SEAMENSHIP & DECKWORK NOTES: Code S2

WIRE ROPES
Capt. Sameer Dhawan

Wire rope, is a type of cable which consists of several strands of

metal wire laid (or 'twisted') into a helix.
The term cable is often used interchangeably with wire rope.
However, in general, wire rope refers to diameters larger than 3/8
inch. Sizes smaller than this are designated as cable or cords.
Initially wrought iron wires were used, but today steel is the main
material used for wire ropes.
Historically wire rope evolved from steel chains which had a
record of mechanical failure. While flaws in chain links or solid
steel bars can lead to catastrophic failure, flaws in the wires
making up a steel cable are less critical as the other wires easily
take up the load. Friction between the individual wires and
strands, as a consequence of their twist, further compensates for
any flaws.

Wire rope construction

Wires
Steel wires for wire ropes are normally made of non-alloy carbon
steel with a carbon content of 0.4 to 0.95%. The tensile forces
and to run over sheaves with relatively small diameters.

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Capt. Sameer Dhawan

Strands

Strand: An element of rope usually consisting of an

assembly of wires of appropriate shape and dimensions
laid helically in the same direction in one or more layers
around a centre.
Note: Strands containing three or four wires in the first layer or
certain
shaped (e.g. ribbon) strands may not have a centre.

Round strand: A strand with a cross-section which is

approximately the shape of a circle.

Triangular strand: A strand with a cross-section which is

approximately the shape of a triangle.
Note: Triangular strands may have built-up centres (i.e. more than
one wire forming a triangle).

Oval strand: A strand with a cross-section which is

approximately the shape of an oval

Flat ribbon strand: A strand without a centre wire with a

cross-section which is approximately the shape of a
rectangle.

Compacted strand: A strand which has been subjected to

a compacting process such as drawing, rolling or swaging
whereby the metallic cross-sectional area of the wires
remains unaltered and the shape of the wires and the
dimensions of the strand are modified.
.
Single lay strand: Strand which contains only one layer of

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Capt. Sameer Dhawan

wires.

Parallel lay strand: Strand which contains at least two

layers of wires, all of which are laid in one operation (in the
same direction), e.g. 9-9-1; 12-6F-6-1; 14-7+7-7-1. Each
layer of wires lies in the interstices of the underlying layer
such that they are parallel to one another, resulting in
linear contact

PARALLEL LAY STRANDS CROSS LAY STRANDS

Spiral ropes

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Capt. Sameer Dhawan

In principle, spiral ropes are round strands as they have an

assembly of layers of wires laid helically over a centre with at
least one layer of wires being laid in the opposite direction to that
of the outer layer. Spiral ropes can be dimensioned in such a way
that they are non-rotating which means that under tension the
rope torque is nearly zero. The open spiral rope consists only of
round wires. The half-locked coil rope and the full-locked coil rope
always have a centre made of round wires. The locked coil ropes
have one or more outer layers of profile wires. They have the
advantage that their construction prevents the penetration of dirt
and water to a greater extent and it also protects them from loss
of lubricant. In addition, they have one further very important
advantage as the ends of a broken outer wire cannot leave the
rope if it has the proper dimensions.

Strand and Rope Lays

Lay direction of strand: The direction right (z) or left (s)

corresponding to the direction of lay of the outer layer of
wires in relation to the longitudinal axis of the strand.

Lay direction of rope: The direction right (Z) or left (S)

corresponding to the direction of lay of the outer strands in
relation to the longitudinal axis of a stranded rope or the
direction of lay of the outer wires in relation to the
longitudinal axis of a spiral rope.

Ordinary lay: Stranded rope in which the direction of lay of

the wires in the outer strands is in the opposite direction to
the lay of the outer strands in the rope. Right hand ordinary
lay is designated sZ and left hand ordinary lay is
designated zS.
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Note: This type of lay is sometimes referred to as ‘regular’ lay.

Lang’s lay: Stranded rope in which the direction of lay of

the wires in the outer strands is the same as that of the
outer strands in the rope. Right hand Lang’s lay is
designated zZ and left hand Lang’s lay is designated sS.

Alternate lay: Stranded rope in which the lay of the outer

strands is alternatively Lang’s lay and ordinary lay. Right
hand alternate lay is designated AZ and left hand alternate
lay is designated AS.

Contra-lay: Rope in which at least one inner layer of wires

in a spiral rope or one layer of strands in a stranded rope is
laid in the opposite direction to the other layer(s) of wires or
strands respectively.
Note: Contra-lay is only possible in spiral ropes having more than
one layer of wires and in multi-layer stranded ropes.

Rope lay length (Stranded Rope): That distance parallel

to the axis of the rope in which the outer strands make one
complete turn (or helix) about the axis of the rope.

Cores
Core: Central element, usually of fibre or steel, of a single
layer stranded rope, around which are laid helically the
outer strands of a stranded rope or the outer unit ropes of a
cable-laid rope.

Fibre core: Core made from natural fibres(e.g. hemp,

sisal) and designated by its diameter and runnage.
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Fibre Film Core

Core made from synthetic fibres (e.g. polypropylene) and
designated by its diameter and runnage.

Steel core: Core produced either as an independent wire

rope (IWRC)(e.g. 7x7) or wire strand (WSC)(e.g. 1x7).

Solid polymer core: Core produced as a single element

of solid polymer having a round or grooved shape. It may
also contain internal elements of wire or fibre.

Insert: Element of fibre or solid polymer so positioned as

to separate adjacent strands or wires in the same or
overlying layers and fill, or partly fill, some of the interstices
in the rope. (see Zebra)

Rope Characteristics and Properties

Calculated Minimum aggregate Breaking Force: Value
of minimum aggregate breaking force is obtained by
calculation from the sum of the products of the crosssectional
area (based on nominal wire diameter) and tensile
strength grade of each wire in the rope, as given in the
manufacturer’s rope design.

Calculated Minimum breaking Force: Value of minimum

breaking force based on the nominal wire sizes, wire tensile
strength grades and spinning loss factor for the rope class
or construction as given in the manufacturer’s rope design.

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Capt. Sameer Dhawan

Fill factor: The ratio between the sum of the nominal

cross-sectional areas of all the load bearing wires in the
rope and the circumscribed area of the rope based on its
nominal diameter.

Spinning loss factor (k): The ratio between the calculated

minimum breaking force of the rope and the calculated
minimum aggregate breaking force of the rope.

Breaking force factor (K): An empirical factor used in the

determination of minimum breaking force of a rope and
obtained from the product of fill factor for the rope class or
construction, spinning loss factor for the rope class or
construction and the constant _/4.

Minimum breaking force (Fmin): Specified value, in kN,

below which the measured breaking force is not allowed to
fall in a prescribed test and, for ropes having a grade,
obtained by calculation from the product of the square of
the nominal diameter, the rope grade and the breaking
force factor.

Minimum aggregate breaking force (Fe,min): Specified

value, in kN, below which the measured aggregate
breaking force is not allowed to fall in a prescribed test and,
for ropes having a grade, obtained from the product of the
square of the nominal rope diameter (d), the metallic
crosssectional
area factor (C) and the rope grade (Rr).

Norminal length mass: The nominal mass values are for

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Capt. Sameer Dhawan

the fully lubricated ropes. For friction winder ropes, the

values should be reduced by 2%. The nominal length mass
values are subject to a tolerance of plus 2% to minus 5%.

Rope torque: Value, usually expressed in N.m, resulting

from either test or calculation, relating to the torque
generated when both ends of the rope are fixed and the
rope is subjected to tensile loading.

Rope turn: Value, usually expressed in degrees per metre,

resulting from either test or calculation, relating to the
amount of rotation when one end of the rope is free to
rotate and the rope is subjected to tensile loading.

Initial extension: Amount of extension which is attributed

to the initial bedding down of the wires within the strands
and the strands within the rope due to tensile loading.
Note: This is sometimes referred to as constructional stretch.

Elastic extension: Amount of extension which follows

Hooke’s Law within certain limits due to application of a
tensile load.

Permanent rope extension: Non-elastic extension.

Technical Information

ROPE TERMINOLOGY
Compacted Strand Rope: Rope in which the outer

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Capt. Sameer Dhawan

strands, prior to closing of the rope, are subjected to a

compacting process such as drawing, rolling or swaging.
Note: Bridon’s products containing compacted strands are
identified
by “Dyform”.

Compacted Rope: Rope which is subjected to a

Compacting process after closing, thus reducing its diameter.

Solid Polymer Filled Rope: Rope in which the free

internal spaces are filled with a solid polymer. The polymer
extends to, or slightly beyond, the outer circumference of
the rope.

Cushioned Rope: Stranded rope in which the inner layers,

inner strands or core strands are covered with solid
polymers or fibres to form a cushion between adjacent
strands or layers of strands.

Cushion Core Rope: Stranded rope in which the core is

covered (coated) or filled and covered (coated) with a
solid polymer.

Solid Polymer Covered Rope: Rope which is covered

(coated) with a solid ploymer.

Solid Polymer Covered and Filled Rope: Rope which is

covered (coated) and filled with a solid polymer.

Rope Grade (Rr): A number corresponding to a wire

tensile strength grade on which the minimum breaking
force of a rope is calculated.

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Capt. Sameer Dhawan

Note: It does not imply that the actual tensile strength grades of
the
wires in a rope are necessarily the same as the rope grade.

Preformed Rope: Stranded rope in which the wires in the

strands and the strands in the rope have their internal
stresses reduced resulting in a rope in which, after removal
of any serving, the wires and the strands will not spring out
of the rope formation.
Note: Multi-layer stranded ropes should be regarded as
nonpreformed
rope even though the strands may have been partially
(lightly) preformed during the closing process.

Rope Class: A grouping of rope constructions where the

number of outer strands and the number of wires and how
they are laid up are within defined limits, resulting in ropes
within the class having similar strength and rotational
properties.

Rope Construction: System which denotes the

arrangement of the strands and wires within a rope, e.g.
6x36WS, 6x19S.
Note: K denotes compacted strands.

Cable-laid Rope: An assembly of several (usually six)

single layer stranded ropes (referred to as unit ropes) laid
helically over a core (usually a seventh single layer
stranded rope).

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Capt. Sameer Dhawan

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Capt. Sameer Dhawan

Use and Care of Wire Rope

1. Wire rope WILL FAIL IF WORN OUT, OVERLOADED, MISUSED,
DAMAGED, or IMPROPERLY MAINTAINED.
2. In service, wire rope loses strength and work capability. Abuse
and misuse increase the rate of loss.
3. The MINIMUM BREAKING STRENGTH of wire rope applies
ONLY to a NEW, UNUSED rope.
4. The Minimum Breaking Strength should be considered the
straight line pull with both rope ends fixed to prevent rotation,
which will ACTUALLY BREAK a new, UNUSED, rope. The
Minimum Breaking Strength of a rope should NEVER BE USED
AS ITS WORKING LOAD.
5. To determine the working load of a wire rope, the MINIMUM or
NOMINAL Breaking Strength MUST BE REDUCED by a DESIGN
FACTOR (formerly called a Safety Factor). The Design Factor will
vary depending upon the type of machine and installation, and the
work performed. YOU must determine the applicable Design
Factor for your use.
For example, a Design Factor of “5″ means that the Minimum- or
Nominal Breaking Strength of the wire rope must be DIVIDED BY
FIVE to determine the maximum load that can be applied to the
rope system.
Design Factors have been established by DIN, ISO, CEN, OSHA,
ANSI, ASME and similar government and industrial organizations.
No wire rope should ever be installed or used without full
knowledge and consideration of the Design Factor for the
application.
6. WIRE ROPE WEAR OUT. The strength of a wire rope slightly
increases after the break in period, but will decrease over time.
When approaching the finite fatigue life span the breaking
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strength will sharply decrease. Never evaluate the remaining

fatigue life of a wire rope by testing a portion of a rope to
destruction only. An indepth rope inspection must be part of such
evaluations.
7. NEVER overload a wire rope. This means NEVER use the rope
where the load applied is greater than the working load
determined by dividing the Minimum Breaking Strength of the
rope by the appropriate Design Factor.
8. NEVER ‘SHOCK LOAD’ a wire rope. A sudden application of
force or load can cause both visible external damage (e.g.
birdcaging) and internal damage. There is no practical way to
estimate the force applied by shock loading a rope. The sudden
release of a load can also damage a wire rope.
9. Lubricant is applied to the wires and strands of a wire rope when
manufactured. This lubricant is depleted when the rope is in
service and should be replaced periodically.
10. Regular, periodic INSPECTIONS of the wire rope, and keeping
of PERMANENT RECORDS SIGNED BY A QUALIFIED
PERSON, are required by regulatory bodies for almost every
rope installation. The purpose of inspection is to determine
whether or not a wire rope may continue to be safely used on that
application. Inspection criteria, including number and location of
broken wires, wear and elongation, have been established by
DIN, ISO, CEN, OSHA, ANSI, ASME and other organizations.
IF IN DOUBT, REPLACE THE ROPE.
11. When a wire rope has been removed from service because it
is no longer suitable, IT MUST NOT BE RE-USED ON ANOTHER
APPLICATION.
12. Every wire rope user should be aware of the fact that each type
of fitting attached to a wire rope has a specific efficiency rating
which can reduce the working load of a rope assembly or rope
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system, and this must be given due consideration in determining

the capacity of a wire rope system.
13. Some conditions that can lead to problems in a wire rope
system include:
o Sheaves that are too small, worn or corrugated can cause
damage to wire rope.
o Broken wires mean a loss of strength.

o Kinks permanently damage a wire rope.

o Environmental factors such as corrosive conditions and heat can

damage a wire rope.
o Lack of lubrication can significantly shorten the useful service life
of a wire rope.
o Contact with electrical wire and the resulting arcing will damage a
wire rope.

Measuring The Rope Diameter

Unreeling the Rope

When removing the rope from the shipping reel or coil, the reel or
coil MUST rotate as the rope unwinds. Any attempt to unwind a
rope from stationary reel or coil WILL result in a kinked rope that
is ruined beyond repair.
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Capt. Sameer Dhawan

The following illustrations demonstrate the right and wrong way of

unreeling a rope.

Special care must be taken not to drag the rope over obstacles,
over a deflection shaft, or around corners.

Avoid large fleet angles between the shipping reel and the first
sheave. The rope may roll in the sheave causing the rope to
unlay. This is particularly important for all DoPar, langs lay, and
non-rotating rope constructions.

Avoid reeving the rope through small deflection sheaves and

avoid changing the plane from vertical to horizontal direction.

If you have to unspool large and heavy wire rope, use a brake to
keep a slight tension on the rope. NEVER let the rope go slack
and form loops.

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Unreeling & Uncoiling and Kinks

 The Right Way To Unreel. To unreel wire rope from a

heavy reel, place a shaft through the center and jack up the
reel far enough to clear the floor and revolve easily. One
person holds the end of the rope and walks a straight line
away from the reel, taking the wire rope off the top of the
reel. A second person regulates the speed of the turning reel
by holding a wood block against the flange as a brake,
taking care to keep slack from developing on the reel, as this
can easily cause a kink in the rope. Lightweight reels can be

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properly unreeled using a vertical shaft; the same care

should be taken to keep the rope taut.
 The Wrong Way To Unreel. If a reel of wire rope is laid on
its flange with its axis vertical to the floor and the rope
unreeled by throwing off the turns, spirals will occur and
kinks are likely to form in the rope. Wire rope always should
be handled in a way that neither twists nor unlays it. If
handled in a careless manner, reverse bends and kinks can
easily occur.
 The Right Way To Uncoil. There is only one correct way to
uncoil wire rope. One person must hold the end of the rope
while a second person rolls the coil along the floor, backing
away. The rope is allowed to uncoil naturally with the lay,
without spiraling or twisting. Always uncoil wire rope as
shown.
 The Wrong Way To Uncoil. If a coil of wire rope is laid flat
on the floor and uncoiled by pulling it straight off, spirals will
occur and kinking is likely. Torsions are put into the rope by
every loop that is pulled off, and the rope becomes twisted
and unmanageable. Also, wire rope cannot be uncoiled like
hemp rope. Pulling one end through the middle of the coil
will only result in kinking.
 Kinks. Great stress has been placed on the care that should
be taken to avoid kinks in wire rope. Kinks are places where
the rope has been unintentionally bent to a permanent set.
This happens where loops are pulled through by tension on
the rope until the diameter of the loop is only a few inches.
They are also caused by bending a rope around a sheave
having too severe a radius. Wires in the strands at the kink
are permanently damaged and will not give normal service,
even after apparent "restraightening."

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Capt. Sameer Dhawan

CUTTING A WIRE ROPE

Usually, you do not need to re-cut a wire rope. However, you may
encounter situations where it becomes necessary to shorten the
rope.

The Wire ends have normally a heat seal, which is sometimes

coated with a red plastic material, prevents the rope ends from
unraveling.. Cutting wire rope without proper care WILL result in
permanent damage of the rope. In cutting any wire rope special
care MUST be taken in seizing the rope end.

Two methods are suggested:

1) Seizing the rope end with soft iron wire.
2) Seizing the rope end with hose clamps.

After cutting the rope (see below) it is good practice to braze rope
ends to ensure that they don’t unravel. Leave the seizings on the
rope for added holding strength. Be careful not to damage the
seizing while brazing. It is found that blade cutting a rope gives
the best results. Be sure to use a cutting blade suitable for the
job. Follow the safety precautions for free hand cutting.

Cutting a rope with a torch may result in both uneven ends and
damage to the seizing causing the strands to open up. Rope
diameter up to 14 mm may be cut with a hand cutter.

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Capt. Sameer Dhawan

WHEN TO REPLACE A WIRE ROPE

(As per DOCK WORKERS (HEALTH & SAFETY) RULES, 1990
No wire rope shall be used in dock work if in any length of eight
diameters the total number of visible broken wires
exceed 10 per cent. of the total number of wires or the rope
shows sign of excessive wear, corrosion or other defects
which in the opinion of the person who inspects it or Inspector,
renders it as unfit for use.

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SHEAVE GROOVE & WIRE DIAMETER

Sheaves and drums play a very important part in overall

rope life. To maximize rope service life, it is imperative that
the equipment have properly maintained sheaves and
drum lagging.
Sheave and Drum Diameter All wire ropes operating
over sheaves and drums are subjected to bending
stresses, which eventually cause the wire rope to fatigue.
The severity of these stresses is directly related to the
rope load and the D/d ratio, or the ratio of the tread
diameter of the sheave or drum (D) to the diam eter of the
rope (d). In order to bend around a sheave or drum, the
rope’s strands and wires must move in relation to one
another to compensate for the bend. The wires on the top
side of the rope elongate while the wires on the underside
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compress. Simply put, the top side has farther to travel

around the sheave then the underside. This continual
shifting causes the inner wires to move against one
another when the rope is under load.
If the sheave or drum is too small, causing a severe bend
in the rope, wire movement is adversely affected because
the wires cannot easily move to adequately compensate
for the bend. Fatigue breaks, high stranding, looped wires,
and even tually failure, will result. It’s common knowledge
that the larger the sheave or drum diameter, the better the
rope’s fatigue performance. Practical limits of the
equipment’s design however may not result in the D/d
ratios suggested as shown in Figure 2. If the sheaves or
drum cannot be replaced to provide the proper D/d ratio,
other steps such as changing rope construction may be
taken to optimize wire rope service life.
TYPE OF ROPE D/d ratio
6x26 Warrington Seale 30
6x25 Filler Wire 26
6x31 Warrington Seale 26
6x36 Warrington Seale 23
6x43 Filler Wire Seale 23
6x50 Seale Filler Wire Seale 22

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Capt. Sameer Dhawan

6x41 Warrington Seale 20

6x41 Seale Filler Wire 20

6x49 Filler Wire Seale 20

8x25 Filler Wire 20

8x31 Warrington Seale 20

8x36 Warrington Seale 18

6x57 Seale Filler Wire Seale 18

6x64 Seale Filler Wire Seale 18

6x70 Seale Filler Wire Seale 18

6x77 Seale Filler Wire Seale 18

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