Carbon-based catalysts: Synthesis and applications
Carbon materials have been used as catalysts for many years. Activated carbons have been
considered over the last decades for their utilization in several processes
involving heterogeneous catalysis, because they have suitable support properties, as inertness
toward unwanted reactions, stability under regeneration and reaction conditions, adequate
mechanical properties, modifiable surface area, porosity, and physical form, i.e., the
possibility of being manufactured in granulates and conglomerates of different sizes and
shapes to suit different chemical reactor configurations.
carbon-based catalysts for the selective catalytic reduction of NO;
Pt and Pt–Ru catalysts for direct alcohol fuel cells;
carbon-supported catalysts for CO2 electroreduction.
Carbon-based catalysts for the selective catalytic reduction of NO
Nitrogen oxides, NOx, have a huge impact on our environment. They generate acid rain, soil
eutrophication and acidification, as well as water nitrification, and also they contribute to
ozone formation in the lower layers of the atmosphere. They are generated in every
combustion process making use of a fossil or N-containing fuel and/or, most importantly,
when combustion takes place under air atmosphere at high temperatures (> 900 °C).
Shift Conversion Catalysts
The second important reaction in a steam reforming plant is the shift conversion reaction:
CO+H2O→CO2+H2
Two basic types of shift catalyst are used in steam reforming plants: iron/chrome high-
temperature shift catalysts and copper/zinc low-temperature shift catalysts.
High-temperature shift catalysts operate in the range of 315–430°C (600–800°F) and consist
primarily of magnetite (Fe3O4) with three-valent chromium oxide (Cr2O3) added as a
stabilizer. The catalyst is usually supplied in the form of ferric oxide (Fe2O3) and six-valent
chromium oxide (CrO3) and is reduced by the hydrogen and carbon monoxide in the shift feed
gas as part of the start-up procedure to produce the catalyst in the desired form. However,
caution is necessary since if the steam/carbon ratio of the feedstock is too low and the
reducing environment is too strong, the catalyst can be reduced further to metallic iron.
Metallic iron is a catalyst for Fischer-Tropsch reactions, and hydrocarbon derivatives will be
produced (Davis and Occelli, 2010).
Low-temperature shift catalysts operate at temperatures on the order of 205–230°C
(400–450°F). Because of the lower temperature, the reaction equilibrium is more
controllable, and lower amounts of carbon monoxide are produced. The low-temperature shift
catalyst is primarily used in wet scrubbing plants that use a methanation for final
purification. Pressure swing adsorption plants do not generally use a low temperature because
any unconverted carbon monoxide is recovered as reformer fuel. Low-temperature shift
catalysts are sensitive to poisoning by sulfur and are sensitive to water (liquid) that can cause
softening of the catalyst followed by crusting or plugging.
The catalyst is supplied as copper oxide (CuO) on a zinc oxide (ZnO) carrier, and the copper
must be reduced by heating it in a stream of inert gas with measured quantities of hydrogen.
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