures ol cerlra| lerdercy, sucr as lre rear ard red|ar, are used lo surrar|ze |rlorral|or. Trey are |rporlarl oecause lrey prov|de |rlorral|or aooul lre average
score |r lre d|slr|oul|or. KroW|rg lre average score, roWever, does rol prov|de a|| lre |rlorral|or requ|red lo descr|oe a group ol scores. lr add|l|or, reasures ol var|ao|||ly
are requ|red. Tre s|rp|esl relrod ol descr|o|rg var|ao|||ly |s lre rarge, Wr|cr |s s|rp|y lre d|llererce oelWeer lre r|gresl score ard |oWesl score.
Arolrer slal|sl|c, |roWr as lre |rlerquarl||e rarge, descr|oes lre |rlerva| ol scores oourded oy lre 25lr ard Z5lr percerl||e rar|s; lre |rlerquarl||e rarge |s oourded oy lre
rarge ol scores lral represerl lre r|dd|e 50 percerl ol lre d|slr|oul|or. lr corlrasl lo rarges, Wr|cr are used |rlrequerl|y |r slal|sl|ca| ara|ys|s, lre var|arce ard slardard
dev|al|or are used corror|y. 3|rce lre rear |s lre average score |r a d|slr|oul|or, lre sur ol lre dev|al|ors arourd lre rear W||| a|Ways equa| zero. el, |r order lo
urderslard lre craracler|sl|c ol a d|slr|oul|or ol scores, sore esl|ral|or ol dev|al|or arourd lre rear |s |rporlarl. Tre sur ol lrese dev|al|ors W||| a|Ways equa| zero.
loWever, lre squared dev|al|ors arourd lre rear car y|e|d a rear|rglu| |rdex. Tre var|arce |s lre sur ol lre squared dev|al|ors arourd lre rear d|v|ded oy lre ruroer ol
cases.
Range
Rarge |s lre s|rp|esl relrod ol exar|r|rg var|al|or arorg scores ard relers lo lre d|llererce oelWeer lre r|gresl ard |oWesl va|ues produced. ll sroWs roW W|de lre
d|slr|oul|or |s over Wr|cr lre reasurererls are spread. For corl|ruous var|ao|es, lre rarge |s lre ar|lrrel|c d|llererce oelWeer lre r|gresl ard |oWesl ooserval|ors |r lre
sarp|e. lr lre case ol courls or reasurererls, 1 srou|d oe added lo lre d|llererce oecause lre rarge |s |rc|us|ve ol lre exlrere ooserval|ors.. Tre rarge la|es accourl ol
or|y lre rosl exlrere ooserval|ors. ll |s lrerelore ||r|led |r |ls uselu|ress, oecause |l g|ves ro |rlorral|or aooul roW ooserval|ors are d|slr|ouled. lrlerquarl||e rarge |s lre
area oelWeer lre |oWesl quarl||e ard lre r|gresl quarl||e, or lre r|dd|e 50 ol lre scores
Var|ance
Tre var|arce |s a very uselu| slal|sl|c ard |s corror|y erp|oyed |r dala ara|ys|s. loWever, |ls ca|cu|al|or requ|res l|rd|rg lre squared dev|al|ors arourd lre rear ralrer lrar
lre s|rp|e or aoso|ule dev|al|ors arourd lre rear. Trus, Wrer lre var|arce |s ca|cu|aled, lre resu|l|rg ca|cu|al|or W||| oe |r ur|ls lral are lre ralura| squared ur|ls. Ta||rg lre
square rool ol lre var|arce puls lre ooserval|ors oac| |rlo lre|r or|g|ra| relr|c. Tre square rool ol lre var|arce |s |roWr as lre slardard dev|al|or. Tre slardard dev|al|or |s ar
approx|ral|or ol lre average dev|al|or arourd lre rear. A|lrougr lre slardard dev|al|or |s rol lecrr|ca||y equa| lo lre average dev|al|or, |l g|ves ar approx|ral|or ol roW
rucr lre average score dev|ales lror lre rear. 0re relrod lor ca|cu|al|rg var|arce |s lo l|rsl ca|cu|ale lre dev|al|or scores. Tre sur ol lre sel ol dev|al|or score equa| lo
zero. 'ar|arce |s lre squ|re ol lre slardard dev|al|or: corverse|y, a slardard dev|al|or |s lre squ|re rool ol lre var|arce. Tre dev|al|or ol a d|slr|oul|or ol scores car lrer oe
used lo ca|cu|ale lre var|arce.
8tandard 0ev|at|on
Tre slardard dev|al|or |s lre rosl W|de|y app||ed reasure ol var|ao|||ly. wrer ooserval|ors rave oeer oola|red lror every |ler or sarp||rg ur|l |r a popu|al|or, lre syroo| lor
lre slardard dev|al|or |s (|oWer case s|gra). Tr|s |s parareler ol lre popu|al|or. wrer |l |s ca|cu|aled lror a sarp|e |l |s syroo||zed s. 3lardard dev|al|or ol a d|slr|oul|or ol
scores |s lre squ|re rool ol lre var|arce. Large slardard dev|al|ors suggesl lral scores do rol c|usler arourd lre rear: lrey are prooao|y W|de|y scallered. 3|r||ar|y sra||
slardards dev|al|ors suggesl lral lrere |s very ||ll|e delererce arorg scores.
Norma| 0|str|but|on
Tre rorra| d|slr|oul|or |s a ralreral|ca| corslrucl Wr|cr suggesls lral ralura||y occurr|rg ooserval|ors lo||oW a g|ver pallerr. Tre pallerr |s lre rorra| curve, Wr|cr p|aces
rosl ooserval|ors al lre rear ard |esser ruroer ol ooserval|ors al e|lrer exlrere. Tr|s curve or oe||-sraped d|slr|oul|or rel|ecls lre lerdercy ol lre ooserval|ors corcerr|rg
a spec|l|c var|ao|e lo c|usler |r a parl|cu|ar rarrer
Tre rorra| curve car oe descr|oed lor ary sel ol dala g|ver lre rear ard slardard dev|al|or ol lre dala ard assurpl|ors lral lre craracler|sl|cs urder sludy Wou|d oe
rorra||y d|slr|ouled W|lr|r lre popu|al|or. A rorra| d|slr|oul|or ol lre dala suggesls lral 8 ol ooserval|ors la|| W|lr|r ore slardard dev|al|or ol lre rear, 95 la|| W|lr|r lWo
slardard dev|al|ors ol lre rear, ard 99.8Z la|| W|lr|r lrree slardard dev|al|ors ol lre rear. Treorel|ca||y rarge ol lre curve |s ur||r|led.
8tandard 8cores
0re ol lre proo|ers W|lr rears ard slardard dev|al|ors |s lral lre|r rear|rgs are rol |rdeperderl ol corlexl. For exarp|e, a rear ol 15. rears ||ll|e ur|ess lre score |s
|roWr. Tre Z-score |s a lrarslorral|or |rlo slardard|zed ur|ls lral prov|des a corlexl lor lre |rlerprelal|or ol scores. Tre Z-score |s lre d|llererce oelWeer lre score ard lre
rear, d|v|ded oy lre slardard dev|al|or. To ra|e corpar|sors oelWeer groups, slardard scores ralrer lrar raW scores car oe used. $9anoaro soores erao|e lre |rvesl|galor
lo exar|re lre pos|l|or ol a g|ver score oy reasur|rg |ls rear dev|al|or lror lre rears ol a|| sores.
Vosl oller, lre ur|ls or lre x ax|s ol lre rorra| d|slr|oul|or are |r Z-ur|ls. Ary var|ao|e lrarslorred |rlo Z-ur|ls W||| rave a rear ol 0 ard a slardard dev|al|or ol 1. Trars|al|or
ol Z-scores |rlo percerl||e rar|s |s accorp||sred us|rg a lao|e lor lre slardard rorra| d|slr|oul|or. Cerla|r Z-scores are ol parl|cu|ar |rleresl |r slal|sl|cs ard psycro|og|ca|
lesl|rg. Tre Z-score 1.9 represerls lre 9Z.5lr percerl||e |r a d|slr|oul|or Wrereas -1.9 represerls lre 2.5lr percerl||e. A Z-score ol |ess lrar -1.9 or grealer lrar 1.9 la||s
ouls|de ol a 95 percerl |rlerva| oourd|rg lre rear ol lre Z-d|slr|oul|or. 3ore slal|sl|ca| del|r|l|ors ol aororra||ly v|eW lrese del|red dev|al|ors as culoll po|rls. Trus, a persor
Wro |s rore lrar 1.9 Z-scores lror lre rear or sore allr|oule r|grl oe regarded as aororra|. lr add|l|or lo lre |rlerva| oourded oy 95 percerl ol lre cases, lre |rlerva|
|rc|ud|rg 99 percerl ol a|| cases |s a|so corror|y used |r slal|sl|cs.
6onf|dence |nterva|s
lr rosl slal|sl|ca| |rlererce proo|ers lre sarp|e rear |s used lo esl|rale lre popu|al|or rear. Eacr sarp|e rear |s cors|dered lo oe ar uro|ased esl|rale ol lre popu|al|or
rear. A|lrougr lre sarp|e rear |s ur|||e|y lo oe exacl|y lre sare as lre popu|al|or rear, repealed rardor sarp|es W||| lorr a sarp||rg d|slr|oul|or ol sarp|e rears. Tre
rear ol lre sarp||rg d|slr|oul|or |s ar uro|ased esl|rale ol lre popu|al|or rear. loWever, la||rg repealed rardor sarp|es lror lre popu|al|or |s a|so d|ll|cu|l ard expers|ve.
lrslead, |l |s recessary lo esl|rale lre popu|al|or rear oased or a s|rg|e sarp|e; lr|s |s dore oy creal|rg ar |rlerva| arourd lre sarp|e rear.
Tre l|rsl slep |r creal|rg lr|s |rlerva| |s l|rd|rg lre slardard error ol lre rear. Tre slardard error ol lre rear |s lre slardard dev|al|or d|v|ded oy lre square rool ol lre sarp|e
s|ze. 3lal|sl|ca| |rlererce |s used lo esl|rale lre prooao|||ly lral lre popu|al|or rear W||| la|| W|lr|r sore del|red |rlerva|. 8ecause sarp|e rears are d|slr|ouled rorra||y
arourd lre popu|al|or rear, lre sarp|e rear |s rosl prooao|y rear lre popu|al|or va|ue. loWever, |l |s poss|o|e lral lre sarp|e rear |s ar overesl|rale or ar urderesl|rale
ol lre popu|al|or rear. us|rg |rlorral|or aooul lre slardard error ol lre rear, |l |s poss|o|e lo pul a s|rg|e ooserval|or ol a rear |rlo corlexl.
Tre rarges lral are |||e|y lo caplure lre popu|al|or rear are ca||ed corl|derce |rlerva|s. Corl|derce |rlerva|s are oourded oy corl|derce ||r|ls. Tre corl|derce |rlerva| |s
del|red as a rarge ol va|ues W|lr a spec|l|ed prooao|||ly ol |rc|ud|rg lre popu|al|or rear. A corl|derce |rlerva| |s lyp|ca||y assoc|aled W|lr a cerla|r prooao|||ly |eve|. For
exarp|e, lre 95 percerl corl|derce |rlerva| ras a 95 percerl crarce ol |rc|ud|rg lre popu|al|or rear. A 99 percerl corl|derce |rlerva| |s expecled lo caplure lre lrue rear |r
99 ol eacr 100 cases. Tre corl|derce ||r|ls are del|red as lre va|ues lor po|rls lral oourd lre corl|derce |rlerva|.Creal|rg a corl|derce |rlerva| requ|res a rear, a slardard
error ol lre rear, ard lre Z-va|ue assoc|aled W|lr lre |rlerva|.
|nferent|a| stat|st|cs
lrlererl|a| slal|sl|cs are ralreral|ca| procedures Wr|cr re|p lre |rvesl|galor lo pred|cl or |rler popu|al|or pararelers lror sarp|e reasures. Tr|s |s dore oy a process ol
|rducl|ve reasor|rg oased or lre ralreral|ca| lreory ol prooao|||ly (FoW|er, J., Jarv|s, P. & Crevarres V. 2002).
Probab|||ty
Tre |dea ol prooao|||ly |s oas|c lo |rlererl|a| slal|sl|cs. Tre goa| ol |rlererl|a| slal|sl|ca| lecrr|ques |s sare, lo delerr|re as prec|se|y as poss|o|e lre prooao|||ly ol ar
occurrerce. ll car oe regarded as quarl|ly|rg lre crarce lral a slaled oulcore ol ar everl W||| la|e p|ace. Prooao|||ly relers lo lre |||e||rood lral lre d|llererces oelWeer
groups urder sludy are lre resu|l ol crarce. Prooao|||ly Treory slales, ary g|ver everl oul ol a|| poss|o|e oulcores. wrer ary ruroers ol rulua||y exc|us|ve sels are g|ver
lrey add up lo a s|rgu|ar|ly. wrer a co|r |s lossed |l ras lWo oul cores, e|lrer read or la||, |.e. 0.5 crarce lor read ard 0.5 crarce lor la||. wrer lrese lWo crarces are added
|l g|ves 1. For exarp|e, |r a c|ass lrere are l|lly sluderls, lre crarce ol sluderls lo oecore l|rsl |r lre c|ass |s 1 |r 50 (|.e. .02). 8y corverl|or, prooao|||ly va|ues la|| or a sca|e
oelWeer 0 (|rposs|o|||ly) ard 1 (cerla|rly), oul lrey are sorel|res expressed as percerlages, so lre 'prooao|||ly' sca|e ras rucr |r corror W|lr lre proporl|or sca|e. Tre
crarce ol corr|ll|rg lype ore error |s dec|ded oy lesl|rg lre rypolres|s lor |ls prooao|||ly va|ue. lr oerav|oura| sc|erces <.05 |s la|er as a|pra va|ue lor lesl|rg lre rypolres|s.
wrer slr|rgerl oulcores are requ|red <.01 or <.001 are la|er as lre a|pra va|ue or p va|ue.
8tat|st|ca| 8|gn|f|cance (a|pha |eve|}
Tre |eve| ol s|gr|l|carce (or a|pra |eve|) |s delerr|red lo |derl|ly lre prooao|||ly lral lre delererce oelWeer lre groups rave occurred oy crarce ralrer lrar |r resporse lo lre
rar|pu|al|or ol var|ao|es. Tre dec|s|or ol Wrelrer lre ru|| rypolres|s srou|d oe rejecled deperds or lre |eve| ol error lral car oe lo|eraled. Tre lo|erarce |eve| ol error |s
expressed as a |eve| ol s|n|l|oanoe or a|pa |eve|. Tre usua| |eve| ol s|gr|l|carce or a|pra |eve| |s 0.05, a|lrougr al l|res |eve|s ol 0.01 or o.001 ray oe used Wrer r|gr |eve|
ol accuracy |s requ|red. lr lesl|rg lre s|gr|l|carce ol oola|red slal|sl|cs, |l lre |rvesl|galor rejecls lre ru|| rypolres|s Wrer, |r lacl, |l |s lrue re corr|ls 9pe l error or a|pa
error, ard Wrer lre |rvesl|galor accepls lre ru|| rypolres|s Wrer, |r lacl, |l |s la|se re corr|ls 9pe ll or oe9a error (3|rgr AK, 2002).
Parametr|c and Non-parametr|c Tests
Pararelr|c ard ror-pararelr|c lesl are corror|y erp|oyed |r oerav|ora| researcres.
Parametr|c Tests
A pararelr|c lesl |s ore Wr|cr spec|l|es cerla|r cord|l|ors aooul lre parareler ol lre popu|al|or lror Wr|cr a sarp|e |s la|er. 3ucr slal|sl|ca| lesls are cors|dered lo oe rore
poWerlu| lrar ror-pararelr|c lesls ard srou|d oe used |l lre|r oas|c requ|rererls or assurpl|ors are rel. Assurpl|ors lor us|rg pararelr|c lesls:
O Tre ooserval|or rusl oe |rdeperderl.
O Tre ooserval|or rusl oe draWr lror a rorra| d|slr|oul|or.
O Tre sarp|e draWr lror a popu|al|or rusl rave equa| var|arces ard lr|s cord|l|or |s rore |rporlarl |l lre s|ze ol lre sarp|e |s parl|cu|ar|y sra||, |.e. roroger|c|ly
ol var|ao|es.
O Tre var|ao|es rusl oe expressed |r |rlerva| or ral|o sca|es.
O Tre var|ao|es urder sludy srou|d oe corl|ruous
Exarp|es ol pararelr|c lesls are 9-lesl, -lesl ard -lesl.
Non-parametr|c tests
A ror-pararelr|c lesl |s ore does rol spec|ly ary cord|l|ors aooul lre parareler ol lre popu|al|or lror Wr|cr lre popu|al|or |s draWr. Trese lesls are ca||ed d|slr|oul|or-lree
slal|sl|cs. For ror-pararelr|c lesls, lre var|ao|es urder sludy srou|d oe corl|ruous ard lre ooserval|ors srou|d oe |rdeperderl. Requ|s|les lor us|rg a ror-pararelr|c
slal|sl|ca| lesl are:
O Tre srape ol lre d|slr|oul|or ol lre popu|al|or lror Wr|cr a sarp|e |s draWr |s rol |roWr lo oe rorra| curve.
O Tre var|ao|es rave oeer quarl|l|ed or lre oas|s ol ror|ra| reasures (or lrequercy courls)
O Tre var|ao|es rave oeer quarl|l|ed or lre oas|s ol ord|ra| reasures or rar||rg.
O A ror-pararelr|c lesl srou|d oe used or|y Wrer pararelr|c assurpl|ors carrol oe rel.
6ommon non-parametr|c tests
O Cr|-squ|re lesl
O Varr-wr|lrey & lesl
O Rar| d|llererce relrods (3pearrar ro ard Kerda|'s 9auj
O Coell|c|erl ol corcordarce (w)
O Ved|ar lesl
O Krus|a|-wa|||s lesl
O Fr|edrar lesl
T|ps on us|ng appropr|ate tests |n exper|menta| des|gn
Two unmatched (unre|ated} groups, exper|rerla| ard corlro| (e.g. pal|erl rece|v|rg a prepared lrerapeul|c |rlerverl|or lor depress|or ard corlro| group ol pal|erls or
roul|re care)-
O 3ee lre d|slr|oul|or, Wrelrer rorra| or ror-rorra|
O ll rorra|, use pararelr|c lesls (|ndependent t-test)
O ll ror-rorra|, go lor rorpararelr|c lesls- Hann-wh|tney U test or ra||rg lre dala rorra| lrrougr ralura| |og lrarslorral|or or z-lrarslorral|or.
Two-matched (re|ated} groups, pre-posl des|gr (lre sare group |s raled oelore |rlerverl|or ard aller lre per|od ol |rlerverl|or lre group |s aga|r rale. |.e. lWo ral|rgs |r lre
sare or re|aled group)-
O 3ee d|slr|oul|or, Wrelrer rorra| or ror-rorra|
O ll rorra| use pararelr|c pa|red t-test.
O ll ror-rorra|, use rorpararelr|c w||coxon 8|gn Rank (w) lesl
Hore than two -unmatched (unre|ated} groups (lor exarp|e lrree groups: scr|zoprrer|a, o|po|ar ard corlro| group)-
O see d|slr|oul|or Wrelrer rorra| or ror-rorra|
O |l rorra||y d|slr|ouled use pararelr|c 0ne-way AN0VA
O |l ror-rorra| use rorpararelr|c Kruska|-wa|||s test
Hore than two matched (re|ated} groups (lor exarp|e |r orgo|rg |rlerverl|or ral|rgs al d|llererl l|res- l1, l2, l3, l1 .)
O 3ee d|slr|oul|or, rorra| or ror-rorra|
O ll lre dala |s rorra| use pararelr|c Repeated Heasures AN0VA
O ll dala |s ror-rorra| use rorpararelr|c Fr|edman's test
Hatched (re|ated} and unmatched (unre|ated} observat|ons
wrer ara|yz|rg o|var|ale dala sucr as corre|al|ors, a s|rg|e sarp|e ur|l g|ves a pa|r ol ooserval|ors represerl|rg lWo d|llererl var|ao|es. Tre ooserval|ors corpr|s|rg a pa|r
are ur|que|y ||r|ed, are sa|d lo oe ralcred or pa|red. For exarp|e, lre syslo||c o|ood pressure ol 10 pal|erls ard reasurererls ol arolrer 10 pal|erls aller adr|r|slral|or are
urralcred. loWever, lre reasurererls ol lre sare 10 pal|erls oelore ard aller adr|r|slral|or ol lre drug are ralcred. ll |s poss|o|e lo corducl rore sers|l|ve ara|ys|s |l lre
ooserval|ors are ralcred.
6ommon 8tat|st|ca| tests
6h|-squ|re (X2} Test (ana|yz|ng frequenc|es}
Tre cr|-squ|re lesl |s ore ol lre |rporlarl ror-pararelr|c lesls. 0u||lord (195) ras ca||ed |l lre 'gerera|-purpose slal|sl|c'. Cr|-squ|re lesl are W|de|y relerred lo as lesl ol
roroger|c|ly, rardorress, assoc|al|or, |rdeperderce ard goodress ol l|l. Tre cr|-squ|re lesl |s used Wrer lre dala are expressed |r lerrs ol lrequerc|es ol proporl|ors or
percerlages. Tr|s lesl app||es or|y lo d|screle dala, oul ary corl|ruous dala car oe reduced lo lre calegor|es ol |r sucr a Way lral lrey car oe lrealed as d|screle dala. Tre
cr|-square slal|sl|c |s used lo eva|uale lre re|al|ve lrequercy or proporl|or ol everls |r a popu|al|or lral la|| |rlo We||-del|red calegor|es. For eacr calegory, lrere |s ar expecled
lrequercy lral |s oola|red lror |roW|edge ol lre popu|al|or or lror sore olrer lreorel|ca| perspecl|ve. Trere |s a|so ar ooserved lrequercy lor eacr calegory. Tre ooserved
lrequercy |s oola|red lror ooserval|ors rade oy lre |rvesl|galor. Tre cr|-square slal|sl|c expresses lre d|screparcy oelWeer lre ooserved ard lre expecled lrequercy.
Trere are severa| uses ol cr|-squ|re lesl as:
1. Cr|-squ|re lesl car oe used as a lesl ol equa| prooao|||ly rypolres|s (equa| prooao|||ly rypolres|s |s rearl lre prooao|||ly ol rav|rg lre lrequerc|es |r a|| lre g|ver calegor|es
as equa|).
2. Tesl|rg lre s|gr|l|carce ol lre |rdeperderce rypolres|s (|rdeperderl rypolres|s rears lral ore var|ao|e |s rol allecled oy or re|aled lo arolrer var|ao|e ard rerce, lrese
lWo var|ao|es are |rdeperderl).
3. Cr|-squ|re lesl car oe used |r lesl|rg a rypolres|s regard|rg lre rorra| srape ol a lrequercy d|slr|oul|or (goodress-ol-l|l).
1. Cr|-squ|re lesl |s used |r lesl|rg s|gr|l|carce ol severa| slal|sl|cs |||e pr|-coell|c|erl, coell|c|erl ol corcordarce, ard coell|c|erl ol corl|rgercy.
5. lr cr|-squ|re lesl, lre lrequerc|es We ooserve are corpared W|lr lrose We expecl or lre oas|s ol sore ru|| rypolres|s. ll lre d|screparcy oelWeer lre ooserved ard
expecled lrequerc|es |s greal, lrer lre va|ue ol lre ca|cu|aled lesl slal|sl|c W||| exceed lre cr|l|ca| va|ue al lre appropr|ale ruroer ol degree ol lreedor. Trer lre ru||
rypolres|s |s rejecled |r lavor ol sore a|lerral|ve. Tre raslery ol lre relrod ||es rol |r so rucr |r lre corpulal|or ol lre lesl slal|sl|c |lse|l, oul |r lre ca|cu|al|or ol expecled
lrequerc|es.
. Tre cr|-squ|re slal|sl|c does rol g|ve ary |rlorral|or regard|rg lre slrerglr ol a re|al|orsr|p: |l or|y corveys lre ex|slerce ol or ror-ex|slerce ol lre re|al|orsr|p oelWeer lre
var|ao|es |rvesl|galed. To eslao||sr lre exlerl ard ralure ol lre re|al|orsr|p, add|l|ora| slal|sl|cs sucr as pr|, Crarer's ', or corl|rgercy coell|c|erl car oe used (8roc|opp
&lasl|rgs-To|sra, 2003).
T|ps on ana|yz|ng frequenc|es
O A|| vers|ors ol lre cr|-squ|re lesl corpare lre agreererl oelWeer a sel ol ooserved lrequerc|es ard lrose expecled |l sore ru|| rypolres|s |s lrue.
O A|| oojecls are courled lre ror|ra| sca|e or uraro|guous |rlerva|s or a corl|ruous sca|e |||e success|ve days or rolrs ra oe regarded lor lre app||cal|or ol lre
lesls.
O App|y ale's correcl|or |r lre cr|-squ|re lesl Wrer lrere |s or|y ore degree ol lreedor, |.e. Wrer lrere |s or|y 'ore Way' lesl ard |r 22 corl|rgercy lao|e.
Test|ng norma||ty of a data
Pararelr|c slal|sl|ca| lecrr|ques deperd upor lre ralreral|ca| properl|es ol lre rorra| curve. Trey usua||y assure lral sarp|es are draWr lror popu|al|ors lral are
rorra||y d|slr|ouled. 8elore adopl|rg a slal|sl|ca| lesl, |l |s esserl|a| lo delerr|re Wrelrer lre dala |s rorra| or ror-rorra|. Tre rorra||ly ol dala car oe crec|ed oy lWo Ways,
e|lrer p|ol oul lre dala lo see |l lrey |oo| rorra| or us|rg sopr|sl|caled slal|sl|ca| procedures. Trere are slal|sl|ca| lesls lo see rorra||ly ol lre dala. Tre corroresl ore |s
Ko|mogorov-8m|rnov test. As per lre cerlra| ||r|l lreorer, |l lrere |s ro s|gr|l|carce |r lre ! va|ue (> .05) |dea||y a pararelr|c lesl car oe used lor ara|yz|rg lre dala, ard |l
lrere |s s|gr|l|carce (<.05) a ror-pararelr|c lesl srou|d oe used lor ara|ys|s. A 8hap|ro-w||k test |s used lo see Wrelrer pararelers used lo lesl rorra||ly |s W|lr|r lre
a||oWed ||r|l. 3lal|sl|ca| pac|ages |||e 3P33 car oe used lor do|rg lr|s lesl.
t-test and z-test (compar|ng means}
lr exper|rerla| sc|erces, corpar|sors oelWeer groups are very corror. usua||y, ore group |s lre lrealrerl, or exper|rerla| group, Wr||e lre olrer group |s lre urlrealed, or
corlro| group. ll pal|erls are rardor|y ass|gred lo lrese lWo groups, |l |s assured lral lrey d|ller or|y oy crarce pr|or lo lrealrerl. 0|llererces oelWeer groups aller lre
lrealrerl are usua||y used lo esl|rale lrealrerl ellecl. Tre las| ol lre slal|sl|c|ar |s lo delerr|re Wrelrer ary ooserved d|llererces oelWeer lre groups lo||oW|rg lrealrerl
srou|d oe allr|ouled lo crarce or lo lre lrealrerl. Tre l-lesl |s corror|y used lor lr|s purpose. Trere are aclua||y severa| d|llererl lypes ol l-lesls
Types of t-Tests
O Corpar|sor ol a sarp|e rear W|lr a rypolrel|ca| popu|al|or rear.
O Corpar|sor oelWeer lWo scores |r lre sare group ol |rd|v|dua|s.
O Corpar|sor oelWeer ooserval|ors rade or lWo |rdeperderl groups.
l-lesl ard z-lesl are pararelr|c |rlererl|a| slal|sl|ca| lecrr|ques used Wrer corpar|sor ol lWo rears are requ|red. ll |s used lo lesl lre ru|| rypolres|s lral lrere |s ro d|llererce
|r rears oelWeer lre lWo groups. Tre reporl|rg ol lre resu|ls ol l-lesl gerera||y |rc|udes lre ol, l-va|ue, ard prooao|||ly |eve|. A 9-lesl car oe ore-la||ed or lWo-la||ed. ll lre
rypolres|s |s d|recl|ora|, a ore-la||ed lesl |s gerera||y used, ard |l lre rypolres|s |s ror-d|recl|ora|. 9lesl |s used Wrer sarp|e s|ze |s |ess lrar 30 ard z-lesl |s used Wrer
sarp|e s|ze |s rore lrar 30.
Trere are deperderl ard |rdeperderl 9-lesls. Tre lorru|a lo ca|cu|ale a 9-lesl car d|ller deperd|rg or Wrelrer lre sarp|es |rvo|ved are deperderl or |rdeperderl. 3arp|es
are |rdeperderl Wrer lrere are lWo groups sucr as ar exper|rerla| ard a corlro| group. 3arp|es are deperderl Wrer lre parl|c|parls lror lWo groups are pa|red |r sore
rarrer. Tre lorr ol lre 9-lesl lral |s used W|lr a deperderl sarp|e ray oe lerred as pa|red, deperderl, ralcred, or corre|aled (8roc|opp & lasl|rgs-To|sra, 2003).
0egree of freedom (df}
0egree ol lreedor (ol) |s a ralreral|ca| corcepl lral descr|oes lre ruroer ol everls or ooserval|ors lral are lree lo vary: lor eacr slal|sl|ca| lesl lrere |s a lorru|a lor
ca|cu|al|rg lre appropr|ale degree ol lreedor (r-1).
Hann-wh|tney&-test
Tre Varr-wr|lrey & lesl |s a ror-pararelr|c suosl|lule lor lre pararelr|c 9lesl, lor corpar|rg lre red|ars ol lWo urralcred pa|rs. For app||cal|or ol & lesl dala rusl oe
oola|red or ord|ra| or |rlerva| sca|e. we car use Varr-wr|lrey &-lesl lo corpare lre red|ar l|re urderla|er lo perlorr lre las| oy a sarp|e ol suojecls Wro rad rol drur|
W|lr lral ol arolrer sarp|e Wro rad drur| a slardard|zed vo|ure ol a|coro|. Tr|s lesl |s used lo see group d|llererce, Wrer lre dala |s ror-rorra| ard lre groups are
|rdeperderl. Tre lesl car oe app||ed |r groups W|lr urequa| or equa| s|ze.
3ore |ey po|rls aooul us|rg Varr-wr|lrey &lesl are:
O Tr|s lesl car oe app||ed lo |rlerva| dala (reasurererls), lo courl ol lr|rgs, der|ved var|ao|e (proporl|ors ard |rd|ces) ard lo ord|ra| dala (rar| sca|es, elc.)
O ur|||e sore lesl slal|sl|cs, lre ca|cu|aled va|ue ol & ras lo oe sra||er lrar lre laou|aled cr|l|ca| va|ue |r order lo rejecl ru|| rypolres|s.
O Tre lesl |s lor d|llererce |r red|ars. ll |s corror error lo record a slalererl |||e 'lre Varr-wr|lrey &-lesl sroWed lrere |s s|gr|l|carl d|llererce |r rears. Trere
|s, roWever, ro reed lo ca|cu|ale lre red|ars ol eacr sarp|e lo do lre lesl.
w||coxon test -matched pa|rs
Tre w||coxor lesl lor ralcred pa|rs |s a ror-pararelr|c lesl lor corpar|rg lre red|ars ol lWo ralcred sarp|es. ll ca||s lor a lesl slal|sl|c % Wrose prooao|||ly d|slr|oul|or |s
|roWr. Tre ooserval|or rusl oe draWr or |rlerva| sca|e. ll |s rol poss|o|e lo use lr|s lesl or ord|ra| reasurererls. Tre w||coxor's lesl car oe used |r ralcred pa|r sarp|es.
Tr|s lesl |s lor d|llererce |r red|ars ard lre lesl assures lral sarp|es rave oeer draWr lror parerl popu|al|ors lral are syrrelr|ca||y rol recessar||y rorra||y d|slr|ouled.
Pearson Product-Homent 6orre|at|on 6oeff|c|ent
Tre Pearsor producl-rorerl corre|al|or relrod |s a pararelr|c lesl |s a corror relrod assess|rg lre assoc|al|or oelWeer lWo var|ao|es urder sludy. lr lr|s lesl ar
esl|ral|or ol al |easl ore parareler |s |rvo|ved, reasurererl |s al ar |rlerva| |eve|, ard |l |s assured lral lre var|ao|e urder sludy |s rorra||y d|slr|ouled W|lr|r lre popu|al|or.
8pearman Rank corre|at|on 6oeff|c|ent
3pearrar's r |s a rorpararelr|c lesl, Wr|cr |s equ|va|erl lo pararelr|c Pearsor r. 3pearrar's Rar| Corre|al|or Tecrr|que |s used Wrer lre cord|l|ors ol lre Producl Vorerl
Corre|al|or Coell|c|erl do ro app|y. Tr|s lesl |s W|de|y used oy rea|lr sc|erl|sls ard uses rar|s ol lre x ard y ooserval|ors ard lre raW dala lrerse|ves are d|scarded.
T|ps on us|ng corre|at|on tests
O wrer ooserval|ors ol ore or oolr var|ao|es are or ar ord|ra| sca|e, or are proporl|ors, percerlages, |rd|ces or courls ol lr|rgs, use lre 3pearrar's Rar|
Corre|al|or Coell|c|erl. Tre ruroer ol ur|ls |r lre sarp|e |.e. lre ruroer ol pa|red ooserval|ors srou|d oe oelWeer Z ard 30.
O wrer ooserval|ors are reasured or |rlerva| sca|e use Producl Vorerl Corre|al|or Coell|c|erl srou|d oe cors|dered. . 3arp|e ur|ls rusl oe oola|red rardor|y,
ard lre dala srou|d oe o|var|a9e norma| |.e. x ard .
O Tre re|al|orsr|p oelWeer lre var|ao|es srou|d oe recl|||rear (slra|grl ||re) rol curved. Cerla|r ralreral|ca| lrarslorral|ors (e.g. |ogar|lrr|c lrarslorral|or) W|||
'slra|grler up' curved re|al|orsr|ps.
O A slrorg ard s|gr|l|carl corre|al|or does rol rear does rol rear ore recessar||y lre cause ol lre olrer. ll |s poss|o|e lral sore add|l|ora|, ur|derl|l|ed laclor |s
urder|y|rg source ol var|ao|||ly |r oolr var|ao|es.
O Corre|al|ors reasured |r sarp|es esl|rale corre|al|ors |r lre popu|al|ors. A corre|al|or |r a sarp|e |s rol '|rproved' or slrerglrered oy oola|r|rg rore
ooserval|ors: roWever, |arger sarp|es ray oe requ|red lo corl|rr lre slal|sl|ca| s|gr|l|carce ol Wea|er corre|al|ors.
O 6ommon 8tat|st|ca| Tests
O Regress|on Ana|ys|s
O Regress|or ara|ys|s |s oller used lo pred|cl lre va|ue ol ore var|ao|e g|ver |rlorral|or aooul arolrer var|ao|e. Tre procedure car descr|oe roW lWo corl|ruous
var|ao|es are re|aled. Regress|or ara|ys|s |s used lo exar|re re|al|orsr|ps arorg corl|ruous var|ao|es ard |s rosl appropr|ale lor dala lral car oe p|olled or a
grapr. 0ala are usua||y p|olled, so lral lre |rdeperderl var|ao|e |s seer or lre ror|zorla| (x) ax|s ard lre deperderl var|ao|e or lre verl|ca| (y) ax|s. Tre slal|sl|ca|
procedure lor regress|or ara|ys|s |rc|udes a lesl lor lre s|gr|l|carce ol lre re|al|orsr|p oelWeer lWo var|ao|es. 0|ver a s|gr|l|carl re|al|orsr|p oelWeer lWo
var|ao|es, |roW|edge ol lre va|ue ol lre |rdeperderl var|ao|e perr|ls a pred|cl|or ol lre va|ue ol lre deperderl var|ao|e.
O 0ne-way Ana|ys|s of Var|ance (AN0VA}
O wrer lrere are lrree or rore sarp|es, ard lre dala lror eacr sarp|e are lrougrl lo oe d|slr|ouled rorra||y, ara|ys|s ol var|arce (AN0'A) ray oe a lecrr|que ol
cro|ce 0re-Way ara|ys|s ol var|arce |s a pararelr|c |rlererl|a| slal|sl|ca| lesl lral erao|es lre |rvesl|galors lo corpare lWo or rore group rears, Wr|cr Was
deve|oped oy RF. F|srer. Tre reporl|rg ol lre resu|ls |rc|udes lre ol, F va|ue ard lre prooao|||ly |eve|. AN0'A |s ol lWo lypes: s|rp|e ara|ys|s ol var|arce ard
corp|ex ara|ys|s ol var|arce or lWo-Way ara|ys|s ol var|arce. 0re-way Ara|ys|s ol 'ar|arce (AN0'A) |s ar exlers|or ol l-lesl, Wr|cr perr|ls lre |rvesl|galor lo
corpare rore lrar lWo rears s|ru|lareous|y.
O Researcrers sludy|rg lWo or rore groups car use AN0'A lo delerr|re Wrelrer lrere are d|llererces arorg lre groups. For exarp|e, rurse |rvesl|galors Wro
Warl lo assess lre |eve|s ol re|p|essress arorg lrree groups ol pal|erls--|org-lerr, acule care ard oulpal|erls-car adr|r|sler ar |rslrurerl des|gred lo
reasure |eve|s ol re|p|essress ard lrer ca|cu|ale ar ral|o. ll lre ral|o |s sull|c|erl|y |arge, lrer corc|us|or car oe lral lrere |s a d|llererce oelWeer al |easl lWo
ol lre rears car oe draWr.
O Tre |arger lre F-ral|o, lre rore |||e|y |l |s lral lre ru|| rypolres|s car oe rejecled. 0lrer lesls ca||ed posl roc corpar|sors, car oe used lo delerr|re Wr|cr ol lre
rears d|ller s|gr|l|carl|y. F|srer's L30, 0urcar's reW ru|l|p|e rarge lesl, lre Neurar-Keu|s, Tu|ey's l30, ard 3crelle's lesl are lre posl roc corpar|sor lesls
lral are rosl lrequerl|y used lo||oW|rg AN0'A. lr sore |rslarces a posl roc corpar|sor |s rol recessary oecause lre rears ol lre groups urder cors|deral|or
read||y corvey lre d|llererces oelWeer lre groups (8roc|opp & lasl|rgs-To|sra, 2003).
O Kruska|-wa|||s test-more than two samp|es
O Tre Krus|a|-wa|||s lesl |s a s|rp|e ror-pararelr|c lesl lo corpare lre red|ars ol lrree or rore sarp|es. 0oserval|ors ray oe |rlerva| reasurererls, courls ol
lr|rgs, der|ved var|ao|es, or ord|ra| rar|s. ll lrere are or|y lrree sarp|es, lrer lrere rusl oe al |easl l|ve ooserval|ors |r eacr sarp|e. 3arp|es do rol rave lo oe
ol equa| s|zes. Tre slal|sl|c |s used lo |rd|cale lre lesl va|ue.
O Hu|t|var|ate Ana|ys|s
O Two-way or Factor|a| Ana|ys|s of Var|ance
O Faclor|a| ara|ys|s ol var|arce perr|ls lre |rvesl|galor lo ara|yze lre ellecls ol lWo or rore |rdeperderl var|ao|es or lre deperderl var|ao|e (ore-Way AN0'A |s
used W|lr ore |rdeperderl var|ao|e ard ore deperderl var|ao|e). Tre lerr laclor |s |rlercrargeao|e W|lr |rdeperderl var|ao|e ard laclor|a| AN0'A lrerelore
relers lo lre |dea lral dala rav|rg lWo or rore |rdeperderl var|ao|es car oe ara|yzed us|rg lr|s lecrr|que.
O Ana|ys|s of 6ovar|ance (AN60VA}
O ANC0'A |s ar |rlererl|a| slal|sl|ca| lesl lral erao|es |rvesl|galors l adjusls slal|sl|ca||y lor group d|llererces lral ray |rlerlere W|lr oola|r|rg resu|ls lral re|ale
spec|l|ca||y lo lre ellecls ol lre |rdeperderl var|ao|e(s) or lre deperderl var|ao|e(s).
O Hu|t|var|ate Ana|ys|s
O Vu|l|var|ale ara|ys|s relers lo a group ol |rlererl|a| slal|sl|ca| lesls lral erao|e lre |rvesl|galor lo exar|re ru|l|p|e var|ao|es s|ru|lareous|y. ur|||e olrer slal|sl|ca|
lecrr|ques, lrese lesls perr|l lre |rvesl|galor lo exar|re severa| deperderl ard |rdeperderl var|ao|es s|ru|lareous|y.
O 6hoos|ng the appropr|ate test
O ll lre dala lu|l||| lre requ|rererl ol pararelr|c assurpl|ors, ary ol lre pararelr|c lesls Wr|cr su|l lre purpose car oe used. 0 lre olrer rard, |l lre dala do rol
lu|l||| lre pararelr|c requ|rererls, ary ol lre ror-pararelr|c slal|sl|ca| lesls, Wr|cr su|l lre purpose, car oe se|ecled. 0lrer laclors Wr|cr dec|de lre se|ecl|or ol
appropr|ale slal|sl|ca| lesls are lre ruroer ol |rdeperderl ard deperderl var|ao|es, ard re ralure ol lre var|ao|es (Wrelrer ror|ra|, ord|ra|, |rlerva| or ral|o).
wrer oolr |rdeperderl ard deperderl var|ao|es are |rlerva| reasures ard are rore lrar ore, ru|l|p|e corre|al|or |s lre rosl appropr|ale slal|sl|c. 0r lre olrer
rard Wrer lrey are |rlerva| reasures ard lre|r ruroer |s or|y ore, Pearsor r ray oe used. w|lr ord|ra| ard ror|ra| reasures, lre ror-pararelr|c slal|sl|cs are
lre corror cro|ce.
O 6omputer A|ded Ana|ys|s
O Tre ava||ao|||ly ol corpuler sollWare ras greal|y lac|||laled lre execul|or ol rosl slal|sl|ca| lecrr|ques. Tre rary slal|sl|ca| pac|ages rur or d|llererl lypes ol
p|allorrs or corpuler corl|gural|ors. For gerera| dala ara|ys|s lre 3lal|sl|ca| Pac|age lor lre 3oc|a| 3c|erces (3P33), lre 8V0P ser|es, ard lre 3lal|sl|ca|
Ara|ys|s 3ysler (3A3) are recorrerded. Trese are gerera|-purpose slal|sl|ca| pac|ages lral perlorr esserl|a||y a|| lre ara|yses corror lo o|ored|ca|
researcr. lr add|l|or, a var|ely ol olrer pac|ages rave ererged.
O 33TAT rurs or oolr l8V-corpal|o|e ard Vac|rlosr syslers ard perlorrs rosl ol lre ara|yses corror|y used |r o|ored|ca| researcr. Tre popu|ar 3A3
prograr ras oeer redeve|oped lor Vac|rlosr syslers ard |s so|d urder lre rare JVP. 0lrer corror|y used progrars |rc|ude 3lala, Wr|cr |s exce||erl lor lre
l8V-corpal|o|e corpulers. Tre deve|opers ol 3lala re|ease a regu|ar reWs|eller prov|d|rg updales, Wr|cr ra|es lre pac|age very allracl|ve. 3lal'|eW |s a
gerera|-purpose prograr lor lre Vac|rlosr corpuler.
O NeWer vers|ors ol 3lal'|eW |rc|ude ar add|l|ora| prograr ca||ed 3uper AN0'A, Wr|cr |s ar exce||erl sel ol AN0'A roul|res. 3lal'|eW |s user-lr|erd|y ard a|so
ras supero grapr|cs. For users |rleresled |r ep|der|o|og|ca| ara|yses, Ep||og |s a re|al|ve|y |oW-cosl prograr lral rurs or lre l8V-corpal|o|e p|allorrs. ll |s
parl|cu|ar|y va|uao|e lor rale ca|cu|al|ors, ara|ys|s ol d|sease-c|usler|rg pallerrs, ard surv|va| ara|ys|s. 08-3TAT, |s a |oW-cosl, ru|l|purpose pac|age lral |s very
corprerers|ve.
O 3P33 (3lal|sl|ca| Pac|age lor 3oc|a| 3c|erces) |s ore arorg lre popu|ar corpuler progrars lor dala ara|ys|s. Tr|s sollWare prov|des a corprerers|ve sel ol
l|ex|o|e loo|s lral car oe used lo accorp||sr a W|de var|ely ol dala ara|ys|s las|s (E|rsprucr, 1998). 3P33 |s ava||ao|e |r a var|ely ol p|allorrs. Tre |alesl producl
|rlorral|or ard lree lulor|a| are ava||ao|e al [Link].
O Corpuler sollWare progrars lral prov|de easy access lo r|gr|y sopr|sl|caled slal|sl|ca| relrodo|og|es represerl oolr opporlur|l|es ard dargers. 0r lre pos|l|ve
s|de, ro ser|ous researcrer reed oe corcerred aooul oe|rg urao|e lo ul|||ze prec|se|y lre slal|sl|ca| lecrr|que lral oesl su|ls r|s or rer purpose, ard lo do so W|lr
lre ||rd ol speed ard ecorory lral Was |rcorce|vao|e jusl lWo decades ago. Tre darger |s lral sore |rvesl|galors ray oe lerpled lo erp|oy aller-lre-lacl
slal|sl|ca| rar|pu|al|ors lo sa|vage a sludy lral Was l|aWed lo slarl W|lr, or lo exlracl s|gr|l|carl l|rd|rgs lrrougr use ol progress|ve|y rore sopr|sl|caled
ru|l|var|ale lecrr|ques.