The Effects of Single Parenting on The Academic Performance of Senior Secondary School

Students

(A Case Study of Some Selected Secondary Schools in Ife Central LGA, Osun State.)

JULY, 2023

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 Table of Contents

List of Figures________________________________________________________________________4

List of Tables_________________________________________________________________________5

Abstract_____________________________________________________________________________6

CHAPTER ONE________________________________________________________________________7

INTRODUCTION_______________________________________________________________________7

1.0 Background to the Study____________________________________________________________7

1.2 Statement of the Problem___________________________________________________________9

1.3 Objectives of the Study_____________________________________________________________10

1.4 Research Questions_______________________________________________________________10

1.5 Research Hypothesis_______________________________________________________________11

1.6 Significance of the Study___________________________________________________________11

1.8 Scope of the Study________________________________________________________________12

1.9 Definition of Terms________________________________________________________________13

CHAPTER TWO______________________________________________________________________14

LITERATURE REVIEW__________________________________________________________________14

2.1 Conceptual Review________________________________________________________________14

2.1.1. Single Parenting______________________________________________________________________14

2.1.3 Challenges faced by Single Parents________________________________________________________23

2.1.4 Effect of Single Parenting on Students_____________________________________________________27

2.1.5 Relationship Between Single Parents Income Status and Academic Grades of Their Children__________29

2.1.6 Impact of Parental Educational Attainment on Children's Academic Performance__________________30

2.1.7 Comparison of Academic Performance: Single-Parent vs. Two-Parent Households__________________32

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2.2 Conceptual Framework____________________________________________________________33

2.3 Empirical Review__________________________________________________________________35

2. 4 Theoretical Review_______________________________________________________________37

2.4.1 Parenting Styles______________________________________________________________________37

2.4.2 Theoretical Review____________________________________________________________________39

2.5 Theoretical Framework_____________________________________________________________40

CHAPTER THREE_____________________________________________________________________41

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY____________________________________________________________41

3.1 Research Design__________________________________________________________________41

3.2 Population_______________________________________________________________________41

3.3 Sample Size and Sampling Techniques_________________________________________________41

3.4 Instrumentation__________________________________________________________________42

3.5 Validity of the Instrument___________________________________________________________43

3.6 Reliability of the Instrument_________________________________________________________43

3.7 Procedure for Data Collection_______________________________________________________43

References_________________________________________________________________________48

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 List of Figures

Figure 2. 1: Conceptual Framework______________________________________________________31

Figure 2. 2: Hoskins’ table of parenting styles______________________________________________35

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List of Tables

Table 3 1: Population and Sample Size___________________________________________________42

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 Abstract

Single parenthood is an increasing issue in Nigeria, with estimates showing that 17.3% of households
are headed by single parents. This situation puts a strain on the women who make up the majority of
these households due to their lack of access to economic resources and gender-based disadvantages
which create additional hardships for them as they attempt to raise children alone. The research gap in
this area is the need for further research on the impact of single parenting on the academic performance
of students in secondary schools specifically, to investigate the influence of income status, educational
attainment, and occupational status of single parents on the academic performance of their children. The
objectives of this study were to examine the impact of single parenting on the academic performance of
students in selected secondary schools in Ife central LGA, Osun state. The research involved an
extensive review of literature, which encompassed the concept of single parenting, causes of single
parenting, factors affecting students' academic performance, and the effects and challenges of single
parenting on society. To address the research objectives, four research questions and corresponding
hypotheses were formulated. The research method employed a combination of survey and quasi-
experimental research approaches. It was found that variables such as parental occupation and income
were closely linked to students’ grades. The study concluded that single parent households can have
both negative and positive effects on student. The study recommended that parents should be way
mindful of their children especially their education before contemplating divorce separation.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Background to the Study

Single parenthood is an increasing issue in Nigeria, with estimates showing that 17.3% of households

are headed by single parents (Luther-Abegunde, 2021). This situation puts a strain on the women who

make up the majority of these households due to their lack of access to economic resources and gender-

based disadvantages which create additional hardships for them as they attempt to raise children alone

(McDougal et al., 2021). Single mothers managing parenting responsibilities without any social or

financial support must contend with limited opportunities and inadequate infrastructure such as

education programs and childcare services all creating substantial barriers against successful upbringing

of their offspring (Christi Crosby Bergin & David Allen Bergin, 2018). Furthermore, this exacerbates

already persisting inequalities between genders in the country as men continue dominating higher wage

jobs while women remain trapped into lower earning positions with fewer benefits (Ezeilo 2018).

Evidently then, more needs to be done in order for single-parent families predominantly female run to

receive adequate support from both state authorities and society at large; thus, allowing greater chances

for fulfilment rather than being unfairly disadvantaged solely due to circumstances beyond one's control.

From a critical perspective, the impact of single parenthood on academic performance is an area of great

concern. A number of studies have shown that children from single-parent households are more likely to

experience poor academic outcomes compared to those raised in two-parent households (A. D. Brown,

2017). These disparities may be due to several factors such as financial strain or lack of positive male

role models but none should be considered in isolation. For example, while financial constraints can

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limit access to educational resources and opportunities for children from single parent families (Christi

Crosby Bergin & David Allen Bergin, 2018). It is important not forget the emotional toll that these

families often face. Single parents may endure intense stress levels resulting from performing parenting

duties alone which can create an unsupportive home environment detrimental to their child's learning

and development. Thus, it is essential for society to recognize both economic and psychosocial aspects

when considering how best support this vulnerable population so they too can benefit academically (A.

D. Brown, 2017).

The research conducted by Aluede & Adubale (2020) is a valuable contribution to the literature on

single parenthood and academic performance; however, it does not take into account all of the potential

moderating factors such as gender. Previous research has shown that gender can be an important factor

in understanding how single parenthood influences academic achievement among high school students.

Therefore, further investigation must be done to more fully explore this relationship from a critical

perspective. Specifically, researchers should examine whether different levels of parental involvement

affect boys' and girls' academics differently due to varying social expectations surrounding masculinity

and femininity for young adults. Additionally, cultural norms related to parenting responsibilities could

provide insight into why some children are able to overcome negative outcomes associated with growing

up in a single parent household while others may struggle academically despite having similar support

systems at home.

Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effects of single parental upbringing on the academic

performance of senior secondary school students, taking into consideration the moderating role of

gender. By understanding the factors that contribute to the relationship between single parenthood and

academic performance, educators, policymakers, and parents can develop targeted interventions to

support students from single-parent households and promote academic success.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem

There is a growing body of research on the potential impact of single parenthood on the academic

performance of children in Nigeria. While some studies suggest that single parenthood may negatively

affect academic performance, others indicate that it may not have any significant impact. Some

researchers argue that children from single-parent households may be at a disadvantage when it comes

to academic achievement. For instance, Akanni and Oladosu (2019) suggest that single parenthood can

lead to a lack of parental involvement, which can negatively affect academic performance. Similarly,

Akanbi̇ et al., (2018) found that children from single-parent households had lower academic

performance compared to their peers from two-parent households. On the other hand, other studies

suggest that single parenthood may not have a significant impact on academic performance. For

example, a study by Allo et al., (2019) found that there was no significant difference in academic

performance between children from single-parent households and those from two-parent households.

Additionally, Anyakoha (2016) found that single parenthood did not significantly affect the academic

performance of children in primary schools in Nigeria.

In synthesizing these different opinions, it is clear that there is a lack of consensus on the impact of

single parenthood on the academic performance of children in Nigeria. While some studies suggest that

single parenthood may negatively affect academic performance, others indicate that it may not have any

significant impact. It is worth noting that the studies cited above differ in terms of their sample sizes,

research designs, and measures of academic performance. Therefore, more research is needed to better

understand the impact of single parenthood on academic performance, especially in Nigeria. One

possible research gap in this area is the need for further research on the impact of single parenting on the

academic performance of students in secondary schools specifically, to investigate the influence of

income status, educational attainment, and occupational status of single parents on the academic

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performance of their children in selected secondary schools in Ife central LGA, Osun state.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The objectives of this study were to examine the impact of single parenting on the academic

performance of students in selected secondary schools in Ife central LGA, Osun state. Other specific

objectives are to;

1. Find out the extent to which income status of single parents influences the academic grade of

students from such homes in school.

2. Investigate the level at which educational attainment of single parents influenced their children's

academic performance in School.

3. Assess the level of students' academic performance between those of single parents and two-

parents.

4. Identify if occupational status of single parenthood has an impact on children's academic

performance in schools

1.4 Research Questions

Research questions are specific inquiries that a researcher seeks to answer through their research

(Creswell, 2014). The following research questions were formulated to guide the present investigation.

1. How does the income status of single parents affect the academic grades of their children in

school?

2. To what extent does the educational attainment of single parents affect the academic

performance of their children/wards in school?

3. What are the differences in academic performance between children from single-parent homes

and those from two-parent homes?

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 4. Does the occupational status of single parents have an impact on the academic performance of

their children in school?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

A research hypothesis is a statement that predicts the relationship between two or more variables

(Creswell, 2014). Stating the null, the following hypotheses are formulated for the study:

Ho1: The income status of single parents has no significant impact on the academic grades of their

children in school.

Ho2 The educational attainment of single parents has no significant impact on the academic performance

of their children in school.

Ho3 There are no significant differences in academic performance between children from single-parent

homes and those from two-parent homes.

Ho4 The occupational status of single parents has no significant impact on the academic performance of

their children in school.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The present study is significant in several ways. First, it will contribute to the existing literature on the

effects of single parenthood on academic performance by examining this relationship among senior

secondary school students in Nigeria. This is particularly important given the high prevalence of single

parenthood in Nigeria and the potential negative impact it can have on children's academic success.

Second, the study will provide insights into the factors that may moderate or mediate the relationship

between single parenthood and academic performance. By considering the role of gender in this

relationship, the study can shed light on potential gender differences in the impact of single parenthood

on academic achievement. This is important because previous research has suggested that boys may be

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more negatively impacted by single parenthood than girls (Bartfeld & Meyer, 2013).

Third, the study can inform the development of targeted interventions to support students from single-

parent households and promote academic success. By identifying the specific factors that contribute to

the negative impact of single parenthood on academic performance, educators, policymakers, and

parents can develop effective strategies to mitigate these effects and support students from single-parent

households.

Finally, the study can contribute to a broader understanding of the social and economic factors that

shape educational outcomes in Nigeria. Given the close relationship between education and social

mobility, improving academic performance among students from single-parent households can have

important implications for reducing inequality and promoting social and economic development in

Nigeria.

1.8 Scope of the Study

The scope of the study is to examine the impact of single parenting on the academic performance of

students in selected secondary schools in Ife Central Local Government Area (LGA) of Osun state,

Nigeria. The study is limited to selected secondary schools in Ife Central LGA, Osun state and may not

be generalizable to other areas in Nigeria or other countries. The study focuses only on the impact of

single parenting on academic performance and does not explore other potential factors that may affect

academic performance.

In the study on the impact of single parenting on the academic performance of students in selected

secondary schools in Ife central LGA, Osun state, the dependent variable is the academic performance

of the students. This can be measured using variables such as their grades, scores, or other indicators of

academic achievement. The independent variable, on the other hand, is single parenting. This refers to

the status of the student's household, whether they come from a single-parent household or a two-parent

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household. The independent variable is measured using variables income status, educational attainment

and occupational status of single parents. The study aims to investigate whether the independent variable

(single parenting) has an impact on the dependent variable (academic performance).

1.9 Definition of Terms

- Academic Performance: The level of achievement or success demonstrated by students in their

educational pursuits, typically measured through grades, test scores, or other indicators of
scholastic achievement.
- Dependent Variable: The variable that is being measured or analyzed in a study, and its
outcome is influenced by the independent variable. In this case, academic performance is the
dependent variable.
- Economic Resources: Financial assets, income, or support available to individuals or
households, which can impact their ability to access goods, services, and educational
opportunities.
- Gender-Based Disadvantages: The disadvantages or discrimination that individuals may face
based on their gender, often resulting in unequal treatment and limited access to opportunities,
resources, and rights.
- Independent Variable: The variable that is manipulated or examined in a study to see how it
affects the dependent variable. In this case, single parenthood and its components (income status,
educational attainment, and occupational status) are the independent variables.
- Likert Scale: A scale used to measure respondents' attitudes or opinions towards a particular
statement or question, typically ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree).
- Moderating Factors: Variables that can influence the relationship between two other variables,
either strengthening or weakening the association between them. For example, gender can be a
moderating factor in the relationship between single parenthood and academic performance.
- Psychosocial Aspects: The combined influence of psychological (mental and emotional) and
social (interpersonal and societal) factors that can impact individuals' well-being and behavior.
- Single Parenthood: A family structure in which one parent is responsible for raising the child or
children without the presence or active involvement of the other parent.
- Social Expectations: Norms and beliefs within a society regarding how individuals should
behave or conform to certain roles based on their gender or other social identities.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter summarizes the information from the available literature in the same field of study, the

relevant literature is reviewed. The chapter is grouped under the following sub-sections. The concept

single parenting, Causes of single parenting, Effects of single parenting on the academic performance

of students.

2.1 Conceptual Review

2.1.1. Single Parenting

As it is known, single parenting is a fast-spreading phenomenon in both industrialized and developing

countries. There are two single parents for every ten (10) adults and four single parents for every ten

(10) parents in some States alone (Laird, A, M, J. et al., 2018). One voice is mostly disregarded because

the parents jointly decide for single parenting, and that voice belongs to the kid. Single parenting has a

significant impact on a child's mental, social, emotional, behavioral, economical, and psychological

results, according to reliable research (Azman, Ö. et al., 2021). As was said in the previous sentence,

single parenting actually presents a number of difficulties that have a big impact on students. The direct

effect of being raised by a single parent is especially visible in child’s thinking and mental mindset.

Psychologists and advocates have validated this over time. Tests and observations have consistently

concluded and found that single parenting makes school children more aggressive and rebellious. Hence,

these are transferred on their educational needs for survival in the society. Experts say the behavior

could be the outcome of the anger and limitation the child experiences while growing up. These are

obvious reasons to make the child feel abnormal, different and unaccepted. Actually, children being

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raised by single parent face many limitations which lead influence their academic performance (Usakli,

2013).

In similar veins, the research conducted by Usakli (2013), on Comparison of children with single and

Two Parents in terms of Behavioral Tendencies in Turkey”, it is found out that, the children with single

parents are less assertive and more aggressive and submissive in schools which lead to poor academic

performance than children with two parents. As a matter of fact, Families, teachers, school

administrators and school counselors should be aware of the behavioral tendencies of single parent

children. Therefore, families, teachers, school administrators and school counselors should be aware of

the behavioral tendencies of single parent children. The effects of single parenting, contends that both

parents in two-parent households should be involved in the education of their children (Chupakhina, S.

et al., 2022). In this sense, the father is expected to offer the necessary resources for the progress of

education, and the mother is expected to support the father's efforts. The child will lag behind or

withdraw when the father is gone and the mother is not in a position to provide for all of the child's basic

requirements while also monitoring his or her scholastic progress (Saidu, A, K. and Ali, M, H., 2019).

Where both parents are present, children should get the finest care and socialization possible (Usakli,

2013).

This is due to the fact that the process of socialization, which begins in the family, depends on both

parents' efforts to play complementary roles in their child's development. Such a child is likely to

achieve self-actualization while the other from a single parent suffers deprivation and denial of some

rights and opportunities. This often has an impact on how the student interacts with other students and

selects a seat near individuals who would support their academic growth (Mark, 2021). This means that

most two-parent children succeed in self-actualization, which is why they typically perform well in

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school. A kid will receive the finest care and socialization possible in households when both the mother

and the father are present. This is so that both parents may play complementary roles in raising the kid,

which is necessary for the socialization process. However, children from single-parent households are

more likely to experience deprivation and denial of some rights and opportunities, which may have

significant implications on their performance in real-world circumstances (Johansson, N. et al., 2022).

Such a child is likely to reach self-actualization later in life. In actuality, single parents have two times

as many tasks to fulfill since their children's academic performance may suffer (Martn-Antón, J., L. et

al., 2020).

Counseling services provided by professionals may be necessary for single parents and their kids.

Counselors can provide the kid and the single parent with practical guidance to ensure that every little

disagreement is quickly addressed (Carvalho, J., and Spears, 2019). Lack of this is conveyed to the

classroom and, as a result, has an impact on the learner's academic performance. Being raised by one

parent is therefore a challenging condition for any child, even though few of these kids do well in

school. However, both parents contribute in different ways to their child's education. Where however,

the father is absent from the home and the mother is not privileged enough to cater for all the basic

needs as well as supervise the academic performance of the child, he or she (the child) will be backward

or withdrawn (Buth, S. et al., 2017). When the mother is not there and the father is not well-off enough,

the same thing happens. In actuality, both the mother and the father are in charge of directing the child's

academic achievement in all areas (Tomperi, P., 2020).

A single parent faces doubled responsibilities requiring more time, attention, and money, which of

course may not be enough. The stress of having to find the necessity of life such as food, shelter and

clothing for the family by a single parent consequently places them at risk of becoming detached from

their children, and compromises their ability to succeed in their academics. Bowles (1989) attachment

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theory suggests that, insecure attachment (which is likely to be seen in the relationships between absent

single parents and their children) can result in the ineffectiveness of parenting strategies, as in an

overwhelming amount of stress on parents as they endeavor to carry out their academic responsibilities

and vice versa. However, Single parenting have negative effects on the academic achievements of the

adolescents, talents, abilities and interest may not be fully developed to allow them to achieve self-

actualization in life. In a report by Rothstein, (2014) suggested that, the need for these critical issues to

be looked into, as it does more harm than good to the proper and successful educational development of

the school learners. The researcher was of the opinion that students raised by single parents may live a

worthwhile life or otherwise depending on the circumstance, level of maturity or love shown to them by

the environment they find themselves. Thus, a child could have mental feelings when s/he has a close

relationship with the ouster parent and this indirectly affects the emotions of such child. The researcher

expressed that such a child or children can be taken out of the environment and must likely return after

sometimes when s/he has fully recovered.

In this kind of situation, the affected child or children may need to be kept busy with objects or things

around that would make him or her to be happy at all times. On the part of helping the affected students

to socialize and be provided with social rights and opportunities, the school and the society would not be

exempted through the assistance they should offer as a form of support to the custodian parents.

As a result, when they work together, the kids advance personally and achieve academic success

(Alhassan Saidu & Mama Ali, 2019). The ideal family structure offers children the stability and sense of

security they require. Children lose their capacity to operate normally and do well in school when the

family unit breaks down. The youngster may not have two parents to rely on in some circumstances

(Ashy, 2016). The majority, if not all, of their needs must be met by one parent. With limited resources

(money, time, and availability), parents are less likely to provide their kids the help they need to do their

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best (Tomperi, P., 2020). Indeed, parents have important responsibilities to play in a child's development

both personally and academically (Salimi, M., et al. 2017). The future of a kid is influenced by a parent's

engagement. Parental engagement is a blanket word that refers to a variety of actions, from those done at

"home," to excellent parenting, assisting with schoolwork, communicating with instructors, attending

school events, and even participating in school governance (Zaçellari, M. and Miço, 2020). When

schools work together with families to support learning, children tend to succeed not just in schools but

also throughout life” . Unfortunately, the problem arises when one parent is suddenly absent and

sometimes not there at all in taking over his/her family anymore. “The absence of one parent adds the

burden of taking care/parenting to the one who remain with the family. The lack of potentiality of the

absent parent affects so much not only the academic performance of the child but also the future of the

child (Ndayambaje, E., Umwari, Y. and Yulia, A., 2020). However, growing up in a single-parent

family is frequently viewed as a risk factor in a child and it has negative impact in his/her academic

journey, Single parent families are now a common phenomenon within our community due to dearth,

divorce and other factors (Carvalho, d, J. and Spears, B., 2019).

Greater than 60% According to Carvalho, D. J. and Spears, B. (2019), children born after 1984 will

spend an average of 5 years of their childhood in a single-parent home, whereas Knox, (2016) believed

that 30% of all children in the United States spend their whole lives with single parents. In spite of this,

statistics issues regarding the influence of single-parent homes on a child's academic achievement and

the methods single parents may support their children in succeeding in school remain unresolved

(Hoferichter, F. and Raufelder, 2019). However, it would not be wise to draw the conclusion that these

undesirable consequences were a direct result of the presence or lack of a father figure in the child's life,

as has occasionally been [Link], children are adversely affected by circumstances that concur

with single-parent family configurations (such as economic disadvantage, residential instability, and

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inter-parental conflict) or the consequence of such configurations (such as disrupted parenting). Such

circumstances are not uniformly present in the lives of all single-parent families. Children from various

single-parent homes are therefore at varying levels of risk for unfavorable outcomes related to their

living situations. According to Buth, S. et al. (2017), more single parent households (57.4% in 1999)

than two-parent families (6.3%) fall below the poverty line. As a result, widowed moms have the lowest

percentage of single-parent households living below the poverty line while single mothers have the

highest. Additionally, more single moms than single fathers are estimated to be living below the poverty

line (Laird, A., M., J. et al., 2018).

Economic disadvantage is linked with lower academic achievement and increased behavioral problems

among children. Fewer economic resources are also linked with residential instability, which further

contributes to children's academic and behavioral difficulties. Differences in well-being for children

from single parent families versus two-parent families typically disappear when differences in

economic circumstances are taken into account (Hoferichter, F. and Raufelder, 2019). Mavis

Hetherington's research suggests that divorced mothers' parenting skills tend to decrease afterwards,

and the children of such parents experience emotional, behavioral, and educational difficulties

(Gustafson et al., 2013). Similarly, Eamon (2015) found that economically challenged families are

more likely to have sub-optimal parenting standards; this is especially true when it comes to adolescent

single mothers who usually face economic hardship. It shows that challenges that single parented

students face in attaining secondary education are not only multiple but also complex. As mothers

adjust to their new single-parent status, however, their parenting improves, as does their children's

well-being. However, some research suggests that the factor that has the greatest impact on student

achievement is not family structure but income. Relying on the data above, single parenting has

increased dramatically of late and this trend has the possibility of depriving many schoolchildren the

19
opportunity to make academic excellence now and in the future. Studies have found that when family

income is equal, there is little difference in the academic performance of children from two-parent and

single-parent homes (Raufelder, 2019). Approximately 35% of Ghanaian children live in single parent

households (Ghana Statistical Data vol. 1, 2015), bringing with it many challenges throughout their

development.

2.1.2 Causes of Single Parenting

The increase of single parenthood is not a phenomenon isolated to the western world. Even in

Nigeria and other developing countries, there have been a high percentage of single parents within

the population caused by one factor or the other or combination of more than one (Tomperi, 2020).

As in any country, single parenthood arises because of the following major causes: Divorce, Death

or estrangement of a spouse and early pregnancy.

 Divorce

Divorce is the legal ending of a marriage between a man and a woman in a law-court by their

counsels. The number of divorces in the United States has drastically increased since 1950, but has

been leveling off since 1980. Despite this decline, divorce remains high and it is likely that most

recent first marriages will not last a lifetime - although long-term stability remains an ideal goal

(Gustafson et al., 2013; Tomperi, 2020). Different social circumstances, personal attributes and

even genetic aspects may contribute to the risk of divorce. McGue and Lykken (1992) found in

their twin family study a significantly higher concordance for divorce among monozygotic twins

compared to dizygotic twins. Based on this notion, they concluded that there exists a strong

genetic component in the etiology of divorce, at least in the familial transmission of divorce. The

researcher hypothesized that this genetic influence is mediated largely by inherited personality

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characteristics, such as impulsivity and moral conviction. The study further suggested that cultural

factors influence the threshold for divorce while within given culture, variations in underlying

aggregate risk are strongly influenced by genetic factors.

In 2006, a single parent, 80% of which were headed by a female, headed 12.9 million families in

the U.S. In the United Kingdom, there are 5.9 million single parents as of 2005, with 3.1 million

children. About 1 out of 4 families with dependent children are single parent families, nine percent

of which have a male single-parent. Though, majorities of the victims of single parenting across

U.S, U.K and parts of African continent are females (U.S. Census Bureah, 2013). In South Korea,

there is a strong societal disapproval of unmarried mothers. According to data from 1985 and

September 1990, more than 25,000 children were living in single-parent households and 73

percent of children in South Africa had come from broken homes over the last four years

(Manyema & Richter, 2019). Additionally, 150,000 children had been affected by divorce during

this time period. These figures surely have shot up by now. However, the problem with divorce is

that it is not only the marriage that disintegrates but also the children who are separated from one

or both of the parents creating an imbalance in their educational pursuit. A nation like South

Africa is one of the worst hit countries with predominantly a patriarchal society and children have

consequently suffered greatly due to absent fathers.

 Death or Estrangement of a Spouse

Losing a partner can be extremely stressful for the single parent left behind in Nigeria, where

psychological well-being is often compromised due to their former partner's role within the family

and broader society. Research suggests that this issue is particularly prevalent in eastern Nigeria

(Manyema & Richter, 2019b). The problem is compounded where properties of the deceased are

involved resulting in the exclusion of the woman and the children to their fate. This being the case,

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had forced many children out-of-school or resulted to poor academic performance in the latter

years. However, the families soon might have forgotten the cause of the death such as illness,

assassination, accidents, and natural occurrence. In South Africa, AIDS is the predominant reason

of single parenthood across every of her society and families. Mostly affected by this already are

the two layers of the population pyramid. This pyramid consists of those in the five-year-old age

bracket and 19 – 45 age brackets. To salvage this situation, non-governmental organizations

(NGOs) and human rights groups have resulted to help widows by providing cash and vocational

training. Assistance aimed at making them self –employed, and self-reliant to provide a better

future for their children, though the problem of large number of children left with the widow has

not helped the situation especially with the present standard of living, which is astronomically high

beyond the reach of the poor.

 Early Pregnancy

Tanzania, like other countries in the world, is currently faced with social fragmentation as women

continue to suffer a high rate of teenage pregnancy (Manyema & Richter, 2019). Over the years,

the situation particularly among teenagers had become unabated even to the researcher owing to

her years of experience as a teacher trainer. Women single parents feel the stigma of being poor

and unmarried, widowed or divorced and are under extreme pressure from the society. Single

mothers, who play a key role in this, seek for means of providing for their kids and are extremely

prepared to take significant risks to put food on the table, are particularly prone to prostitution and

human trafficking (Manyema & Richter, 2019). A report on the South Africa Operation shows a

high-unmet need for contraceptive among teenagers and women living in the rural areas thus a

very high teenage pregnancy turnout. The report therefore calls for empowerment programme for

teenagers and rural women so that they can take control of their reproductive behavior. For

22
mothers between 15 -19 years, who are likely single parents, age in itself is not a risk factor, but

additional risks may be associated with socio-economic factors relating to academic pursuit of the

family (Manyema & Richter, 2019).

In the developed countries, data supporting teenage pregnancy as a social issue include lower

educational levels, higher rates of poverty and other poorer “life outcomes” in children of teenage

mothers. Within these societies, pregnancy is usually outside of marriage and carries a social

stigma in its cultures. The situation of teenage pregnancy is slightly different in developing

countries as they are usually within a marriage and does not involve a social stigma (Locoh, 2020).

Wikipedia (2023) had described early motherhood to have effect on psychosocial Development of

the child. The occurrence of developmental disabilities and behavioral issues are increased in

children born to teen mothers. Poor academic performance in the children of teenage mothers has

also been noted, with many of the being more likely than average to fail at the secondary schools.

2.1.3 Challenges faced by Single Parents

Parenting is a not easy and single parenting is tougher as it entails added responsibilities. A single

parent has to face continuous newer challenges every day (Coler, 2018). For a single parent, these

challenges appear in a series, in combination or even alone. Whatever the situation, there is no

denying the fact that single parenting is full of challenges (Stativa et al., 2021). The effects of

growing up in single parent family have been shown to go beyond economics, increasing the risk

of children dropping out of school, disconnecting from the labour force, and becoming teen

parents.

 Financial

In order to adequately understand and examine the negative contextual effect of the number of

children from single-parent families at school, we first briefly elaborate on the reason why

23
children from single-parent families perform worse at school than children from two-parent

families. Sandefur (2014) provide an in-depth analysis of the three essential resources (financial,

parental and social) that significantly influences the future success of children who are raised by

single parent households. They particularly emphasize on financial strain endured due to family

disruption especially with respect to loss of income (Stativa et al., 2021). In short, this is due to the

fact that after a divorce two households need to be supported instead of only one and thus a lot of

household expenses cannot be shared any longer, which is also called a loss of economies of scale.

The most direct effect of this loss of income on educational performance of children is the fact that

the quality of the school they attend generally is lower (Grissmer, 2013).

The higher the income of parents, the more possibilities they have to live in neighborhoods with

good public schools or to send their children to a school of their preference. Income can also affect

school outcomes through enabling a child to participate in extracurricular activities, like lessons

after school, special trips, or summer camps. Such activities improve children’s skills directly, but

also indirectly via general intellectual stimulation, which affects subsequent learning (Mudrák et

al., 2020). In addition to a loss of financial resources, a loss of parental involvement is generally

associated with a divorce or separation.

Parental involvement is supposed to positively affect children’s educational outcomes” (Park &

Kim, 2011). Children raised in single-parent homes suffer more severe health problems when the

custodial parent is unable to provide them with proper nutrition and health insurance (Stativa et al.,

2021). In such a situation, a single-parent is in one way or another obliged to play two roles in

raising the child and many cases it becomes a problem to the children. Furthermore, children of

24
single parents are at a greater risk for involvement in dangerous behaviors, such as drugs, alcohol,

criminal activity or self-injury due to the lack of adequate adult supervision (Ridge, 2021). To

overcome the impact of limited finances, single parents should seek out community resources to

supplement the needs of their families, including agencies that can help them collect overdue child

support. Take advantage of state-funded childcare programs, and medical and dental insurance

plans to ease some of the financial strain on your family. Also, involve your children in after

school programs that will keep them active and safe during the hours you must work (Stativa et al.,

2021).

However, children growing up in single-parent families experience negative consequences, but not

all children. More importantly, focusing on the weaknesses and problems does not help single

parents and their children become strong.

 Parents’ Occupation

It has been found that a child from a family with higher socio-economic status, due to the parent's

educational background, is likely to display superior performance compared to those whose

parents are illiterate (Laird et al., 2018). This is because the child from an educated family has a

lot of support such as a decent and good environment for academic work, parental support and

guidance, enough textual and academic materials and decent feeding. He or she is likely to be sent

to good schools where well-seasoned teachers handle his or her subjects. Laird et al. (2018)

determined that the occupation of a parent has a significant effect on student success in school, as

it implicates how much time and effort they can devote to their child's educational ventures. The

level of engagement exhibited by the parent will affect how much quality attention is given to the

student at home. A very busy parent who leaves home before daybreak and returns when the child

is already asleep can offer very minimum attention and input to his or her child’s education needs

25
at home and in school.

The higher a parent's educational qualification, the more likely they are to attain a high

occupational status, and this in turn has been linked with children’s educational choices and

attainment according to Baumrind (2016). Further, Graetz (2019) reported that, children from

parents having low occupational status face many barriers in transiting from one stage of

education to the next; revealing that low parental occupational status has negative influence and

effect on student’s school achievement. Parents of different occupational classes often exhibit an

array of varying child-rearing styles, disciplinary approaches and responses to their offspring's

behavior. These discrepancies do not necessarily appear with regularity in each household;

instead, they shape the general tendencies that families within these specific backgrounds display

(Rothstein, 2014). In particular, for students from single parent homes whose parents are engaged

in income activities, parental occupation can significantly influence average student behaviors.

 Time and Money Management

From work to appointments, a single parents schedule is going to fill up fast. A significant step to

take in managing these tough schedules is to first prioritize the tasks (Stativa et al., 2021). If

possible, a single parent should try to work with their employer in finding a work schedule that

will assist with other priorities. parents should also try to plan things ahead. In example, by

marking down all of the family’s appointments, meetings and events onto a central calendar that is

accessible by all. (Stativa et al., 2021) Then by planning things accordingly to that calendar, a

single parent can successfully tackle their daily regimen.

They must balance school, children, work and their own well-being. Pressures to perform

academically and achieve satisfactory academic progress are added to those they already feel from

their home and child rearing responsibilities. In a study on the effect of sociological and

26
psychological belief factors on the academic success of single-mother college students, multiple

participants were concerned about balancing their time. For participants of the study, working hard

not only meant compromising their family life to meet their academic responsibilities, but

compromising their social and personal needs as well (Davison, 2014).

Money Management, this means that single parents will need to budget their monthly income.

This is probably the most tangible challenge they will face, because now the household only has

one income versus a dual, monthly stipend. Alterations in spending and lifestyle may need to be

changed if their budget is in a deficit. To better manage their money, a single parent may cut back

on how much they are spending, try to con-serve energy, thus saving money on bills, and/or

partake in economical entertainment for the family and for themselves (Battle, 2018). Therefore,

managing time can be a huge challenge for single parents, especially those who are also working.

To help simplify your life and save valuable time, consider the following tips: Make lists and

prioritize the tasks in order of importance (Stativa et al., 2021).

2.1.4 Effect of Single Parenting on Students

 Psychological Well-Being

There is research evidence concluding that the effects on children’s psychological well-being are

enormous when their parents‟ divorce. A study by Arendell (2018) concluded that divorced women

complained about the prevalence of the stereotype that their children are likely to experience most of

which take place in their school environment which affects their academic outcome. However,

additional research suggested that children who lived with their fathers had greater sense of well-being

than those children who lived with their mothers after divorce (Biller & Kimpton, 2017). Azuka-Obieke

Uchenna (2013) also found that children from single parent homes are more likely to suffer deprivations

and denials of some rights and opportunities that will have negative psycho-social impact on them in

27
school years. Hetherington & Stanley-Hagan (2017) did an analysis of children from single homes and

those living with both parents. The study found that although children from divorced homes did

experience more psychological and behavioral problems than children from intact homes, 70% to 80% of

these children emerge as “reasonably competent and well-adjusted individuals” after a time of

readjustment to the divorce. Downey and Ainsworth-Darnell (2018) indicated that although general

statistics show that overall, children living with both parents tended to be emotionally strong and highly

involved, 46%- 49% of children from single parent homes are also emotionally strong.

 Academic Performance

Lack of parental involvement is the biggest problem in public schools (Pitman, 2013). Where parents

are involved, the students have higher grades, test scores and graduation rates, better school attendance,

increased motivation, better self- esteem, low rates of supervision, decreased use of drugs and alcohol

and fewer instances of violent behavior. According to Pitman (2013), compared with two- parent

families, children of single parents are more likely to have lower educated goals and complete fewer

years of school, have lower earnings and poor in young adulthood, marry and bear children at early an

age, get divorced and become involved in delinquency, alcohol abuse and drug addiction. Again, Knox

(2016) indicated that more often than not, when parents separate or divorce children often lose both

financial and emotional support of their fathers, which can have a negative impact on academic

performance.

 Exposure To Criminality, Denied of Education and Early marriage

Many children have been exposed to criminals because their parents found difficult to care for them.

Yet, this affect their education in life however, single parents have been contributed much on the

inability to give them sound education. Indeed, many students exposed to bad things made to lost their

28
lives while others remained in prison, this is mar to their future in live although it is not the fault of

many children but it is inability of their parents to care for them (Conger & Donnellan, 2017).

Thousands of the children have problems of single parenting which shape their futures. Moreover,

majority of single parents find it difficulties to send their children to school, because they are facing

challenges of financial constrain and other relevance challenges this rampant among single parents in

Nigeria. Similarly, many of children from single parents drop out in school because of inability of their

parents. Similarly, thousands of teenagers have been married because of inability of their parents to give

them sound education while many are under bondage of cohabitation because their parents failed to send

them to school although this common among children from single parenting. For instance, in Northern

parts of Nigeria this early marriage is prevail among teenagers, although some of teenagers have their

father and mother but majority occur through the single parents. Yet, likewise, in Yoruba single parents

affected the lives of many children (Battle, 2018).

2.1.5 Relationship Between Single Parents Income Status and Academic Grades of Their Children

The income status of single parents can have an impact on the academic grades of their children in

school, although it is important to note that the relationship between income and academic performance

is complex and influenced by various factors. Here are some ways in which income status may affect a

single parent's child's academic grades:

 Access to educational resources: Higher income levels often provide greater access to

educational resources such as tutoring, enrichment programs, educational materials, and

technology. Children from higher-income families may have more opportunities to supplement

their learning outside of school, which can positively impact their academic performance

(Sudhakar et al. 2016).

29
  Quality of schools: Income can influence the neighborhood in which a family resides and the

quality of schools available to their children. Higher-income families may have the means to live

in areas with well-funded schools, experienced teachers, and better facilities, which can

contribute to improved academic outcomes (Davison, 2014).

 Stress and time constraints: Single parents, particularly those with lower incomes, may face

financial stress and time constraints due to juggling work and parenting responsibilities. This can

impact the amount of time and attention they can devote to their child's educational needs.

Limited time for homework supervision or involvement in school activities may affect a child's

academic performance (Pitman, 2013).

 Parental education level: Income often correlates with educational attainment, and parents with

higher education levels may be better equipped to support their child's learning. They may have

a deeper understanding of educational concepts and be able to provide more effective assistance

with homework or academic challenges (Davison, 2014).

 Health and well-being: Lower income levels can be associated with reduced access to

healthcare, proper nutrition, and stable housing. These factors can have indirect effects on a

child's academic performance by impacting their physical and mental well-being, which are

crucial for optimal learning.

 Perceptions of self-worth: Financial struggles and social stigma related to being a single parent

with limited income may impact a child's self-esteem and motivation, which can affect their

academic engagement and performance (Conger & Donnellan, 2017).

It's important to note that while income can play a role in academic achievement, it is not the sole

30
determinant. Many other factors, such as parental involvement, family support, school environment,

individual motivation, and the child's own abilities and interests, also influence academic performance

Pitman, 1993).

2.1.6 Impact of Parental Educational Attainment on Children's Academic Performance

The educational attainment of single parents plays an important role in influencing the academic

performance of their children (Stativa et al., 2021). A single parent with a college degree is able to

provide more resources, knowledge and support for their child than one without any education beyond

high school(Conger & Donnellan, 2017). For instance, having access to higher-level books or online

classes can help foster learning opportunities that boost grades and test scores down the line. And simply

providing emotional guidance and encouragement during challenging times can make all the difference

when it comes to staying on track academically. Single parents also have invaluable insights into how

best to connect with educators or navigate complex topics like standardized testing or applications for

post-secondary programs which greatly benefits both themselves as well as their kids through successful

outcomes such as scholarships or acceptance letters from top universities. Thus, investing in furthering

one's own educational journey helps ensure that not only does a single parent have better employment

prospects but more importantly contributes significantly in setting up future generations for success too.

Here are some key points based on research:

 Role modeling and expectations: Single parents who have higher levels of education often serve

as positive role models for their children. They can instill a value for education, set higher

expectations, and provide guidance on academic goals, which can positively influence their

children's academic performance (McLanahan & Sandefur, 2014).

 Language and cognitive development: Parents with higher education levels tend to have stronger

language skills, which can enhance children's language development and cognitive abilities. This
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 can lead to better academic outcomes, particularly in early childhood (Conger & Donnellan,

2017).

 Parental involvement: educational attainment can impact a parent's ability to be involved in their

child's education. Research suggests that parents with higher education levels are more likely to

be engaged in school activities, communicate effectively with teachers, and provide academic

support at home, which can contribute to improved academic performance (Kiraz & Aytaç,

2020).

 Access to resources: Higher educational attainment is often associated with higher income levels

and greater access to resources. Parents with higher education may have the means to provide

educational materials, books, technology, and enrichment activities that can support their

children's learning and academic success (Klebanov, Brooks-Gunn, & Duncan, 2017).

 Expectations for children's education: Parents with higher education levels tend to have higher

expectations for their children's educational attainment. These expectations can positively

influence their children's motivation, effort, and commitment to academic success (Stativa et al.,

2021).

It's important to note that while these points reflect general trends in the research, individual

circumstances and other factors can also influence the relationship between parental educational

attainment and children's academic performance.

2.1.7 Comparison of Academic Performance: Single-Parent vs. Two-Parent Households

Research suggests that there can be differences in the academic performance of students from single-

parent households compared to those from two-parent households. However, it's important to note that

32
academic performance is influenced by various factors, and generalizations may not apply to every

individual case. Here's an assessment of the level of students' academic performance between single-

parent and two-parent households based on available research:

Academic Achievement: Studies have found that, on average, students from two-parent households

tend to have slightly higher academic achievement compared to students from single-parent households

(Klebanov, Brooks-Gunn, & Duncan, 2017). This difference may be attributed to factors such as

parental involvement, higher income levels, and greater access to resources in two-parent households.

Educational Attainment: Research has demonstrated that students from two-parent households have

higher rates of educational attainment, including college and postgraduate degrees (Martin, 2013). This

may be due to the increased stability, support, and guidance provided by their parents.

Mediating Factors: The impact of single-parent or two-parent households on academic performance

can be mediated by various factors . For example, the quality of the parent-child relationship, parental

educational attainment, socioeconomic status, and parental involvement in education play significant

roles (Martin, 2013). It's important to approach this topic with caution and avoid making broad

generalizations about the academic performance of students solely based on family structure. Every

child's experience is unique, and multiple factors beyond family structure influence academic outcomes.

Individual support, nurturing environments, and access to educational resources can mitigate potential

disadvantages faced by students from single-parent households, leading to positive academic

performance.

2.2 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework for the topic "The effects of single parenting on the academic performance of

senior secondary school students" is centered around the premise that various factors associated with

33
single parenting can impact students' academic performance. The framework highlights the following

causes of single parenting: divorce, death of a parent, birth to unmarried women, exposure to

criminality, denied education, and unintended pregnancy. It suggests that these causes can influence

students' academic performance through several pathways.

Figure 2. 1: Conceptual Framework

Source: Authors work

a) Divorce: When parents go through a divorce, it can create emotional distress and instability

within the family. The disruption in the family structure and potential conflicts between parents

may negatively impact a student's academic focus and overall well-being (Sudhakar et al.

2016).

b) Death of a Parent: The loss of a parent can be a traumatic experience for a child. Dealing with

grief and adjusting to life without a parent's support may affect the student's ability to

34
 concentrate on academics and perform at their full potential (Sudhakar et al. 2016).

c) Birth to Unmarried Women: Children born to unmarried women may face challenges related

to limited financial resources, social stigma, and potential difficulties in co-parenting

arrangements. These factors can create stress and distractions that hinder academic

achievement (Sudhakar et al. 2016).

d) Exposure to Criminality: Growing up in an environment with criminal influences, such as

living in neighborhoods with high crime rates or having a parent involved in criminal activities,

can negatively impact a student's academic performance. Exposure to violence and instability

may lead to decreased focus and increased emotional stress.

e) Denied Education: Single parents who face obstacles in accessing education themselves may

have limited resources and opportunities to support their child's education. The lack of

educational support and guidance from the parent can hinder a student's academic progress

(Sudhakar et al. 2016).

f) Unintended Pregnancy: Students who become parents themselves at a young age may face

significant challenges in balancing parenting responsibilities and academic pursuits. The added

responsibilities and demands of childcare can lead to reduced time and energy for studying,

affecting academic performance (Sudhakar et al. 2016).

The conceptual framework suggests that these causes of single parenting can have both direct and

indirect effects on the academic performance of senior secondary school students. The direct effects

may involve immediate disruptions and challenges associated with the specific cause of single

parenting, while the indirect effects may include psychological, social, and economic factors that

indirectly impact academic performance. Understanding the effects of single parenting on academic

performance is crucial for identifying the potential barriers and developing appropriate interventions to

35
 support students from single-parent households. By considering the factors within this conceptual

framework, researchers and educators can explore strategies to mitigate the negative impacts and

promote academic success for students in single-parent families.

2.3 Empirical Review

Good parenting is when the children are able to meet the demands of the specific culture in which they

live in and that parenting style has a big factor in the development of the child. But he could not

conclude on one single parenting style that works for all situations because “Societal changes have

made it more difficult to rely on parenting techniques from the past.” The constant and everlasting

changes in the world whether through technology or the lack thereof, or a sudden political change, a

parent may decide to change his or her parenting style. The development of a child is so dependent on

what parenting style is utilized, that a sudden change in parenting style may lead to culture shock, or

even just utilizing authoritarianism on children may cause an identity crisis within themselves. Sarwar

(2016) discussed some cases of the children committing law breaking acts. The author made the term

“Juvenile Delinquency” to specify the children who commit crimes at the stage of their life because they

are looking for their identity. Parenting has big impact for such cases like this it is the time where

children find the attention and care they need from their parents. It can be safe to assume that since

children have a phase of questioning and seeking attention and care that if the parent uses the neglectful

parenting style, it could be a reason for the children to seek attention somewhere else causing them to be

engaged in negative activities such as crimes.

Being too strict or giving much freedom to a child may lead a child to become delinquent as well (Andal

et al., 2016). At some point, too much freedom would give a child the power to do things; even against

the law. A big factor is their surroundings, one example is their peers. A child could create himself an

identity without the means of the parents because he will find his self-validation from someone else. On

36
the other hand, being too strict of a parent drives the relationship of both parents and children into having

an unstable communication. It instils fear onto the child and creates this emotional boundary given that

parent is not being considerate enough to their child. Andal et al. (2016) stated that as the adolescent

grows older, he or she has the curiosity to explore and try new things. By exploring new things, parents

should take place in knowing the concerns and feelings of their child. Lack of attention is one of the

reasons why children end up committing crimes. As stated earlier, if a child does not get the attention and

validation from their main care-takers, albeit the parents, they will attempt to find it somewhere else.

Unfortunately, there are cases wherein that place where they find what they seek is in crime. This is why

parents should be responsible in guiding their child when in adolescence. According to Sudhakar et al.

(2016), academic achievement is a vital factor for children, with the influence of the parents for pursuing

a higher education. Parents are the first teachers at home. The response of the parents towards the

performance of the children in school is also a contributor for the development of the child. It is essential

to feel the moral support of the first teacher at home to keep the children’s motivation in pursuing

academics.

2. 4 Theoretical Review

This section examines the many parenting philosophies and theories that underpin the research. Theories

play a crucial role in the literature review process as they provide a framework for understanding and

interpreting existing knowledge in a specific field of study. Theories help researchers identify key

concepts, variables, and relationships that have been studied and discussed by scholars in the past.

2.4.1 Parenting Styles

Authoritative Parenting Style. This parenting style involves a give and take type set-up wherein there are

demands, but these demands are explained to the child to prove it being reasonable (Baumrind, 2016).

This parenting style leads to positive effects such as having necessary psychosocial skills, cooperation

37
with others, academic success, and the ability to be independent (Clyde et al., 2015) Aligned with Clyde’s

study is the fact that this parenting style has so much positive effects, that Lema and Manyama conducted

a 2017 study that shows how children develop better psychosocial skills compared to those children

raised under authoritarian parents.

Authoritarian Parenting Style: Authoritarian parenting style is a parenting style that is firmly rooted by a

highly set standard, normally by a higher authority such as a god, and wherein that standard must be met.

The parents are claimed to also highly respect tradition and work ethics, to the extent of even strictly

enforcing housework. As Cruz et al. (2019) said, it is simply just strict parenting. Although Baumrind

(2017) stated that authoritarian parenting does more harm than good, Kordi (2010) stated that more study

on this sector is required because her study showed that Asian children were autonomous, achievement-

oriented, and self-controlled, all of which are positive traits.

Permissive Parenting Style: we have the permissive parenting style wherein Baumrind in this theory says

that parents are accepting of the child’s behaviors. The parent is treated as a resource that the child may

utilize, and the parent has little demanded in the household. Hoskins (2014) says however that this is a

bad idea for this parenting style leads to a higher chance for substance abuse, misconduct, and less active

in school related activities.

Neglectful Parenting Style: This theory as coined by Martin and Maccoby (1983), neglectful parenting

style is where the parents simply have no connection with their children. There are absolutely zero

demands to be met, and there is no response to the parenting style. Knutson et al. (2004) studied on the

effects of neglectful parenting on children and found out that the neglectful parenting turned into a

mediator wherein this causes a social disadvantage. An easy way to understand the four types of

parenting is to show it in a table. Hoskins (2014) created a table that shows the demand made by parents

to their child/ren and responsiveness of a child towards the parenting style

38
Figure 2. 2: Hoskins’ table of parenting styles

Source: Pamela (2023)

2.4.2 Theoretical Review

Cognitive development theory: The theory has propounded by Vygotsky’s (1978) points out that, all

adults including both parents and teachers are very influential in how children or students perform

academically. We have to be very conscientious and systematic in the way we model behaviors and

attitudes in regards to education. According to Vygotsky’s cognitive development theory developed in

(1978), indeed, children from single-parent families are at greater risk than children in two parent

families; even when they have the same academic abilities. Pamela (2023) argued that children who

come from single-parent households are three times more likely to quit school than children who live in

a two-parent home. Children in single-parent families may be at greater risk than children of two-parent

families. Because they are the primary and frequently sole source of financial support for the family,

single parents have less time to help children with homework, are less likely to use consistent discipline,

and have less parental control, and all of these conditions may lead to lower academic achievement.

Psychosocial Developmental Theory: Erick Erickson's theory of psychosocial developmental

developed (1963) suggests if the caregiver is available, consistent, supportive and reliable children

achieve developmental milestones which ultimately supports their trust, independence, self-awareness

and desire to succeed. Children raised in single-parent households have the same developmental needs

39
as other children. Therefore, if the single parent is consistent, supportive and reliable, they too should

acquire attitudes of trust, independence, self-awareness and the desire to succeed.

Resiliency Theory (1973): The Resiliency theory suggests that using inborn coping mechanisms

individuals are able to overcome adversities in their lives. By appropriate resources and the application

of coping strategies single parent families can overcome the challenges that they encounter. Carl Rogers'

self-actualization perspective proposes that the fundamental goal of all individuals is to maximize their

potential and be the best they could be. It is not the intention or goal of single-parent families to be

problematic and dysfunctional. Like other families, the desire of the members of single-parent families

is to achieve family cohesion and to support the growth and development of each other (Manyema &

Richter, 2019a).

2.5 Theoretical Framework

According to Amato and Keith (1991), the cognitive development theory suggests that secure

attachment between a parent and child makes parenting easier and supports parent/child intimacy, which

enhances the child's sense of worth. Lack of interaction between the children of single-parent families

and their parents can result in attachment issues that can compromise the effectiveness of parenting

strategies, and result an overwhelming amount of stress on custodial parents as they endeavor to carry

out their parenting responsibilities A close relationship that exists the single parent and the child fosters

the child's social-emotional development and decreases behavioral concern. Sigmund Freud suggests

that the human psyche is by nature pleasure seeking. Single-parents who are experiencing the pain of

separation is likely to resort to behaviors, that may be risky, yet provides them with the gratification they

may need to deal with the stressors that they encounter. B.F. Skinner’s (1938) theory of operant

conditioning suggests that, individuals tend to repeat behaviors that lead to favorable results. Many

40
single parents struggle with self-reliance because their dependency on external supports is reinforced.

For example, those who are welfare dependent may be better off financially that those who work

(Mulkey et al., 2015). Therefore, cognitive development theory is relevant to this study as children

observe and behave the way the parents do. Development of children from single parenting families may

different from those who have both parents

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter presented the methodology used in carrying out the research study. It specifically focused

on the research design, population, sample and sampling techniques, description of instrument, validity

of the instrument, pilot study, reliability of the instrument, procedure for data collection, methods of

scoring and procedure for data analysis.

3.1 Research Design

The design used in this study is partly survey and quasi experimental research. This was because the

survey research allowed structured questionnaire to be used for data collection fam the teachers while

quasi experimental research design assisted the research study to investigate the result of students'

academic performance of both poor and wealthy single/ two-grants. Both groups of students" involved

in this study comprised of those from the poor and wealthy single parents best classified as experimental

and controlled groups and vice versa. The experimental groups have students from poor single parents

are given treatment in the form of educational assistance in their studies because of their background

while the controlled groups re not, since they are from wealthy single parents and vice versa.

3.2 Population

41
This study consisted of participants from a variety of backgrounds relating to secondary education in the

Ife Central Local Government (LGA) of Osun. The participants for this study are 500 students which

include students and teachers who are directly or indirectly involved in selected secondary school

education within Ife Central LGA, Osun State.

3.3 Sample Size and Sampling Techniques

A total of 335 respondents were randomly selected from a population of 500 students for the

investigation. The distribution of the number of students selected from each school is presented in Table

3.1. As shown in the table below; the selected schools, for this study are Urban Day, Seventh Day

Adventist Senior Secondary School and Ife Girls High School.

Table 3 1: Population and Sample Size

Source: Field work (2023)

The choice of three Secondary Schools for this study is informed because of the nature of its research

design. SS Il and SS III students comprised the target groups involved in this research study since these

two classes offered the subject, they are this considered natured and can read in-between the lines of

their present state of life and the likely future expectations. The table below shows the population and

sample size for study:

3.4 Instrumentation

42
This study employed the use of questionnaire and achievement tests as major instruments grounfically

designed for data collection in the research work. The instruments were desiened songside background

knowledge aequired from sources of literature reviewed. The questionnaire employed for this study was

close-ended type, carefally selected for teachers only. It was tagged teachers" questionnaire (TRSQ)

designed alongside four (4) point Likert rating sale. Basically, the questionnaire was divided into two (2)

parts namely sections A and B. Section A seeks to gather respondents’ information (bio-data) and B

elicits information on funding, educational attainment of parents and causes of single parenting.

3.5 Validity of the Instrument

The instruments used in this study were self developed by the researcher for the purpose this study.

Supervisors and other experts in the field of Arts and Social Science in the Faculty of Education,

Obafemi Awolowo University, Ife were consulted to review ire instruments and its items. The purpose

was to ascertain face and content validity as was the ease with research instruments. This would be

directed at the objectives and hypotheses iomulated in the study. Saunders et al., (2019) supported the

use of expert validation as an effective method of content validity in research instruments. Taking

advantage of opportunity, all corrections and modifications suggested by experts were implemented into

the instrument. Overall, comments provided by experts proved to be satisfactory for the final version.

3.6 Reliability of the Instrument

The reliability of the instruments was calculated using split -half method of Guttman. This method

involves the division of the scores of respondents in the test items during the pilot study into two equal

halves and correlated (Omotosho, 2014). Correlation coefficient (r) was obtained by applying the

Pearson Product moment coefficient formula (PPMC).

3.7 Procedure for Data Collection

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A total of 335 questionnaires were completed and returned within 3 days for data analysis in this study.

The data analysis was carried out using descriptive statistics for respondents" bio-data and research

questions, while inferential statistics such, as Pearson Prod moment Correlation (PPMC) was adopted

for the testing of the four formulated null-hypotheses. All hypotheses were tested using PPMC because

it helps to measure relationship that exists between two variables. It is widely used in the social sciences

as a measure of the strength of linear dependence between two variables. This was facilitated using

Statistical Package Social Sciences (SPSS) with the aid of computer software.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Introduction

This chapter presented the summary of the research work, conclusions and recommendations

respectively, it also provides a general appraisal of what has been undertaken in the present research

work from the previous chapters.

5.2 Summary of Findings

This study focused on exploring the impact of single parental upbringing on the academic performance

of senior secondary school students studying Government as a teaching subject in the Ikeja Local

Government Area of Lagos State. The central objective was to evaluate how students' academic

achievements are influenced by their parental upbringing. The research involved an extensive review of

literature, which encompassed the concept of single parenting, causes of single parenting, factors

affecting students' academic performance, and the effects and challenges of single parenting on society.

To address the research objectives, four research questions and corresponding hypotheses were

formulated. The research method employed a combination of survey and quasi-experimental research

44
approaches. The target population comprised teachers and students from selected public and private

secondary schools in the Ikeja Local Government Area of Lagos State. Data were collected using

questionnaires for teachers and achievement tests for senior secondary school students.

The researcher-designed questionnaire, labeled "Teachers' Questionnaire (TRSQ)," was used to gather

information from teachers, while the "Government Achievement Test" (GAT) was administered to the

senior secondary school students. The data analysis involved descriptive statistics, such as frequency

counts and simple percentages, for the demographic sections of the teachers' questionnaire. For the

research questions, mean deviation was used, and for the four null hypotheses, the inferential statistics

technique of Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) was employed. The study's findings

indicated a significant relationship between parental income and students' academic performance,

regardless of whether they came from poor or wealthy single-parent homes. Furthermore, the

educational attainment of parents was found to have a significant impact on students' academic

achievements. The research also highlighted that students' academic performance in both poor and

wealthy single-parent homes is influenced by the identified characteristics of their parental households.

In comparison to other related studies, this research sheds light on the crucial role of single parental

upbringing in shaping students' academic performance in the context of Government as a subject in

senior secondary schools. The use of a mixed research method, comprehensive literature review, and

statistical analysis adds to the depth and credibility of the findings. The study's implications may

contribute to a better understanding of the challenges faced by students from single-parent households

and inform potential interventions to support their academic success. However, further research may be

warranted to explore additional factors that could influence students' academic performance in single-

parent families.

5.3 Conclusion

45
The results of this study showed that the nature of single parent homes had an impact on their children's

academic performance in school (Mohan, 2017). It was found that variables such as parental occupation

and income were closely linked to students’ grades. This conclusion suggests that single parent

households can have both negative and positive effects on student achievement; however, more often

than not it is seen that the negative impacts outweigh the positive ones (Adelakun et al., 2019). For

instance, research indicates lower levels of involvement by parents due to socio-economic constraints

which leads to decreased educational performance for students from single parents’ families compared

with those living in two-parent households (Solis et al., 2020). Moreover, studies also suggest a lack of

adequate emotional support within these families leading to mental health issues like anxiety or

depression which could further reduce academic success (Moten & Morrissey-Kane, 2018). Therefore, it

is evident from these findings just how important family dynamics are when considering a child's future

scholastic achievements.

5.4 Recommendations

The following are the recommendation put forward as a result of the outcome of this study:

1. The government should institute a special scholarship to assist students of poor single parents

who are presently enrolled in school to caution the effect of their financial strength. To this end,

modalities for accessing the fund should be established by setting up a committee.

2. Stigmatization of single parents and their children should be discouraged forthwith by enacting

all relevant laws. Such unconstitutional stereotypes paint a negative view on unmarried

individuals who are doing their best in order to provide for themselves and their families, which

can lead to further theoretical troubles for this already vulnerable population such as decreased

mental health. By passing new legislation that directly tackles the topic at hand, we can protect

46
 these brave individuals from unwarranted judgement while also providing support towards those

striving most diligently against unfair circumstances.

3. Parents should be way mindful of their children especially their education before contemplating

divorce separation. Furthermore, the society should promote her cultural values and assist the

social institutions within its locality to orientate families on the benefits and odds of divorce

especially as it affects student’s educational outcome.

4. The Government should provide the necessary framework for curriculum experts to address the

needs of students from divorce homes during the curriculum planning and development.

Additionally, It is strongly advised that single parents should not attach academic success to the

career of the wards on the basis of their financial capability but further be extended to molding of

character.

5. Understanding that there exists significant relationship between the causes of single parenting

and academic performance of students in Government. It is therefore advocated that effort

towards improving academic performance of students in schools should began first with

eradicating its diverse causes (mainly artificial ones)

5.5 Suggestion for Further Studies

The following suggestions were put forward as a proposal for further work. These include:

1. Worried by the rampant cases of family separation round the world and Nigeria society in

particular, the study is however, recommending an investigation into remote causes of separation

of homes from the view point of tradition and religion.

2. Design of a work plan to address the prevalent cases of single parenting of homes for use as

policy formulation in the country.

47
 3. There is need to examine the judicial role of courts in the land with regards to record keeping as

input for orientation of homes on the danger of divorce or separation.

4. It has been realized that precautions are not taken to, with regards to the procedure of separation

being recommended by Islam. On the basis of this, the researcher is therefore suggesting a study

to be carried out on how stringent conditions can be attached to family separation and access to

fund for children’s upkeep.

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