1-2 Basis of Hydraulics

Hydraulic systems transfer power by feeding a hydraulic fluid from a closed vessel with variable displacement to
another closed vessel. This section explains“pressure”as the basis of hydraulic power. It is explained in accordance
with Pascal’s principle. Also,“flow rates”and“hydraulic power”are explained by the calculation of“forces”and
“speeds”of a hydraulic cylinder.

,
1-2-1 Pascal s Principle 1-2-2 Force and Speed of Hydraulic Cylinders
A static fluid in a closed vessel has the following When hydraulic flow enters into a closed vessel with a
,
characteristics, as stated by Pascal s principle. movable piston, the piston is moved by the force applied
(1) Pressure works on a plane at a right angle. to its surfaces. This is the principle of hydraulic cylinder
(2) Pressure is transmitted equally in all directions. operation. The cylinder force and speed are expressed by
(3) Pressure applied on part of a fluid is transmitted the following equations.
throughout the fluid equally. Cylinder Force＝Pressure×Cylinder Area
Pressure P can be expressed by the following formula as Cylinder Speed＝Inlet Flow Rate/Cylinder Area
a force per unit area. The force and speed at the piston and rod sides are
P ＝F/A shown in Fig. 1.6.
P [Pa(psi)]: Pressure, F [N(lbf)]: Applied force, The power of the cylinder, or output [kW(HP)], is the
A [m2(in2)]: Area where the force is applied product of the force and the traveling distance per unit
time, as shown in the expression below.
,
Figure 1.5 shows a force multiplier based on Pascal s Cylinder Output Power＝Force×Speed
principle. The force multiplier is a closed vessel having ＝(Pressure×Cylinder Area)
different movable pistons positioned at both ends. Pres- ×(Inlet Flow Rate/ Cylinder Area)
sures everywhere in the vessel are equal; thus, the formula ＝ Pressure×Inlet Flow Rate
P ＝ F 1/ A 1＝ F 2/ A 2 is derived, accordingly resulting in This is generally called the hydraulic power.
F 2＝F 1×A 2/A 1. The force on the larger sectional area F 2
is multiplied by the ratio to the smaller sectional area
●Force
where the force F 1 is applied. The subscripts 1 and 2
indicate the larger and smaller sections of the pistons, Area：A1 Area：A2 Force：F1
respectively. The traveling distance of the piston is
proportional to the multiplicative inverse of its ratio of the
cross sectional area (A 1/A 2); therefore, the piston with Pressure：P1 Pressure：P2
the larger cross sectional area travels a smaller distance. Packing Friction：F0
The traveling distance per unit time, or the product of the F1＝0.1（P1・A1ーP2・A2）ーF0 (kN)
speed and the cross sectional area, is the flow rate.
F1＝（P1・A1ーP2・A2）ーF0 (lbf)

1 000 kN Unit P1, P2：MPa (psi)

F2 (224 800 lbf) A1, A2：cm2 (in2)
F1 40 kN
(8 992 lbf)

2 cm
●Speed
(0.787 in)
50 cm Area：A1 Area：A2 Speed：V1
(19.7 in)

A1 A2 Flow Rate：Q1 Flow Rate：Q2

2 2
2 cm 50 cm
(0.310 in2) (7.75 in2) 6
Q1＝ 1 000 ・V1・A1 Q1＝3.117・V1・A1

1 000 Q1 1 Q1
V 1＝ 6 ・ A1 V1＝ 3.117 ・
Fig. 1.5 Force Multiplier A1
6 A2 A2
Q2＝ 1 000・V1・A2＝ ・Q1 Q2＝3.117・V1・A2＝ Q1
A1 A1・

Unit Q1, Q2：L/min Unit Q1, Q2：[Link]

V1 ：mm/s V1 ：ft/s
A1, A2 ：cm2 A1, A2 ：in2

Fig. 1.6 Force and Speed of Hydraulic Cylinders

WORLD OF HYDRAULIC DRIVE ■ 4

 HYDRAULIC PUMPS
2-1 Comparison of the Pumps
2-2 Piston Pumps
Axial Piston Pumps, Radial Piston Pumps
2-3 Vane Pumps
Fixed Displacement: Single Pumps, Multiple Pumps
Variable Displacement: Single Pumps, Multiple Pumps
2-4 Gear Pumps
2-5 Screw Pumps
2-6 Reciprocal Pumps

Hydraulic pumps convert mechanical energy, such as the rotations of motors or engines, to fluid energy. They are
called positive displacement pumps and are distinguished from the centrifugal types, such as water pumps and fans,
because flow and pressure energies are generated in a closed space.

2-1 Comparison of the Pumps

Typical hydraulic pumps fall into three categories: piston, vane, and axial. Tables 2.1 and 2.2 show characteristics
and structures and specifications of the respective pumps.

Table 2.1 Characteristics of the Pumps

Type Piston Pumps Vane Pumps Gear Pumps

Cam Ring Discharge

Discharge
Gear
Port
Vane

Structure
Shaft
Suction
Valve Swash Plate Port Shaft
Plate
Rotor Suction
Cylinder Block Piston

Expansion and compression of Movement of volumes between

Operation Expansion and compression of a volume
volumes between the vanes and the tooth spaces and the casing (the
Principle in a cylinder block with the piston stroke
cam ring external gear pump is shown.)
・Generally the highest. ・Generally low.
・Generally low.
Efficiency ・The valve plate is easily damaged and ・Can be compensated when the vane
・Drops as the gear wears out.
efficiency drops as the plate wears out. wears out.
Susceptible to foreign substances
Contamination Highly susceptible to foreign substances Susceptible to foreign substances in
in oil, but hardly susceptible when
Resistance in oil. oil, but less so than piston pumps.
the pumps are low pressure types.
Suction Ability Low. Middle. High.
Variable Can be converted by changing the
Easy to convert by changing the angle of
Displacement eccentricity of the cam ring for the Difficult.
the swash plate or bent axis.
Type unbalanced type.
Size and price Generally large, heavy, and expensive. Smallest and relatively inexpensive. Small, light, and inexpensive.

5 ■ HYDRAULIC PUMPS
 Table 2.2 Specifications
Max. Operating Press. Max. Displacement Max. Shaft Speed Overall Efficiency
MPa (psi) cm3/rev ([Link]./rev) r/min ％
Axial Piston Pump 45 (6 527) 1 000 (61.0) 5 600 85∼95
Radial Piston Pump 70 (10 153) 500 (30.5) 2 900 80∼92
Vane Pump 40 (5 802) 350 (21.3) 4 200 75∼90
Gear Pump 35 (5 076) 500 (30.5) 6 000 75∼90
Source: Shinban yuku-atsu binran [Revised hydraulics handbook], 1989, edited by the Japan Hydraulics and
Pneumatics Society, published by Ohmsha ltd.
Some of the maximum working pressure and rotation speed values are cited from the latest catalogue.

2-2 Piston Pumps

These pumps assure high performance in high pressure operation, compared to the other types, and are easy to
convert to the variable displacement type. Thus, they can operate with various control types. The piston pumps
provide advantages including: (1) high efficiency; (2) ease of operation at high pressure; (3) ease of conversion to the
variable displacement type, and; (4) various applicable control types.
The pumps are categorized into axial, radial, and reciprocal piston types. This section explains the axial piston type,
which is most widely applied in industrial machinery, from low-/middle-pressure general industrial machines to high-
pressure press machines and construction machines.

2-2-1 Axial Piston Pumps alternate suction and discharge strokes. Some of the
These pumps have pistons installed in parallel, or axially, swash plate type axial piston pumps have a fixed cylinder
with the pump shaft. The pumps are subcategorized into block and a rotating swash plate, which rotates so that the
the swash plate type and the bent axis type according to the piston moves. This type uses a check valve in each
piston stroke mechanism, as shown in Figs. 2.1 and 2.2. cylinder to switch suction and discharge.
The displacement of the piston pumps can be changed by
Piston Cylinder Block
adjusting the angle of the swash or bent axis. The swash
plate type allows easier adjustment of the angle; thus, it is
d generally used as a variable displacement piston pump.
Figure 2.3 shows the appearances of the swash plate type
θ2 variable displacement pumps (A and A3H series) and a
d2 Shaft
graphic symbol of the variable displacement piston pump.

A Series
Valve Plate
Swash Plate (Stationary)

Fig. 2.1 Swash Plate Type

Piston
Cylinder Block

d1

A3H Series
θ1

Shaft
d

Valve Plate
(Stationary)

Fig. 2.2 Bent Axis Type

For both the types, pump displacement depends on the

stroke of the pistons in the cylinder block. The displace-
ment at the maximum angle of the swash plate or the
bent axis represents the pump size. The pumps operate M
with the cylinder block rotating on the shaft. The cylinder O
block contacts with and rotates on the valve plate (or port Graphic Symbol
plate), which is fixed opposite to the piston, to provide
Fig. 2.3 Swash Plate Type Variable Displacement Pumps

HYDRAULIC PUMPS ■ 6
 2-3 Vane Pumps

These pumps intake and discharge fluid according to the change of space enclosed by the vanes and the cam ring that
rotates by means of the rotor. Vane pumps in a low/middle pressure range from approximately 7 to 25 MPa (1 015
to 3 626 psi) and with middle displacement; for example, the single middle-pressure type has a displacement of
approximately 300 cm3/rev (18.3 [Link]./rev). These pumps provide the following advantages: (1) minimized discharge
pressure pulsation; (2) compactness and light weight for high output; (3) less efficiency degradation due to vane wear,
and; (4) reliability and ease of maintenance.
The pumps are quieter because of the structure and are less susceptible to working fluid contamination than piston
pumps. Therefore, they are conveniently used in a wide range of applications. The pumps typically have a structure
where the vane is pressed against the cam ring by inducing pressurized flow to the bottom of the vane. With the
improved structure, pumps capable of operating at a high pressure of up to 42 MPa (6 092 psi) are also commercially
available.
Vane pumps are categorized into fixed and variable displacement types. Each type is further subcategorized into single
and multiple pumps. With vane pumps, it is easy to construct double and triple pumps by mounting pump elements
(components such as rotors, vanes, and cam rings) in tandem to the pump shaft. Such multiple pumps with
displacements of 300 to 500 cm3/rev (18.3 to 30.5 [Link]./rev) have been commercialized.
Variable displacement type vane pumps, with changing ring eccentricity, are also available. These pumps, with displace-
ments of 30 cm3/rev (1.83 [Link]./rev) or less, are widely used as hydraulic pressure sources for small machine tools.

2-3-1 Single Vane Pumps (2) Middle Pressure Vane Pumps

(1) Low Pressure Vane Pumps These pumps operate at 16 to 21 MPa (2 321 to 3 046
These low pressure vane pumps, operated at 5 to 7 psi). The PV2R series, specially designed to reduce the
MPa (725 to 1 015 psi), are supplied as the PVL1, 50T, noise level, are available in four sizes, ranging from 6 to
150T, 250F, and 500F series. The pumps are available 237 cm3/rev (.366 to 14.46 [Link]./rev). The pumps have
in the displacement of 1.5 to 498 cm3/rev (.092 to 30.4 a plate with a pressure loading, which changes the
[Link]./rev). They have a simple structure: clearances clearance between the rotor and the vane side
between the rotor and the vane side are maintained according to the pressure. Figures 2.9 and 2.10 show a
with a fixed plate. The inner space of the cam ring is PV2R series pump and its typical characteristics.
structured with an oval circle and complete round The simplest vane lift mechanism is the straight type; it
circle. The curved and connected space between the introduces the discharge pressure to the base to
circles is where the vanes make the elevation counterbalance the discharge pressure applied to the
movement. The pumps have two pairs of suction and bottom of the vane. Other mechanisms, such as the
discharge areas and balance the internal radial force intra vane type where small vanes are embedded into
with the discharge pressure; thus, these pumps are the vanes and the pin type where vanes are pushed
called the pressure balanced type (Table 2.1). with pins, as shown in Fig. 2.11, are available.
These two types have better mechanical efficiency than
the straight type because they need less force to lift the
vanes from the base. The pin type pumps operating at
25 to 28 MPa (3 626 to 4 061 psi) have been commercially
supplied.

Graphic Symbol
Fig. 2.8 Low Pressure Vane Pump Fig. 2.9 Middle Pressure Vane Pump

11 ■ HYDRAULIC PUMPS
 ● PV2R2-41 (3) High Pressure Vane Pumps
These pumps operate at 31.5 to 40 MPa (4 569 to 5 802
Pressure-Output Flow and Input Power Characteristics
psi). The PV11R series pumps are available in two
75
1 800 r/m sizes, ranging from 2 to 22 cm3/rev (.122 to 1.34
in Output
70 Flow [Link]./rev). Some of them have the pressure loading
mechanism, while the others are provided with a unique
Output Flow

60 1 500 r/m valve structure that decreases and introduces the

in
pressure to the vane base to reduce the sliding friction
between the vane and the cam ring. Those with
50
1 200 r/m the unique valve structure are used in high-pressure
L/min in
press machines, etc.
40 1 000 r/m
in

30 30

Input Power
r 20
we
Po
put
In
10 kW

0
0 3.5 7.0 10.5 14.0 17.5 21.0

Pressure MPa

● PV2R2-41

Noise Level
65

Fig. 2.12 High Pressure Vane Pump

60
Noise Level

in ● PV11R10-12
55 r/m
2 00
1
22
dB (A) 1 800 r/min
in Output Flow
50 r/m
0 20
00
1
Output Flow

18 1 500 r/min
45
0 3.5 7.0 10.5 14.0 17.5 21.0
Pressure MPa 16

Fig. 2.10 Typical Characteristics of the PV2R2 Pump L/min

14 1 200 r/min

12 1 000 r/min 20
Cam Ring

10 16
Vane
Input Power

12
r
o we
u tP
Inp 8
kW

0
0 10 20 30 40
Small Vane Rotor Pin
Pressure MPa
●Intra Vane Type ●Pin type
Fig. 2.13 Pressure-Output Flow and Input Power
Fig. 2.11 Vane Lift Mechanism Characteristics of the PV11R10 Series Pump

HYDRAULIC PUMPS ■ 12
2-3-2 Multiple Vane Pumps 2-3-3 Variable Displacement Vane Pumps
These pumps are categorized into double and triple types. Vane pumps can be transformed to the unbalanced type
The double pump has two sets of cartridge kits on one by making the center of the round cam ring eccentric to
shaft, and each of the kit works independently. Generally, the rotating shaft; this type provides a pair of suction and
this type contains a combination of low-pressure large- discharge processes. The pumps can also be transformed
volume and high-pressure low-volume pump elements. to the variable displacement type by making the cam ring
The triple pump has three sets of cartridge kits and forms at the maximum eccentricity concentric with the shaft
a circuit to sum up the output pressures for applications (the output flow continuously reduces to zero). The
requiring a larger displacement. Figure 2.14 shows a PV2R variable displacement type is not pressure balanced and
series double pump. Figure 2.15 shows circuit examples has a greater force in the radial direction than the fixed
of low-pressure/large-volume and high-pressure/small- displacement type.
volume combinations for press machines. Figure 2.16 shows the appearance and cross sectional
view of a typical small-sized variable displacement vane
pump. It is a pressure compensator type with a mechanism
that uses a spring to make the cam ring eccentric to the
maximum level at a low pressure. However, when the
pressure reaches a preset level, the hydraulic power
exceeds the spring force to reduce the eccentricity.
The variable displacement vane pumps that offer
displacements of 8 to 22 cm3/rev (.488 to 1.34 [Link]./rev)
and operate at 7 MPa (1 015 psi) or less are widely used
in small machine tools because of inexpensiveness and
low noise level. Those that offer a displacement of
160 cm3/rev (9.76 [Link]./rev) and operate at 16 MPa (2 321
psi) or less are also available.
Similar to the piston pumps, large-volume variable
displacement pumps with load sensing control are
commercially supplied; however, the variable displacement
pumps are generally used in low/middle pressure ranges.

Graphic Symbol

Fig. 2.14 PV2R Series Double Vane Pump

Fig. 2.16 Small-sized Variable Displacement Pump

Fig. 2.15 Application Examples of the Double Pump

13 ■ HYDRAULIC PUMPS
 2-4 Gear Pumps

These pumps operate with two gears engaged with each other and rotating to feed a hydraulic fluid from the suction
area to the discharge area. They all have fixed (constant) displacement capacities. They are categorized into external
and internal gear pumps; the internal type generally has smaller discharge pulsation and lower noise level than the
other. The gear pumps are relatively resistant to working fluid contamination. Pumps operate at 20 to 25 MPa (2 901
to 3 626 psi) and offer a displacement of 100 cm3/rev (6.10 [Link]./rev) for the single type. Similar to vane pumps,
double type gear pumps are easy to construct.
High pressure gear pumps often adopt involute gears, which allow highly accurate processing, bringing about high
system operation efficiency. Contacting with each other at two points, the gears rotate to entrap oil in the engaging
parts, resulting in vibration and noise, which are reduced by a groove on the side plate allowing the oil to escape.
Some low pressure gear pumps use trochoid gears. Figures 2.17 and 2.18 show the external and internal gear
pumps.
The displacement of external gear pumps is determined by a chamber between the neighboring gear teeth and the
inner surface of the casing; the displacement of the internal gear pump is determined by a chamber between the
external and internal gears and a dash board. The crescent-shaped dash board (filler piece) separates the suction and
discharge areas. For both the types, the sides of the gear teeth are sealed with side plates. The high pressure external
gear pumps have a movable side plate by which high pressure flow is led to the rear side to press against the gear
and keep a suitable clearance.
Gear pumps consist of relatively simple parts. They offer high suction performance at a low cost and are used in
various fields: forklifts, industrial platform vehicles, construction machines such as excavators and wheel loaders, and
supporting pumps for primary pumps. Compact packages containing the gear pump, safety and check valves, oil
reservoir, and DC motor are popular in automobiles.

High Pressure Low Pressure High Pressure High Pressure

Area Area Area Movable Bush Area
Driven Gear

Driving Gear Movable Bush

Fig. 2.17 External Gear Pump

Internal Gear Pinion Shaft

Stopper Pin

Filler Piece

Radial Piston High Pressure Chamber

Fig. 2.18 Internal Gear Pump

HYDRAULIC PUMPS ■ 14
 ACTUATORS
The actuators convert hydraulic energy to mechanical energy and are grouped as
follows.
10-1 Hydraulic Cylinders
10-2 Hydraulic Motors
10-3 Oscillating Motors

10-1 Hydraulic Cylinders

Cylinders include linear motion actuators, such as double acting, single acting, and telescopic cylinders.

10-1-1 Types of Cylinders

(1) Double Acting Cylinder
This is a standard cylinder that produces reciprocating
motion. It is available in single and double rod types. (With Spring)
Fig. 10.1 shows the single rod cylinder. This cylinder
is provided with a cushion mechanism, which uses a Fig. 10.2 Graphic symbol
cushion sleeve to close the fluid return port as the
piston rod retracts. Therefore, the fluid is discharged
(3) Telescopic Cylinder
through a restrictor located in parallel with the return
This cylinder uses a multistage tube as a piston rod to
port, resulting in a higher piston back pressure and
obtain a long stroke. It is useful for pistons requiring a
a slower piston speed.
more compact housing. Single and double acting types
are available.

Single Acting Type Double Acting Type

Fig. 10.3 Telescopic Cylinder

10-1-2 Considerations on Cylinder Selection

(1) Models (JIS B 8367: 1999 Mounting dimensions for
hydraulic cylinders)
①7HT: For 7 MPa (1 015 psi), Rectangular Cover,
Tie-rod
②10HS: For 10 MPa (1 450 psi), Built-in Cylinder
Graphic Symbol ③10HT: For 10 MPa (1 450 psi), Rectangular Cover,
Tie-rod
Fig. 10.1 Double Acting Cylinder ④14HT: For 14 MPa (2 031 psi), Rectangular Cover,
Tie-rod
(2) Single Acting Cylinder (Ram Cylinder) ⑤16HT: For 16 MPa (2 320 psi), Rectangular Cover,
This is a cylinder that pushes the piston in one way Tie-rod
(extending direction). The piston rod is returned ⑥16HR: For 16 MPa (2 320 psi), Round Cover,
by gravitation or a mechanical force. Flange-Welding or Screw-In

ACTUATORS ■ 58
 ⑦21HT: For 21 MPa (3 046 psi), Rectangular Cover, (5) Rod Buckling
Tie-rod When a rod is subject to tensile stress, only its
⑧25HR: For 25 MPa (3 626 psi), Round Cover, tensile strength need be considered. On the other
Flange-Welding hand, a long rod subject to a compression force may
(2) Cylinder Speed bend and easily break with a small stress. This
Generally, a cylinder speed of 15 to 300 mm/s (.59∼ phenomenon is called buckling, and the buckling
11.8 in/s) is recommended. An excessively high or low strength of the rod must be determined, based on the
speed leads to rapid packing wear, causing fluid leakage load, rod bore, the rod-end coefficient (depending on
from the rod seal or internal leakage. When the cylinder the cylinder mounting type), and rod length. The
speed is too low, a stick-slip phenomenon may affect buckling strength is an essential factor in determining
smooth cylinder operation. Special caution must be the maximum stroke length. The safety factor is
paid to the packing and the sliding parts when normally set at 4.
operating the cylinder beyond the recommended (6) Minimum Operating Pressure
speed range. The operating pressure is defined as follows: 0.5 MPa
(3) Cylinder Mounting (72.5 psi) or less for U-packing, X-rings, O-rings (JIS B
The cylinders can be mounted as shown in Table 2401), and combination seals (S), and 0.25 MPa (36.3
10.1. They should be mounted so that the pressure is psi) or less for piston rings. Standard cylinders operate
always applied in the moving direction with the with 0.3 MPa (43.5 psi) of the working pressure.
minimum radial load, depending on the load (7) Cushion
characteristics and cylinder motion. The piston in a cylinder, which moves in the
(4) Cylinder Bore and Rod Bore reciprocating motion, contacts the cover at the stroke
Table 10.2 lists rod bores corresponding to cylinder end to produce shocks. To minimize the shocks, the
bores. The rods are classified according to the area cylinder should be provided with a cushion mechanism
ratio between the head and rod sides. to reduce the piston speed at the stroke end. However,
the cushion mechanism generates a higher internal
Table 10.1 Mounting types pressure as inertial force increases.
(8) Packing Materials and Hydraulic Fluids
Types Names Illustration of Mounting types i . Nitrile rubber (NBR):
Standard fluids and other than phosphate ester
SD None ii . Hydrogenated rubber (HNBR):
High-temperature fluids
LA
Foot Mounting iii. Polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE):
Side Lugs High-temperature fluids
iv. Fluorinated rubber: Phosphate ester
Foot Mounting
LB
Side End Angles
Table 10.2 Cylinder Bore and Rod Bore (JIS B 8367)
Rod Rectangular
FA Rod Bore
Flange
Type A Type B Type C
Head Rectangular 32 (1.26) 22 (.87) 18 (.71) 14 (.55)
FB
Flange
40 (1.57) 28 (1.10) 22 (.87) 16 (.63)
50 (1.97) 36 (1.42) 28 (1.10) 22 (.87)
Head Detachable
CA 63 (2.48) 45 (1.77) 36 (1.42) 28 (1.10)
Eye
80 (3.15) 56 (2.20) 45 (1.77) 36 (1.42)
Head Detachable Cylinder 100 (3.94) 70 (2.76) 56 (2.20) 45 (1.77)
CB
Clevis Bore
125 (4.92) 90 (3.54) 70 (2.76) 56 (2.20)

mm (in) 140 (5.51) 100 (3.93) 80 (3.15) 63 (2.48)

TA Rod Trunnion
160 (6.30) 110 (4.33) 90 (3.54) 70 (2.76)
180 (7.09) 125 (4.92) 100 (3.93) 80 (3.15)
Intermediate
TC 200 (7.87) 140 (5.51) 110 (4.33) 90 (3.54)
Trunnion
220 (8.66) 160 (6.30) 125 (4.92) 100 (3.93)
250 (9.84) 180 (7.09) 140 (5.51) 110 (4.33)
Ratio 1 1／2 1／1.5 1／1.25

59 ■ ACTUATORS
 10-2 Hydraulic Motors

Hydraulic motors convert hydraulic power to mechanical rotating force. Their rotation speed can be steplessly adjusted
by controlling the supply flow, while their output torque depends on the difference between the motor inlet and outlet
pressures. The motors are available in gear, vane, and piston types, as are the hydraulic pumps. Piston motors with
variable displacement are also available.

10-2-1 Gear Motors 10-2-2 Vane Motors

(1) External type: This motor is simple, compact, (1) Low-speed high-torque vane motor: This motor has a
lightweight, inexpensive, and capable of relatively relatively large capacity and operates with a high
high-speed rotation. It has a cross-sectional torque at a low speed. The motor shown in Fig. 10.6
structure similar to that of gear pumps. It requires a has four motor chambers and can change the
drain to be installed for oil seal protection. torque control mode to 1/3 and 2/3.
(2) Internal type: This motor is compact and relatively (2) Medium-speed vane motor: This motor has a
inexpensive, and operates with a high torque at a structure similar to that of the pressure-balanced
low speed. It consists of an internal trochoid gear vane pump, the capacity of which is relatively small.
motor and a differential speed reducer. Fig. 10.4 It is provided with a vane lift mechanism (spring) to
shows the cross section of this motor. ensure that contact between the vane and the cam
ring is always maintained from the time of the
motor starts.

Fig. 10.4 Internal Gear Motor

(with differential speed reducer)
Full torque
Output Torque

Fig. 10.5 Graphic Symbol

Speed Ratio

2/3 Torque

Fig. 10.6 Low-Speed High-Torque Vane Motor

ACTUATORS ■ 60
10-2-3 Piston Motors
Piston motors are available in axial and radial types. Also
available are fixed and variable displacement axial piston
motors that operate at a high, medium, or low speed with
a bent axis or swash plate. The axial piston motor has a
higher volumetric efficiency than other types of motors.
Radial piston motors generally operate with a high torque
at a low speed.
(1) Bent axis fixed displacement piston motor: This
motor is based on the same structural principles as
the bent axis fixed displacement piston pump.
Variable displacement type is also available. The
motor can have a bent-axis angle of up to 40 degrees
and is generally suitable for high-speed operation.
(2) Swash plate type piston motor: The high-speed type
of this piston motor is based on a structure similar
to that of the fixed displacement swash plate type
pump. Fig. 10.7 shows an example of the low-
/medium-speed type. Its cylinder block has two
pistons and swash plates facing each other. It
provides good low-speed performance at a time of
the motor starts.
Fig. 10.8 Radial Piston Motor

(4) Multi stroke radial piston motor: This motor has a

piston placed in the direction of the radius of the
shaft with a cam roller. The piston moves on the
patterned cam ring to produce torque. This motor
can offer a larger displacement capacity than that of
any other hydraulic motors. It is often used in
winches and crushing machines.

Fig. 10.7 Opposed Swash Plate Type Piston Motor

(3) Eccentric radial piston motor: This motor is widely

known as the star-shaped motor. It has several fixed
cylinders perpendicularly placed on the output shaft
in a radial pattern. The flow is fed or discharged
to/from the cylinders through a distributor valve
connected to the shaft with a swivel joint. When a
hydraulic pressure is applied to the piston, it
reciprocates and pushes the eccentric cam on the
shaft to produce torque. This motor is designed for Fig. 10.9 Multi Stroke Radial Piston Motor
low-speed high-torque applications.

61 ■ ACTUATORS
 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
Directional control valves control start/stop, directions, and acceleration/deceleration
of hydraulic cylinders and motors. They can be used in a various applications, and a
wide range of products is available.
They can be categorized into three types: spool, poppet, and ball. The spool type can
be either a sliding type or a rotary type. The former is the most popular for pressure
balancing and high capacity.
The poppet type offers excellent leak-tight capability (zero leak) for its poppet-seat
contact. The ball type is an alternative for the poppet; a ball is used instead of a
poppet.
4-1 Classification of Directional Control Valves
4-2 Structure and Characteristics of Directional Control Valves

4-1 Classification of Directional Control Valves

4-1-1 Classification by Port/Position Count positions are very popular. The four ports include: pump
The port count indicates the number of connectable lines, port (P), tank port (T), and cylinder ports (A and B). The
and the position count indicates the number of change- symbols are often appended with graphic symbols of the
overs in the directional control valves. Table 4.1 lists the directional control valves.
classifications. The valves with four ports and three

Table 4.1 Classification by Port/Position Count

Classification Graphic Symbol Remarks

This valve has two ports to open/close a hydraulic

Two Ports
line.
No. of Ports (Connections)

This valve has three ports for changeover from the

Three Ports
pump port to two ways only.

This valve has four ports for a wide variety of

Four Ports purposes, including moving the actuator forward and
backward or stopping it.

Multiple
This valve has five or more ports for special purposes.
Ports

Two
This valve has two positions.
Positions
No. of Positions

Three
This valve has three positions.
Positions

Multiple This valve has four or more positions for special

Positions purposes.

4-1-2 Classification by Spool Types position. The pressure in the pump line is maintained at a
The directional control valves in hydraulic systems must preset level for the relief valve or the variable pumps, and
work such that when the spools are in a neutral position, other systems can be operated as desired. On the other
the fluid flow patterns meet the purpose of the systems, in hand, the center-bypassed valve (ports P and T are open
addition to causing reversible motion of the hydraulic when the spool is in the neutral position) unloads the pump
cylinders and motors. line while locking the cylinder, which is desirable for
For example, take the“three-position”valve in Table 4-1. energy saving: lower heat generation and reduced pump
This closed-center valve (all ports are closed when the load.
spool is in the neutral position) locks the cylinder at its

DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES ■ 22

However, the overall performance of the hydraulic system functions and usage. Note that the numbers in the double
should be taken into consideration to choose the best quotation marks “**” may vary according to valve
valves for it. Table 4.2 lists common spool types with their manufacturers.

Table 4.2 Spool Types

Valve and Spool

Spool Type Graphic Symbol Function and Usage
(Neutral Position)

A B Maintains the pump pressure and cylinder position in the

neutral position. For the two-position type, each port is
“2” Closed-Center
blocked during the spool transition, causing shock to the
P T T B P A system line. This type requires due caution.

A B Unloads the pump and floats the actuators in the neutral

position. For the two-position type, each port is connected
“3” Open-Center
to the tank during the spool transition; thus, shock can be
P T T B P A reduced.

A B Maintains the pump pressure and floats the actuator in the

neutral position. The two-position type is used to maintain
“4” ABT Connected
the system pressure during the spool transition. Shock is
P T T B P A reduced compared to the type“ 2.”

A B
ABT Connected, A variation of the type“ 4,”having throttles between A to
“40” with Throttle T and B to T. It can quickly stop the actuator.
P T T B P A

A B
Used to unload the pump in the neutral position and stop
“5” PAT Connected the actuator by feeding flow in one way.
P T T B P A

A B
PT Connected
Unloads the pump and maintains the actuator in the neutral
“6” (Closed during
position. It allows valves to be connected in serial.
Transition) P T T B P A

PT Connected A B
A variation of the type“ 6.”Each port is connected to the
“60” (Opened during tank during the spool transition; thus, shock can be
Transition) reduced.
P T T B P A

A B
Center Opened, Mainly used for the two-position type; shock can be
“7” with Throttle reduced during the spool transition.
P T T B P A

A B
Maintains the pump pressure and cylinder position in the
“8” Two-Way neutral position, similar to the type“ 2.”Used as a two-way
directional control valve.
P T T B P A

A B

“9” PAB Connected Forms a differential circuit in the neutral position.

P T T B P A

A B
Prevents one-way minor sliding of the actuator due to leak
“10” BT Connected at the port P in the neutral position.
P T T B P A

A B
Blocks one end and feeds flow from the other end to
“11” PA Connected
completely stop the actuator in the neutral position.
P T T B P A

A B
Able to prevent the actuator from minor one-way sliding
“12” AT Connected
due to leak at the port P in the neutral position.
P T T B P A

23 ■ DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES

4-1-3 Classifications by Operation Method and two-position type, spring centered for the three-position
Spring Arrangement type, and no spring for both two- and three-position types.
These valves are classified according to the function, The no-spring type includes the detent type, which holds
operation method, and spring arrangement. The operation the spool position at a certain position. Table 4.3 shows
method is classified into: manual, mechanical, hydraulic, classification of the valves according to the operation
solenoid-operated, electro-hydraulic, and pneumatic. The method and spring arrangement.
spring arrangement is classified into: spring offset for the

Table 4.3 Classification by Operation Method and Spring Arrangement

Classification Graphic Symbols Remarks

Manual Operated manually with a lever.

Operation Method

Mechanical Operated by mechanical components, including cam follower.

Pilot-Operated
Operated by pilot.
(Hydraulics) X Y

Solenoid-Operated Operated by an electromagnetic force.

Electro-Hydraulic The main spool is operated by electromagnetic-force controlled pilot.

The control force switches on/off. Without the force, the piston
Spring Arrangement

Spring Offset
returns to the offset position by the spring force.

Without the control force, the spool returns to the neutral position
Spring Centered
by the spring force.

The spool is maintained at the controlled position. Detent types that

No-Spring
prevent the spool from sliding are also included in this category.

4-2 Structure and Characteristics of Directional Control Valves

4-2-1 Solenoid Operated Directional Valves

These valves control the flow direction in hydraulic circuits,
electrically operated with manual switches, limit switches,
or pressure switches. They are the most popular for use
in practical hydraulic systems. Three types of solenoids
are available: for direct current (DC), for alternating
current (AC), and with a rectifier. The solenoids can be
grouped into wet and dry types in respect to the structure.
Also, the explosion-proof type is available for special
purposes. The solenoid with a rectifier consists of a DC
solenoid, a rectifier, and a surge absorber; therefore, it
can be used for systems operated with AC power supply.
This type of the solenoid is characterized by its low noise
and low hydraulic shock during the operation. In addition,
it assures the non-burnout feature of the coil when the
spool is stuck at the half way point of its changeover.
The solenoid operated directional valves are commercially
A B
available in the following sizes: less than 1/8, 1/8, 3/8, a b
1/2, 3/4, and 1 1/4. Among them, the 1/8 size is most
P T
often selected for practical hydraulic systems. Figure 4.1
shows the 1/8 solenoid operated directional valve (DSG- Graphic Symbol
01), and Table 4.4 lists the major specifications of the
standard and shockless types. Fig. 4.1 Solenoid Operated Directional Valve, Size 1/8
(DSG-01)

DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES ■ 24

 FLOW CONTROL VALVES
These valves control flow rates in hydraulic circuits and are grouped as follows
according to the control to be achieved in respective circuits.
5-1 Restrictors/One Way Restrictors
5-2 Flow Control Valves/Flow Control and Check Valves
5-3 Deceleration Valves/Deceleration and Check Valves
5-4 Feed Control Valves
5-5 Pilot Operated Flow Control and Check Valves

5-1 Restrictors/One Way Restrictors

These valves regulate flow rates in hydraulic circuits. They have the advantages of plain structure, simple operation,
and wide range of adjustment. On the other hand, they cannot accurately control the flow; even through the fixed
restriction, the flow varies with the inlet-outlet differential pressure and the fluid viscosity. Therefore, these valves are
placed where the pressure difference varies little, and high control accuracy is not required. The one-way restrictors
regulate flow in one way, while allowing reversed flow to freely pass through.

Restrictor

One-Way Restrictor

Graphic Symbol

Fig. 5.1 Restrictor

Viscosity of Hydraulic Fluid: 30 mm2/s

[ΔP: Differential Pressure MPa]

●SRG −06, SRCT

SRT
SRCG −06
P:25
120
P:20
P:16
100
P:10
P:7
80
P:4
Flow Rate

60 P:2
P:1
L/min 40 P:0.5

20

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Adj. Handle Position (Number of Turns) Fully Open

Fig. 5.2 Metred Flow vs. Adjustment Handle Revolutions

FLOW CONTROL VALVES ■ 32

 5-2 Flow Control Valves/Flow Control and Check Valves

These valves consist of a pressure compensator (pressure reducing valve that keeps the pressure difference constant)
and a restrictor. They maintain a constant flow rate, independent of the inlet-outlet differential pressure. Provided with
a sharp-edge orifice, they can also work regardless of fluid temperature or viscosity.
In a circuit where the flow rate is regulated to a low level, the control flow may be momentarily exceeded, leading to
jumping of the actuator. This phenomenon is related to a time lag until the pressure compensating piston is properly
positioned for flow control. To prevent the phenomenon, the piston stroke should be adjusted according to the inlet-
outlet differential pressure.

Flow Control Valve

Flow Control and Check Valve

Graphic Symbols

Fig. 5.3 Flow Control Valve

Flow control valves are basically used as follows.

(1) Meter-In Control

The control valve is connected in series with the cylinder inlet to directly control the input flow. Prior to the
control valve, a relief valve is applied to excess flow, which escapes through a relief valve. In a circuit where
load is applied in the direction of piston travel, the control valve may lose cylinder speed control.

(2) Meter-Out Control

The control valve is connected in series with the cylinder outlet to directly control the output flow. Prior to the
control valve, excess flow escapes through a relief valve to a tank. This circuit design is used for applications
where the piston could move down faster than a control speed, as in the case of vertical drilling machines, or
where there should always be a back pressure in the cylinder. Careful attention should be paid to the fact that
the cylinder outlet pressure may rise above the relief pressure produced in the circuit.

(3) Bleed-Off Control

The control valve is installed on a by-pass line to regulate flow to the tank and control the actuator speed.
Compared to the other control circuits, this circuit works with small power consumption because the pump’ s
discharge pressure is fully delivered to the load resistance. Given that the bleed flow is constant, the fluctuation
of pump flow determines the actuator speed. In other words, the pump discharge flow directly influences the
load and the pump’ s volumetric efficiency.
This circuit does not allow for control of multiple actuators.

Figure 5.4 shows flow control circuits provided with the control types (1) to (3). PG* indicates the pressure at each
point observed when the cylinder is operated at the load pressure of 4 MPa (580 psi). The mechanisms of the meter-in
and -out control can be understood by comparing the positions and inlet/outlet pressures of the flow control valves and
the inlet/outlet pressures of the cylinders in the meter-in and -out control circuits. The higher cylinder outlet pressure in
the meter-out control circuit suggests that the cylinder area difference results in pressure intensification. Also,
differences between the bleed-off control and the other control types are clear in the relief valve pressures and the
cylinder inlet pressures. The pressure values in the figure are based on the assumption that there are no pipe
resistance and pressure loss through the valves.

33 ■ FLOW CONTROL VALVES

 Load Pressure＝4MPa Load Pressure＝4MPa Load Pressure＝4MPa
Ac＝100cm2 Ah＝50cm2 Ac＝100cm2 Ah＝50cm2 Ac＝100cm2 Ah＝50cm2
Pushing Pushing Pushing
Direction Direction Direction
PG-3 PG-4 PG-3 PG-4 PG-3 PG-4
＝4MPa ＝0MPa ＝10MPa ＝12MPa ＝4MPa ＝0MPa

PG-2 PG-5 PG-2 PG-5 PG-2 PG-5

＝10MPa ＝0MPa ＝10MPa ＝0MPa ＝4MPa ＝0MPa

10MPa 10MPa 10MPa

PG-1 PG-1 PG-1
＝10MPa ＝10MPa ＝4MPa

Meter-In Control Meter-Out Control Bleed-Off Control

Fig. 5.4 Examples of Control Circuits Using Flow Control Valves

5-3 Deceleration Valves/Deceleration and Check Valves

These valves continuously regulate flow rates, using a cam mechanism. Pushing the spool down decreases the flow
rate for the normal open type and increases it for the normal close type. When the normal open type is installed to
cushion the cylinder piston, accurate stroke end control is difficult. In this case, the restrictor and directional control
valve should be adjusted so that the piston slowly returns to an intended position and then stops.

Deceleration Valve

Deceleration and Check Valve

Graphic Symbols

Fig. 5.5 Deceleration and Check Valve

(Normal Close Type)

FLOW CONTROL VALVES ■ 34

 5.5 Pilot Operated Flow Control and Check Valves

These valves are pilot-operated. They control the flow with a hydraulic cylinder to accelerate or decelerate the
actuator without shock.

T P T P

O M O M

A B
A B

Pilot Operated Flow Pilot Operated Flow

Control Valve Control and
Check Valve

Graphic Symbols

Fig. 5.9 Pilot Operated Flow Control Valve

1 Pilot line“A”
Set with the Pilot Flow Adjustment Dial Decrease

2 Set with the Maximum Flow Adjustment Screw Decrease

3 Pilot line“B”
Set with the Pilot Flow Adjustment Dial Decrease
Flow Rate

4 4 Set with the Minimum Flow Adjustment Screw

Increase
T1 T2

Time
ON
OFF OFF
Solenoid Signal

Fig. 5.10 Control Pattern and Flow Rate Adjustment

Other flow control valves described below are available ● Priority Control Valves
● Flow Control and Relief Valves These valves are incorporated in power source systems
These valves contain a flow control valve and a relief for vehicles, etc. If pump supply flow is at or below a
valve, the combination of which achieves a pump preset level, the valves allow all of the flow to go to the
discharge pressure almost equal to the load pressure. priority line. If it is above the preset level, they direct
Even when the load pressure is low, the pump the excess flow to the bypass line.
discharge pressure does not increase to the control
limit, ensuring power-saving operation of the system. ● Shut Off Valves
These valves prevent counter load from decreasing
● Flow Dividers when the cylinder outlet pressure falls because of
These valves are used to synchronize two or more damaged piping or rubber hoses. When detecting that
actuators. They have one inlet port and two outlet the cylinder is rapidly moving down, these valves
ports so that the inlet and outlet flows can be regulated quickly close to shut off the flow.
to certain levels, regardless of the load.

FLOW CONTROL VALVES ■ 36

 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
Valves control pressure in a hydraulic circuit and are grouped as below according to
the control to be achieved in each circuit.
3-1 Relief Valves
3-2 Sequence Valves
3-3 Counterbalance Valves
3-4 Unloading Relief Valves
3-5 Pressure Reducing Valves/Pressure Reducing and Check Valves
3-6 Brake Valves
3-7 Balancing Valves (Pressure Reducing and Relieving Valves)
3-8 Pressure Switches

3-1 Relief Valves

These relief valves protect pumps and other control valves from excessive pressure in hydraulic systems and maintain
a constant system pressure. The variations are the direct, pilot operated, and solenoid controlled types.

3-1-1 Direct Type Relief Valves

These valves are small and have a simple structure for
their capacity. However, they are likely to exhibit high-
pressure override (a pressure characteristic observed
when a fluid starts flowing from a valve and reaches the
rated flow rate) and chattering. Therefore, they are used
to control the pressure of relatively small flows, as shown
in Fig. 3.2. Valves of the size 1/8, in particular, are very
popular for pilot pressure controls.

Remote Control of Pressure Reducing Valve

by Relief Valve

“A” “B”

“a” “b”

Graphic Symbol

Fig. 3.1 Direct Type Relief Valve Three-Pressure Control by Relief Valve

Fig. 3.2 Examples

PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES ■ 16

3-1-2 Pilot Operated Relief Valves pressure control.
These valves consist of a balanced piston for bypassing Specifications of the pilot operated relief valves (Fig. 3.3)
excess flow in hydraulic circuits and a pilot that controls are shown in Table 3.1. In addition, low noise and high
the piston motion and pressure. Placed in a vent circuit, pressure types (35 MPa (5 076 psi) Max.) are also
they can perform remote control, unloading, or two- available.

Table 3.1 Specifications

Max. Approx. Mass
Model Numbers Press. Adj. Max. Flow
Working kg (lbs.)
Range L/min
Threaded Sub-plate Pressure
MPa (psi) ([Link]) BT type BG type
Connections Mounting MPa (psi)
BT−03−※−32 BG−03−※−32 100 (26.4) 5.0 (11.0) 4.7 (10.3)
★∼25
BT−06−※−32 BG−06−※−32 25 (3 626) 200 (52.8) 5.0 (11.0) 5.6 (12.3)
(★∼3 626)
BT−10−※−32 BG−10−※−32 400 (106) 8.5 (18.7) 8.7 (19.2)

★ Refer to the Minimum Adjustment Pressure Characteristics.

rapidly increases with flow resistance. The minimum

adjustment pressure refers to a relief pressure obtained
when the control pressure of the pilot valve is set to the
lowest level.
When a relief valve is loaded with a circuit as depicted in
Fig. 3.6, the transient pressure characteristics appear as
shown in Fig. 3.7.
t represents a delay time of the relief valve and T, that of
the system. The smaller the pipe capacity and the lower
the pipe pressure, the shorter the delays t and T. To
evaluate the delays of the entire system, both t and T
must be taken into account.

Viscosity 35 mm2/s
Hydraulic Fluid：
Specific Gravity 0.850

BT-06, BG-06
25
24
23
Pressure

16
15
14

MPa 1.9
1.6
1.3

0 50 100 150 200

Flow Rate L/min

Fig. 3.4 Nominal Override Characteristics

Viscosity 35 mm2/s Vent Pressure

Hydraulic Fluid：
Specific Gravity 0.850 Min. Adjustment
Pressure
Vent Connection
BT-06, BG-06
Graphic Symbol 1.4
1.2
Pressure

Fig. 3.3 Pilot Operated Relief Valve High Venting Pressure Type
0.8

Figure 3.4 shows characteristics of flow vs. pressure MPa 0.4

(pressure override) of the relief valve, 3/4-size. Figure 3.5
Low Venting Pressure Type
shows characteristics of flow vs. vent pressure and the
0 50 100 150 200
minimum adjustment pressure. A vent pressure is a relief Flow Rate L/min
pressure released upon opening a vent.
When the flow exceeds a certain level, the vent pressure Fig. 3.5 Min. Adj. Pressure & Vent Pressure vs. Flow

17 ■ PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES

 Fig. 3.6 Example

t T
Pressure

Electrical Signal

Time
“A”

Fig. 3.7 Transient Pressure Characteristics

b

3-1-3 Solenoid Controlled Relief Valves

These valves are a combination of a pilot operated relief
valve and a small solenoid operated directional valve.
Sending electrical signals to the directional valve can
remotely unload pump pressure or conduct the two- or
three-pressure control in hydraulic circuits. For adjusting Graphic Symbol
pressure in the two- or three-pressure control, use one or
two direct type relief valves. Fig. 3.8 Solenoid Controlled Relief Valve

3-2 Sequence Valves

These valves control the sequential operation of two or more actuators. If the inlet pressure exceeds a preset level,
they deliver effective pressure to the outlet side. The valves can serve as pressure holding valves to maintain hydraulic
pressure in a circuit. When a sequence valve is installed between a directional control valve and a cylinder, it needs
reversed free flow; therefore, the valve should contain a check valve. The sequence valves and counterbalance
valves, described in the next section, are generally known as H/HC type pressure control valves, and how they are
assembled determines the nature of the combined valve, either H or HC type.
Note that a sequence valve with an auxiliary pilot port can provide two-pressure control (high/low) by delivering the
pilot pressure of the auxiliary pilot port to the pilot piston. Pressure required for this auxiliary remote control is
approximately 1/8 of the adjustment pressure (approximately 1/16 when the adjustment pressure is 7 MPa (1 015 psi)
or more). The example is shown in Fig. 3.10.

PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES ■ 18

 Clamp Cylinder
Feed Cylinder

Center-bypassed
Preferred Pressure
1 Holding
8 Valve

With Auxiliary Pilot Port

Graphic Symbol

Fig. 3.9 Sequence Valve

Use as Pressure Holding Valve

Fig. 3.10 Example

3-3 Counterbalance Valves

These valves maintain hydraulic pressure in a hydraulic system or load backpressure on a cylinder. If the inlet pressure
exceeds a preset level, flow is released to keep the pressure constant. They are accompanied with a check valve that
allows the flow for lifting a cylinder up to freely pass. To control the cylinder speed, those with meter-in control (see P.
33) are generally used for both upward and downward movement of the cylinder. Similar to the sequence valves,
some counterbalance valves are equipped with an auxiliary pilot port.

1
8

With Auxiliary Pilot Port

Graphic Symbol

Fig. 3.11 Counterbalance Valve Fig. 3.12 Example

19 ■ PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES

 3-4 Unloading Relief Valves

These valves are used to operate pumps at the minimum load in an accumulator circuit or in a high-low pump circuit.
In an accumulator circuit, when the system pressure reaches a preset level (i.e. cut-out pressure), the valve opens to
divert the pump delivery to the reservoir at low pressure; thus, the pump is unloaded automatically. When the system
pressure drops to the cut-in pressure (approximately 85% of the cut-out pressure normally), the valve closes to direct
the loaded pump delivery to the accumulator and the hydraulic system.

Graphic Symbol

Fig. 3.13 Unloading Relief Valve

Fig. 3.14 Example

3-5 Pressure Reducing Valves/Pressure Reducing and Check Valves

These valves set hydraulic circuit pressure equal to or below a pressure in the main circuit. When the outlet pressure
reaches a preset level, the valve opens, and the balanced piston moves to throttle a passage to keep the outlet
pressure constant; thus, the pressure is reduced. The outlet pressure is maintained constant, regardless of the inlet
pressure. If flow resistance at the inlet side is equal to or lower than the preset pressure for the pressure reducing
valve, the outlet pressure is given at the same level as the inlet pressures. If flow resistance at the outlet side is equal
to or lower than the preset pressure for the valve, the valve opens fully; therefore, both the inlet and outlet pressures
are the same.

Pressure Reducing Valve

Pressure Reducing and Check Valve

Graphic Symbol
Fig. 3.15 Pressure Reducing and Check Valve

3-6 Brake Valves

These valves smoothly stop actuators that have a large inertia force. When a directional control valve is closed, a
relief valve at the outlet side releases the accumulating pressure while maintaining the circuit pressure at the preset
level. At the inlet side, a check valve feeds the flow, supply of which has been blocked by the directional control valve,
to reduce a risk of cavitation.

PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES ■ 20

 A B

Graphic Symbol

Fig. 3.16 Brake Valve

Fig. 3.17 Example

3.7 Balancing Valves (Pressure Reducing and Relieving Valves)

These valves are combination valves that have pressure reducing and counterbalancing functions developed for
applications such as a hydraulic balance circuit in a vertical machining center. When the pressure reducing function is
employed, the outlet pressure is maintained at the preset level for pressure reduction, regardless of the inlet pressure.
If the counterbalancing function is employed, the outlet pressure is maintained at the preset level for pressure relief,
which is higher than the pressure reducing.

Graphic Symbol

Fig. 3.18 Balancing Valve

3-8 Pressure Switches

Pressure switches are used in hydraulic systems to make or break an electrical circuit at a preset hydraulic pressure.
A sensing component made of semi-conducting materials detects the pressure. The switches are used with relays to
operate solenoid valves to unload pumps or start/stop motors.

Graphic Symbol

Fig. 3.19 Pressure Switch

21 ■ PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES

 HYDRAULIC ACCESSORIES
Accessories
11-1 Filters
11-2 Accumulators
11-3 Heat Exchangers
11-4 Measuring Instruments
11-5 Valves
11-6 Others

11-1 Filters

Hydraulic systems may malfunction due to clogging and internal wear. With hydraulic fluids contaminated, hydraulic
systems are damaged and fail to provide optimal performance. Therefore, they require filtration to remove contaminants
from the working fluids.
Filtration is rated by either of two methods: absolute, based on the multi-pass test, or nominal, indicated by filter
suppliers. The absolute filtration rating should be given a higher priority than the normal.
Filter types are defined by JIS B 8356: 1993.
1. Reservoir filters (FT, FS)
2. Line filters (FL)
3. Off-line filters
4. Other cleaning equipment

11-1-1 Reservoir Filters

Two types are available. One protects the pump by
installing filters at the pump suction port. The other,
called the return filter, cleans the working fluid returning
to the reservoir.
(1) Suction filter without a case (FT): It consists of a
core rolled up with a filter. This filter equipment is
called a strainer and submerged in working fluids
for filtration. Typically, it uses a 105-μm mesh filter.

Fig. 11.2

(3) Return filter: There are two types of the return filters.
The tank-top type is installed on the reservoir, and
the in-line type is within the lines. The latter type
employs a low-pressure line filter.
Figure 11.3 shows the tank-top type.
As shown in Table 11.1, the filtration rating should
be decided with consideration given to the filtration
conditions.
Fig. 11.1
Table 11.1
(2) Suction filter with a case (FS): It has a filter element Filtration Conditions Filtration Ratings
in a case. One type employs a differential pressure 1. Installed in a system operating at 7 MPa
20∼35μm
indicator to indicate that the filter element is (1 016 psi) or more
2. Installed in a system operating at 21 MPa (3 046
clogged. Another type is equipped with a by-path psi) or more together with a proportional valve
10∼20μm
valve. Typically, a 105-μm mesh is used as the filter
3. Installed together with servo valves 10μm
element.

63 ■ HYDRAULIC ACCESSORIES
 11-1-4 Other Cleaning Equipment
(1) Air breather: An actuator causes the working fluid
and air to flow in and out of a reservoir. An air
breather serves as ventilation for air intake and
discharge, filtering out dust in the air. The air
breather is installed on the tank-top. An appropriate
air breather should be selected according to the
Fire Service Law, if applied.
Tank-Top Filter

Fig. 11.3

11-1-2 Line Filters

A reservoir filter with a higher filtration rating results in
higher suction resistance. To avoid such a rise of suction
Fig. 11.6
resistance, line filters are required.
Line filters protect hydraulic components by removing
contaminants from working fluids and keeping them
(2) Oil filling port with an air breather: This filtration
clean. Filter selection generally depends on the working
tool combines an oil filling port and an air breather.
pressure, flow rate, and filtration rating. The filters may
be installed with a line connection or a manifold. There
are also a line filter type that is equipped with a stop valve,
a check valve, a relief valve, and an electric switch.

Fig. 11.7

(3) Oil filling port: A working fluid is supplied through

Threaded Connection Type Manifold Type this hole to a reservoir. The hole is equipped with a
filter so that no dust is allowed to enter the
Fig. 11.4
reservoir.

11-1-3 Off-Line Filters

These filters clean working fluids in a reservoir by using a
dedicated pump and a filter separate from the line. They
are employed when a higher cleaning level is required.

Fig. 11.8

(4) Magnet separator: The magnet separator keeps a

working fluid clean by absorbing iron powders in
the reservoir. It is often used in servo systems.

Fig. 11.5

Fig. 11.9

HYDRAULIC ACCESSORIES ■ 64
 11-3 Heat Exchangers

Energy generated by a prime mover transforms into thermal energy, which increases the working fluid temperature in
a hydraulic system. Higher temperature deteriorates the working fluid and leads to significantly shorter fluid life.
Cooling the working fluid and maintaining its temperature at a certain level are required for smooth system operation.
In a cold region, in contrast, where the surrounding temperature drops below freezing, the viscosity of working fluids
becomes high. The suction resistance increases, causing more pressure loss in the system. Heating the working fluid
is necessary to keep it in a proper condition.

11-3-1 Coolers (3) Air-cooling radiator: this exchanger has many fin
Water-cooling heat exchangers are the most popular tubes to cool the working fluid with air flow through
because they provide the highest cooling efficiency. the tubes.
However, in recent years, air-cooling heat exchangers,
which do not require cooling water, have become popular
for compact units in machine tools. Heat exchangers with
circulating coolants are widely employed in machine tools
because of their high accuracy.
(1) Tubular heat exchanger: this exchanger delivers a
working fluid through many copper tubes to
accomplish heat exchange between the working
fluid and the cooling water.
Fig. 11.14

(4) Refrigerant heat exchanger: this exchanger uses a

coolant gas and a compressor, similarly to home air
conditioners, to dissipates heat from the working
fluid. The unit is comprised of a hydraulic pump for
circulation, a motor, and thermo control equipment
such as a thermostat. This heat exchanger is used
for applications where highly accurate temperature
Fig. 11.12
control is required.

(2) Plate heat exchanger: this exchanger consists of

many thin plates, which dissipate heat with the
cooling water.

Fig. 11.15

11-3-2 Heater
An electronic heater is widely used as a general heating
Fig. 11.13 tool. For large reservoirs, a steam heater is employed to
deliver heat through pipelines to reservoirs.

Fig. 11.16

HYDRAULIC ACCESSORIES ■ 66
 11-4 Measuring Instruments

Usage of appropriate measuring instruments varies depending on the objectives of daily, weekly, and monthly
inspections. Instruments are classified according to the sections to be checked and their procedures, as shown in the
table 11.2.
Table 11.2
Visual Inspection Electric Contact Continuous Signal
1. Pressure Measurement Pressure Gauge Pressure Switch Pressure Sensor
2. Flow Measurement Flow Meter Flow Meter with an Electric Contact Remote Flow Meter
3. Thermo Measurement Thermometer Thermo Switch Level Switch Tele-thermometer
4. Hydraulic Fluid Volume Measurement Oil Level Gauge Level Switch Remote oil level gauge

11-4-1 Pressure Measurement 11-4-2 Flow Measurement

(1) Bourdon tube pressure gauge: this gauge is the (1) Flow meter: a sight flow indicator is used to check
most popular for visual inspections. Its case is whether the working fluid is flowing or not by
usually filled with glycerin to protect the gauge simple visual inspection. Another type is a cone
from vibrations in hydraulic systems. flow meter or a flapper type flow meter in which a
gauge is embedded.

Sight Flow Indicator Cone Flow Meter

Fig. 11.17 Fig. 11.20
(2) Pressure gauge with an electric contact: the (2) Flow meter with an electric contact: an electric
following types are available. contact is attached to a cone flow meter or a flapper
i . Hydraulic piston type: this type turns a micro type flow meter.
switch on and off by pushing a spring.
ii . Bellows type: this type turns a micro switch on
and off by pushing a bellows (as in the hydraulic
piston).
iii. Bourdon tube type: it turns a micro switch on and
off in the same way as a pressure gauge.
iv. Pressure gauge with semiconductor

Fig. 11.21
(3) Flow meter for continuous signal output: the
following types are available.
i . Positive displacement flow meter (gear motor)
ii . Turbine flow meter
iii. Ultrasonic flow meter
iv. Differential pressure flow meter
Fig. 11.18
Positive displacement flow meters are widely used in
(3) Pressure sensor: this sensor outputs continuous hydraulic equipment. Sometimes, they are comprised
signals for hydraulic system monitoring or servo of a hydraulic motor and a pulse encoder.
system feedback.

Fig. 11.19 Fig. 11.22

67 ■ HYDRAULIC ACCESSORIES
11-4-3 Thermo Measurement 11-4-4 Hydraulic Flow Volume Measurement
(1) Thermometer: generally, the following types are (1) Oil level gauge: acrylic-bar oil level gauges are
available for visual inspection. widely selected for a general visual inspection. It is
i . Bar thermometer with a protective tube possible to attach a thermometer at a lower part of
ii . Bimetal thermometer the gauge. A gauge with a shuttle valve or a remote-
iii. Remote-reading panel-mounted thermometer reading gauge should be used according to the Fire
Service Law, if applied.

Bar Type Bimetal Type Remote-Reading Type

Fig. 11.23
Bar Type Needle Type

(2) Thermometer with an electric contact: the following Fig. 11.26

types are available.
i . Thermostat type (2) Oil level gauge with an electric contact: two types
ii . Remote-reading thermometer with an electric are available. One is equipped with an electric
contact type: the electric contact type and a micro contact with a needle for visual inspection, and the
switch type are available. other is with an electric contact with a read switch.

Thermostat Type Remote Thermometer with

an Electric Contact Type
Needle Type Read Switch Type
Fig. 11.24
Fig. 11.27
(3) Thermometer for continuous signal output:
(3) Oil level gauge for continuous signal output:
generally, this thermometer uses a thermo sensor
generally, two types are available. One is equipped
(temperature detector) to indicate temperatures.
with an electric contact providing continuous
The following types of temperature detectors are
signals. It indicates the oil level by a needle for
available. The shape of the detector and setting-up
visual inspection. The other type is equipped with a
condition should be considered when making the
sensor only. The sensor is usually of a resistance
selection.
type or a magnetorestrictive type.
i . Platinum resistance thermometer
ii . Thermo-couple
iii. Thermistor thermometer

Fig. 11.28

Temperature Detector Temperature Indicator

Fig. 11.25

HYDRAULIC ACCESSORIES ■ 68
 HYDRAULIC UNITS
The units are packaged hydraulic power sources, including a hydraulic reservoir, a
pump, a motor, and other equipment.
12-1 Reservoirs
12-2 Others

12-1 Reservoirs

12-1-1 Requirements for Hydraulic Reservoirs closed circuit, the reservoir capacity can be about
(1) A reservoir should be set up with a method to shut 50 percent of the pump output capacity.
out foreign substances such as dust. Example: (2) Selection Based on Oil Level Variation
Filter at a ventilation or a filling port. The amount of oil in a reservoir fluctuates with
(2) A reservoir should be set up so that its components actuator operation. The reservoir should have return
can be easily detached for smooth maintenance. and suction lines where the oil can be kept,
(3) A reservoir should have an oil level gauge for safety. regardless of oil level fluctuations. Capacity that is
(4) A baffle plate should be placed between the return three times larger or more than the minimum oil
and suction pipes to prevent foreign substances from level is generally recommended.
being drawn back through the hydraulic system. (3) Selection Based on Heat Radiation Area
(5) Return and suction lines should be installed below Heat generated by hydraulic equipment is radiated
the oil level. from the reservoir surface. The recommended
(6) A side cover should be included in a reservoir to reservoir size is, therefore, determined by the
facilitate the inner coating and cleaning processes. presence of a heat exchanger.
(7) Safety Laws (for ex. Fire Service Law in Japan), (4) Selection Based on Space of Reservior Top
where applicable, regulates the following items: For mounting of a pump, a motor, and valves on the
empty space in the reservoir, level gauge type, and reservoir top, the space of the reservoir top should
the oil pan volume, etc. Applicable ordinances and be taken into consideration.
regulations depend on the operating pressure and (5) Compliance with the Safety Laws
the flash point of the working fluid. Local laws and The law stipulates that empty space in a reservoir
regulations may also be applicable. For local must be equal to or less than ten percent of the
regulations, their applicability should be checked in reservoir capacity in Japan.
advance with the local fire departments and system Figure 12.1 shows an example of a hydraulic unit
users. containing a pump, a motor, and control valves. The figure
also shows names of optional components and settings.
12-1-2 Selection of Reservoir Capacity
Drain Cooler Variable
(1) Selection Based on Pump Output Capacity Voltage Motor
Return Filter
Generally, reservoir capacity should be three to five
Gauge Isolator
times larger than the pump output capacity. In a
Oil Pan
Terminal Box

Base Plate

Magnetic Separator

Fig. 12.1 Hydraulic Unit (Hydraulic Power Source)

71 ■ HYDRAULIC UNITS
 12-2 Others

12-2-1 Manifold ・Cautions on Piping and Assembling

Manifolds connect ports of hydraulic components with i . Use Teflon tape for thread sealing.
drilled metal blocks, instead of piping. They usually have ii . Remove burrs and chips after cutting the pipe and
outlet ports with tapered threads (Rc) or connection threading. Avoid using dull cutting tools and dies.
flanges. Manifolds have the following advantages. iii. Make sure that the curvature radius of a pipe is 2.5
i . They can reduce leakage and vibrations with to 3 times larger than its inner bore.
simple piping. iv. Use pipe cramps to eliminate shocks and
ii . They are compact. vibrations, if necessary.
iii. Their assembly does not require trained skills; v . Attention should be paid to the following points
installation is easy and quickly completed. when a flexible hose is applied.
iv. Base blocks of 1/8- and 3/8-inch bores have been a) The curvature radius is greater than the
standardized for modular valves. specified minimum radius
Manifolds are made of the following materials. b) A hose is not twisted.
i . SS material: Often selected for customized units. c) Extra hose length is required because the hose
ii . SUS material: Used when rust should be prevented. expands with increased inner pressure.
iii. SF (forging) material: Employed for high pressure
applications. Table 12.2 Steel Pipes (SGP, STPG, STS, and STKM)
iv. Continuous casting material: Chosen with
Outer Wall thickness against Working Pressure
Nominal Sizes
consideration to cost performance. Diameter
v . Aluminum material: Used for light weight （A） （B） mm 1.5 MPa 7 MPa 21 MPa 35 MPa

applications, such as vehicles. 8 1/4 13.8

Sch80
10 3/8 17.3
12-2-2 Cautions on Piping and Assembling 15 1/2 21.7
Sch80
A hydraulic unit may incorporate steel pipes, stainless 20 3/4 27.2 Sch160
pipes, or hoses. 25 1 34.0
32 1-1/4 42.7
Table 12.1 Steel Pipe Types Sch80
40 1-1/2 48.6 Sch40
Spec. Names Symbols
50 2 60.5 （SGP）
Carbon-steel pipes for ordinary piping
JIS G 3452 SGP 65 2-1/2 76.3
(gas pipe) SchXXS
Carbon-steel pipes for pressure 80 3 89.1
JIS G 3454 STPG Sch160 （STKM）
service 90 3-1/2 101.6
Carbon-steel pipes for high pressure 100 4 114.3
JIS G 3455 STS
service
125 5 139.8
Carbon-steel pipes for machine Sch160
JIS G 3445 STKM
structure purposes 150 6 165.2

JIS G 3459 Stainless-steel pipes SUS304

JIS B 2351 Precision carbon-steel pipes for STPS1

Table 12.3 Tubes for Flareless Fittings
(Appendix) compression fittings STPS2 Outer Wall thickness against Working Pressure (mm)
Precision carbon-steel pipes for diameter
JOHS 1006 OST1,2 （mm） 14 MPa 21 MPa 35 MPa
hydraulic piping
6
1.5mm 1.5mm 1.5mm
Nominal size of pipes: A (millimeter) and B (inch), outer 8
diameter is same. Scale A (millimeter) is usually applied 10
2.0mm 2.0mm 2.0mm
to pipes for flareless fittings. 12
Schedule: it refers to wall thickness and is denoted as 15 2.5mm 2.5mm 2.5mm
Sch. See Tables 12.2 and 12.3 for pipe selections in
18 3.5mm
accordance with the working pressure.
20 3.0mm 3.5mm
―
22

HYDRAULIC UNITS ■ 72
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
15-1 Unload Circuits
15-2 Pressure Control Circuits
15-3 Speed Control Circuits
15-4 Filter Circuits
15-5 Synchronizing Circuits
15-6 Intensifying Circuits
15-7 Brake Circuits
15-8 Closed Circuits

Hydraulic circuits are composed of pumps, pressure control valves, directional valves, flow control valves, actuators
and accessories, and change their compositions according to objectives and specifications. Many compositions are
possible for a single objective. The most efficient circuit is:
(1) Safe and completely optimal to meet objective.
(2) Capable of smooth movement.
(3) Energy efficient.
(4) Effective for initial and running costs.
(5) Easy to maintain.
The followings are general circuit examples (8 types, 29 examples).

15-1 Unload Circuits

These circuits enhance the product life and

efficiency, at the same time, keeping the power
consumption and heat generation at a low level
when the system is in waiting mode. Hydraulic
power is expressed in the following equation.

PQ P：Pressure (MPa)
L (kW) ＝ ――
60 Q：Flow Rate (L/min)

PQ P：Pressure (psi)
L (HP) ＝ ―――
1 714 Q：Flow Rate ([Link])

As shown, hydraulic power is proportional to the

product of pressure and flow rate. Reducing either
exponent then leads to lessened hydraulic power.

a ) Open Center Circuit (Fig. 15.1 (a) (b))

Figure 15.1 (a) shows a circuit in which output flow
from the pump is by-passed to the reservoir with the
spool of the PT connection valve at the center
position. In the case of solenoid pilot operated
directional valves, as shown in Fig. 15.1 (b), the Fig. 15.1(a) Fig. 15.1(b)
check valve is required to maintain the minimum
pilot pressure of the valve.

HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS ■ 82
 b ) Circuit by Pressure Compensated Pump (Fig. 15.2) d ) Circuit with Accumulator (Fig. 15.4)
This circuit reduces the amount of output flow rate by Pressure switch PS is correlated with the solenoid valve;
using the variable displacement pump with pressure when the circuit pressure equals the pressure set in the
compensating function. The pressure of the system is pressure switch PS, the solenoid valve is turned off, and
raised to a set level even when it is in idle. output flow is by-passed to the reservoir, but the
accumulator keeps the circuit pressure constant.

PS

Fig. 15.2 Fig. 15.4

c ) Pump-Relief Unload Circuit (Fig. 15.3) e ) Circuit with Two-Pressure Two-Control Type (Fig. 15.5)
The circuit shown in Fig. 15.3 contains ① a low pressure When pump pressure is lower than PL, the angle of the
and large volume pump and ② a high pressure and small swash plate becomes maximum, and the output flow
volume pump. The circuit raises its efficiency by using ① reaches to the maximum (the flow rate goes to QH). In
and ②. In a case where the pressure in the circuit is contrast, a pump pressure higher than PL causes a
lower than the pressure set at the unload valve, the output smaller swash plate angle and smaller output flow (QL).
flow rate from ① and ② are gathered and provided to the When the circuit pressure equals pump pressure, the
circuit. In contrast, in a case where pressure in the circuit swash plate angle falls close to zero, and output flow
is higher than the pressure set at the unload valve, the reduces to the amount of internal leakage. In this circuit,
output flow rate from ① is by-passed to the reservoir by the power of the electric motor is kept small.
the unload valve, and the pressure is unloaded. In this
case, pressure within the circuit is kept at a certain level
by the output flow rate from ② only. This circuit provides
flow rate characteristics observed in a pressure vs. flow
rate curve.
Large

PH
QH
Flow Rate

QL
PL
③ Unload Valve QH
Small

QL
PL PH
M Small Pressure Large
O
Large
Flow Rate

② High Pressure ① Low Pressure

Small Volume Large Volume
Small

Pump Pump Fig. 15.5

Small Pressure Large

Fig. 15.3

83 ■ HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
 15-2 Pressure Control Circuits

a ) Two-Pressure Circuit with Decompression and Check c ) Decompression Circuit ② (Fig. 15.8)
Valves (Fig. 15.6) After completion of pressure release, this circuit achieves
In the cylinder-forwarding process (solenoid OFF), circuit automatic lift of the cylinder by electric signals from the
pressure is kept at 10 MPa (1 450 psi). But, in the cylinder- pressure switch.
returning process (solenoid ON), circuit pressure is After compressing working fluid in the cylinder cap, the
controlled at 7 MPa (1 015 psi) by the decompression valve. solenoid of the decompression valve is turned ON. Then,
the compressed working fluid is released back to the
Return reservoir through the flow control valve. Pressure in the
circuit drops until it hits a certain point set in the switch
PS. Then, the switch transmits signals out, and turns the
solenoid valve ON to lift the cylinder. By this sequence, a
Decompression
and Check Valve smooth lift-up-and-down motion is achieved.
7MPa
PS

Counter
Decom- Balance Valve
Return pression
Valve

Relief Valve
10MPa
Pressurizing Lift Up

Fig. 15.6

b ) Decompression Circuit ① (Fig. 15.7)

Releasing compressed working fluid instantly back to a Fig. 15.8
reservoir generates shock waves. Compressed working
fluid must be released gradually. In Fig. 15.7, compressed d ) Weight Balancing Circuit (Fig. 15.9)
working fluid in the cylinder cap is released gradually This circuit balances (holds up) the weight by using the
through the flow control valve. This reduces circuit balancing valve. The balancing valve cannot hold up the
pressure slowly, thus preventing shock waves. weight if the pump does not work and does not generate
enough energy or pressure to hold up the weight.
Therefore, a pilot operated check valve is commonly used
in the circuit.

Pilot Operated
and Check Valve
for Locking
Pressurizing

Balancing Valve

Fig. 15.7
Fig. 15.9

HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS ■ 84
 15-3 Speed Control Circuits

a-1) Speed Change Circuit (Fig. 15.10) b ) Circuit with Proportional Electro-Hydraulic Directional
This circuit changes the speed of the cylinder motion by and Flow Control Valve (Fig. 15.12)
employing two flow control valves. Shifting to high speed, Optimal flow rate (speed) is achieved by controlling the
change over the solenoid operated directional valve for low amount of the spool shifted in the proportional electro-
speed first then change over the solenoid valve for high hydraulic valve; the spool is shifted proportional to the
speed so that shock is kept small as shown in Table 15.1. amount of electric signal received. The actuator is
controlled smoothly with this valve, and the hydraulic
circuit is simplified, as shown in Fig. 15.12.
Forward Forward

For For
Setting
Low Speed High Speed
Amplifier Adjuster

SOL-2 SOL-1 SOL-4 SOL-3

Fig. 15.10
Fig. 15.12
Table 15.1 ON/OFF Change Pattern for Cylinder
Forward Motion c ) Differential Circuit
When the cylinder is pushed forward, working fluid
Directional control valves ① ② discharged from the cylinder head is added back to the
For Low Speed SOL-1 ON ON cylinder cap because of the difference in surface area
For High Speed SOL-3 OFF ON between the cap and the head of the cylinder. This
achieves a faster-cylinder-forward motion, compared to a
circuit with only one channel of incoming flow.
a-2) Speed Change Circuit (Fig. 15.11) Pump Output Flow Rate F ＝ Pressure Supplied×
V＝
Forward Rod Area Rod Area
The relationship between forward speed V and the rod
area, and between output force F and the rod area, are
SOL-2 SOL-1
obtained as follows. V and F are functions of the rod area.
The size of load pressure and pressure loss require due
attention.
Cap End Head End

Small Large
Flow Flow
Rate Rate
SOL-3 Sequence and
Check Valve

Fig. 15.11

Fig. 15.13

85 ■ HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
 d ) Pre-Fill Valve Circuit (Fig. 15.14) Oil Reservoir
In this circuit, the subsidiary cylinders and the pre-fill
valve help the main cylinder achieve pumping function. Pre-Fill Valve
This circuit drastically reduces the pump-output volume
required for the high-speed up-and-down cylinder motion
of the press machine.

Main Cylinder
Subsidiary
Cylinder
As the subsidiary cylinders move downward, the main
cylinder is pulled down with them, sucking fluid from the
reservoir through the pre-fill valve. At the end of the Safety
Valve
downward motion, the sequence valve is opened, and
working fluid is directed to the main cylinder, which then Counter
generates a great pressure force on the press. Balance Valve

After the pressure is released, the solenoid valve is set for

Decompression
the high-speed upward motion. The main cylinder is Valve
pulled up again with the subsidiary cylinders, pushing
fluid back to the reservoir through the pre-fill valve. Lift Up Lift Down

Fig. 15.14

15-4 Filter Circuits

Objectives of filtering and filtration rating change depending on where a filter is set in a circuit. One of the objectives,
other than filtering contaminants is to let fluid flow at a certain rate. Another objective is to protect filter and provide a
by-pass valve. Examples are shown in Fig. 15.15 to Fig. 15.17.
Figures 15.19 and 15.20 show circuits in which a clogged filter does not have an adverse impact. Also, filtration rating
in these circuits can reach high class performance, (class 8 in the NAS Cleanliness Requirements with 1 pass
quality,), when the ideal flow rate is applied to the filters.

a ) Pump Filter Circuit (Fig. 15.15)

,
This circuit s objective is to protect the hydraulic pump.
This circuit has two types: in one type, a filter is set inside
a reservoir on a pump suction port (sometimes it is called
a strainer), and in the other, a filter is set outside a
reservoir to aid in maintenance. The filtration rates of
these circuit types are limited to around 100 μm because
of the influence on pump suction resistance.

Fig. 15.15

HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS ■ 86
b ) Pressure Line Filter Circuit ① (Fig. 15.16) d ) Return Line Filter Circuit (Fig. 15.18)
This circuit protects the directional and other control This circuit filters working fluid going back to the
valves in the line. Its filtration rate ranges from about reservoir. The filtration rate is approximately 10 μm to 20
10μm (solenoid/proportional valve) to 3 μm (servo valve, μm.
etc.).

Fig. 15.18

e ) Pressure Line Bleed-Off Filter Circuit (Fig. 15.19)

This circuit filters a small amount of the by-passed outlet
Fig. 15.16 flow from the pump (about 1 to 2 L/min (0.26∼0.53
[Link])).

c ) Pressure Line Filter Circuit ② (Fig. 15.17)

This circuit has an objective similar to that of Fig. 15.16,
but it filters out contaminants from the cylinder. It is
better to filter out contaminants from only one direction
with the anti-reverse-flow valve.

Fig. 15.19

Fig. 15.17

87 ■ HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
 f ) Off-Line Filter Circuit (Fig. 15.20)
By using a pump and an electric motor specialized for
filtration, this circuit filters contaminants even when the
main hydraulic pump is not turned on. This circuit has
the best filtration of all the filtration circuits.

Fig. 15.20

15-5 Synchronizing Circuits

This circuit synchronizes movements of multiple actuators. Minimal error should never be overlooked, however, to
avoid the accumulation of synchronization errors, it is always recommended that the circuit be set in such a way that
the error is corrected at the end of an operation with one, full cylinder stroke, instead of the repeated, half-way cylinder
motion.

a ) Synchronizing Circuit with Mechanical Combination b ) Synchronizing Circuit with Flow Control Valves
(Fig. 15.21) (Fig. 15.22)
This circuit realizes a synchronized motion by In this circuit, the flow control valve controls fluid flowing
mechanically combined cylinder rods. In the following in and out of the cylinders. Generally, a high accuracy
figure, the relationship between the two main cylinders valve is employed.
and two other auxiliary cylinders is also a mechanical
combination. This circuit does not necessitate a control
valve for synchronization. Synchronization errors would
be happened by production accuracy and rigid of
mechanism.

Fig. 15.22

Fig. 15.21

HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS ■ 88
c ) Circuit with Flow Divider (Fig. 15.23) e ) Circuit with Synchronized Cylinders (Fig. 15.25)
This circuit utilizes the flow divider specialized for This circuit realizes a very accurate synchronized motion
synchronization. via combined synchronizing cylinders. But, sometimes,
spacing becomes an issue because it requires the volume
of all the cylinders to be the same.

Working Cylinders
Synchronized
Cylinders
Fig. 15.23

d ) Circuit with Synchronized Hydraulic Motors

(Fig. 15.24)
With the shafts combined, these motors can displace the Fig. 15.25
same amount of working fluid to and from each cylinder.
The accuracy of the amount of displacement controls the
accuracy of synchronization. Therefore, if the volumetric f ) Circuit with Servo Valve (Fig. 15.26)
efficiency is the same, setting the circuit with high speed This circuit detects the position of two cylinders and uses
motors reduces synchronization errors. two servo valves to control the amount of working fluid
required to adjust synchronization errors. The following
figure is an example of such feedback-synchronization
control. Rather than detecting the position of one
cylinder, and giving the feedback to the other cylinder
for synchronization, it is better and more accurate with
less time lag if each cylinder works separately and
their positions are controlled by different servo valves.

Fig. 15.24

89 ■ HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
 Position Sensor

Amplifier Setting adjuster

Amplifier

Fig. 15.26

15-6 Intensifying Circuits

Circuit with a Cylinder as Intensifier (Fig. 15.27) Actuating Cylinder Intensifying Cylinder
This circuit intensifies pressure by using the difference
between cap and head area in cylinders. In the following
figure, the solenoid valve for adding pressure is turned
ON. Working fluid channeled through the sequence valve
Decompression
① pushes the working cylinder head forward until it hits Valve for
Pressure
an object. The contact between the cylinder head and the Adjustment
object eventually increases the pressure inside the line.
Then, the circuit delivers the pressurized working fluid to
the intensifying cylinder in which the fluid is pressurized
yet further. The highly pressurized working fluid in the
intensifying cylinder is then supplied back to the working
cylinder. The decompression valve on the primary side of
Sequence
the intensifying cylinder adjusts the output power. Also, Valve ②
in the process of returning the cylinders, it is important to
note that the intensifying cylinder is returned by the Sequence
Valve ①
sequence valve ② (using the counter balance valve as the
sequence valve).

Backward Pressurizing

Fig. 15.27 Circuit with Intensifying Cylinders

HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS ■ 90
 15-7 Brake Circuits

Brake Circuit with Hydraulic Motor (Fig. 15.28)

This figure is an example of a motor that turns both
directions. With the solenoid valve in position ①, the
hydraulic motor turns right. After that, the solenoid valve
is in the middle position, but the hydraulic motor keeps ② ④
working as a pump because of inertia. Discharged
working fluid runs through the check valve ④, and
returns to the reservoir with back pressure given by the
relief valve. The primary side of the motor becomes low
pressure, thus working fluid through the check valve ③
③ ⑤
is supplied into the line. In the case of a left turn, the
check valve ② and ⑤ are used.

Fig. 15.28

15-8 Closed Circuits

Closed Circuit for Vehicle (Fig. 15.29)

Closed circuits are widely employed in vehicles performing
running, circling or HST (Hydro Static Transmission: no
shift change for speed change) functions. One of the
characteristics of this circuit is to use a pump as a
Brake Valve and
hydraulic motor to absorb the power: this is a reverse use Safety Valve for
Main Circuit
of the pumping function of a motor found in the previous
section on brake circuits. In addition, pressure inside the
line is low because the hydraulic pump controls the speed Flashing Valve
of the vehicle. This system is more efficient, and achieves
less heat generation when compared to valve control
systems. The feed pump fills and replaces working fluid Safety Valve ②
internally, and it supplies clean fluid through a filter. The
circuit must be made in such a way that safety valve ①
has a higher pressure than that of safety valve ②, and
that working fluid from the feed pump is discharged to
the reservoir via the flushing valve. Safety
Valve ①

Main Pump

O Feed Pump

Fig. 15.29

91 ■ HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
 TROUBLESHOOTING FOR HYDRAULIC EQUIPMENT

Problems with hydraulic equipment can be grouped into eight categories, such as pump discharge failure and excess
heat generation. The table below sums up the trouble causes and repairs and checks.

Problem Cause Repair/Check

1. The rotation direction is incorrect. Make sure that the direction is correct.
2. The pump shaft is not rotating. Check and modify the shaft key and coupling.
3. The suction filter is clogged. Remove the clogging.
4. Air is in the suction line. Fix the pipe connection (screwed part and packing).
5. The working fluid is too viscous to flow into the Replace the fluid or heat it with a heater.
pump.
6. The pump is placed too high. Decrease the suction height (head).
1. The pump does not
discharge the working fluid. 7. The pump rotation speed is too low. Drive the pump at the specified rotation speed.
8. The amount of the fluid in the reservoir is Add the fluid to the recommended level.
insufficient.
9. Air is not bled at the pressurized side; suction Take the air out of the highly pressurized line by
cannot take place. loosening the line.
10. The variable displacement pump is improperly Check and correct the adjustment.
adjusted.
11. Parts are worn or damaged. Repair or replace the parts.
1. The suction line or the suction filter is clogged. Remove the clogging.
2. The suction line is too narrow or long. Replace the piping so that the vacuum level is kept
below the specified value.
3. The capacity of the suction filter is insufficient. Replace the filter with a new one whose capacity is
twice or more as large as the pump discharge flow.
2. The pump produces noise 4. The pump is placed too high. Decrease the suction height (head).
(cavitation). 5. The capacity of the boost pump is insufficient. Repair or replace the boost pump.
6. The working fluid is too viscous to flow into the Replace the fluid or heat it with a heater.
pump.
7. The pump rotation speed is beyond the specified Drive the pump at the specified rotation speed.
level.
8. The air breather in the reservoir is clogged. Clean the breather.
1. Suction pipe connection is loose. Fix the connection (screwed part and packing).
2. There are foams in the reservoir. 1. The oil level is low: add the working fluid to the
recommended level.
2. The reservoir is equipped with no baffle plate, or
the reservoir is too small: install an defoaming
filter or replace the reservoir
3. Pump produces noise 3. Air is leaking in through the shaft seal. Replace the shaft seal.
(aeration). 4. Air is not completely bled from the casing. Run the system with no load until air is removed
completely.
5. There are bubbles in a line. Set up an air bleeding circuit for a closed line.
6. The pressure is beyond the specified level. Drive the pump at or below the specified pressure.
7. A coupling produces noise. Align the shaft or replace the coupling.
8. Pump parts are worn or damaged. Repair or replace the parts.

73 ■ TROUBLESHOOTING FOR HYDRAULIC EQUIPMENT

 Problem Cause Repair/Check
1. Internal leakage in the pump increases. Repair or replace the pump because its volumetric
efficiency is deteriorated.
2. Internal leakage in the valve increases. Repair or replace the valve.
3. Internal leakage in the actuator increases. Repair or replace the actuator.
4. The sliding part of the pump is seized up Repair or replace the pump.
(scoring).
5. The pump or bearing is seized up. Replace the bearing.
6. The working fluid in the reservoir is insufficient. Add the fluid or place a larger reservoir.
7. Oil cooler selection is improper. Replace the oil cooler with a new one with a larger
heat-exchange capacity.
8. The oil cooler performance is inadequate. 1. Check the water temperature and volume and
take an appropriate action.
2. Overhaul the cooler and remove water strains
and other contaminants.
3. Clean the radiator of the fan cooler.
9. The cooling water in the oil cooler is insufficient. Check whether the temperature difference between
4. Excess heat is generated. a. The water solenoid valve is not in working the cooling water inlet and outlet is proper.
order. Check and repair the valves and electric systems
b. The automatic water supply valve with a to make sure that cooling water flow is increased.
temperature detector is not in working order.
c. The thermostat is not in working order.
10. The heater is not in working order. Check and repair the heater and thermostat.
11. The unload circuit is not in working order. 1. Check and repair the valves.
a. The unload set pressure is too high. 2. Correct the pressure setting.
b. Pressure setting is improper, resulting in a 3. Replace the failed components.
shortened unloading time. 4. Check and repair the electric systems.
c. The accumulator is not in working order, or
its capacity is insufficient.
d. Gas pressure of the accumulator is low.
e. The pressure switch is not in working order.
12. The viscosity of the working fluid is low, Replace the working fluid.
resulting in increased leakage.
13. The set pressure level is too high. Correct the pressure setting to an appropriate level.
1. Spool operation is failed because of dust. Clean the spool and replace the coil.
2. The voltage is too high or low. Set the voltage at a proper level and replace the coil.
5. The solenoid directional 3. Insulation failure is caused by water. Eliminate the failure cause and replace the coil.
valve is not in working 4. Direction control is failed due to an excess flow. Adjust the flow rate at a proper level or place a
order (burnout of the coil). larger valve.
5. Direction control is failed due to a hydraulic lock. Install a filter or replace the existing filter to a seat
type.
1. The pressure falls below the setting level. ・Overhaul the valve.
a. The valve is not properly seated. ・Replace the valve and seat.
b. The orifice is clogged with dust. ・Replace the worn or damaged parts.
c. Stick-slip is taking place because of dust.
d. The valve spring is damaged.
6. The pressure control valve 2. The pressure oscillates (caused by other than
the factors above).
is not in working order.
a. The working fluid contains air. a. Remove the air from the fluid.
b. The capacity of the bent line is too large. b. Make the bent line thin or short or squeeze it.
c. The valve resonates with other valves. c. Replace the valve spring to change the
characteristic frequency.
d. Flow is excessive. d. Adjust the flow to a proper level or place a larger
valve.
1. Knocking is caused by air in the working fluid. Remove the air from the fluid.
2. Knocking is caused by packing resistance. Apply molybdenum disulfide coating to the piston
or replace the packing.
3. Knocking is caused by the bump at the load Perform the centering of the actuator and make
side. the load line smooth.
7. The actuator (cylinder) is 4. Knocking is caused by a poor condition of the Repair the tube.
not in working order. inner surface of the tube.
5. Knocking is caused by improper operation of Inspect and eliminate the failure cause.
the control valve.
6. Air in the working fluid causes thrust reduction. Remove the air from the fluid.
7. Insufficient pressure causes thrust reduction. Inspect and eliminate the failure cause.
8. Internal leakage causes thrust reduction. Repair the failure (replace the packing).
Perform the following actions for maintenance and management of the hydraulic system.
1. Keep the working fluid clean (see Chapter 14 HYDRAULIC FLUIDS).
2. Make sure that operating conditions are correct, and keep the system in an order that allows
appropriate action to be quickly taken if required. The following values should be known for
8. Maintenance and system maintenance and management.
(1) Saturation temperature in a reservoir (comparison with the room temperature).
management of the
(2) Input power supplied when a fixed displacement pump is unloaded or when a variable
hydraulic system displacement pump is fully cut off (ampere).
(3) Input power at maximum load (ampere).
(4) Drain rate for a variable displacement pump (L/min ([Link])).
(5) Pump noise level [noise level at unloading and maximum loading (dB(A)) and noise quality]
These values increase with lower pump efficiency and more internal leakage in valves.

TROUBLESHOOTING FOR HYDRAULIC EQUIPMENT ■ 74

 Appendix: Main Formulas

SI Unit US Unit
● Hydraulic Power L O：Hydraulic Power kW
P ：Pressure MPa L O：Hydraulic Power HP
(Pump Output Power) P・Q LO＝
P・Q
L O＝ Q ：Flow Rate L/min
1 714
P ：Pressure psi
60 ※1 kW＝1 kN・m/s Q ：Flow Rate [Link]
＝60 kN・m/min
Hydraulic Pumps

● Input Power 2πTN L i ： Input Power kW L i ： Input Power HP

Li ＝ N・m
T・N
60 000 T ： Shaft Torque Li ＝ T ： Shaft Torque lbf・ft
5 252
N ： Rotation Speed r/min N ： Rotation Speed r/min

● Volumetric Efficiency ηV： Overall Efficiency ％

ηV＝ QP × 100 Q P： Output Flow Rate at Pressure P L/min ([Link])
QO Q O： Output Flow Rate at No pressure L/min ([Link])
※ Q O− Q P ＝ Total Leakage Amount at Pump Inside

● Overall Efficiency η：Overall Efficiency ％ η：Overall Efficiency ％

η＝ L O × 100 L O：Hydraulic Power kW η＝ L O × 100 L O：Hydraulic Power HP
Li kW
Li HP
L i ：Input Power L i ：Input Power
P・Q P・Q
＝ ×100 P ：Output Pressure MPa ＝ × 100 P ：Output Pressure psi
60 L i Q ：Output Flow Rate L/min 1 714 L i Q：Output Flow Rate [Link]

● Output Power of Hydraulic

Motor L ： Output Power kW L ： Output Power HP
2πT・N T ： Torque Nm T・N T ： Torque lbf・ft
L＝ L＝
60 000 N： Rotation Speed
5 252 N： Rotation Speed r/min
r/min

● Cylinder Output Power L ： Output Power kW L ： Output Power HP

F・V F ： Thrust kN F・V F ： Thrust lbf
L＝ L＝
60 V： Speed m/min 33 000 V： Speed ft/min

● Power Loss of a Valve

Flow Rate：Q
L ： kW L ： HP
Pressure：P1 Pressure：P2 P・Q P・Q
Valve L＝ P： MPa L＝ P： psi
60 1 714
Q： L/min Q： [Link]
Pressure Loss： P＝P1− P2
Power Loss at Valve Inlet/Outlet： L
● Viscosity (Absolute Viscosity)
and Kinematic Viscosity μ＝ρ・ν1 ＝ρ・ν2 ×10− 6

μ ： Viscosity (Absolute Viscosity) s N・s/m2 ）

Pa・（＝
ρ ： Density kg/m3
ν1： Kinematic Viscosity m2/s
ν2： Kinematic Viscosity mm2/s

● Reynolds Number
R ：Dimensionless
Dia- V ：cm/s
Velocity：V
meter V d 4 000 Q 2 120 Q d ：cm
：d Flow Rate：Q R＝ ・ ＝ ＝ ν1 ：cm2/s
ν1 60πd・ν1 d・ν2
ν2 ：mm2/s｛ cSt ｝ ※ R＜2 300 ………Laminar Flow
R：：Reynolds Number Q：L/min R＞2 300 ………Turbulent Flow
ν： Kinematic Viscosity
● Flow of Orifice 2 P ×10 6 × 6 2
Q ＝ C・A ρ Q＝C・A γ・ P

P1 P2 Q： L/min ρ： kg/m3 Q： in3/s g： 386.4 in/s2

C： Dimensionless P： MPa C： Dimensionless γ： lbf/in3
Q A： cm2 A： in2 P： psi
P＝P1− P2
A：Open Area
C ＝ Flow Rate Index
γ＝ Specific Weight Note) Flow rate index is affected by forms of flow lines and Reynolds number,
ρ＝ Density and is usually about 0.6 to 09.

Main Formulas ■ 92