ELECTRO MAGNETIC FIELDS

(3-0-0)
LECTURE NOTES
B. TECH
(II YEAR – III SEM)

Prepared by:
SUDIPTA MOHANTY., Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering

Odisha University of Technology and

Research, Bhubaneswar
Techno Campus, P.O.-Mahalaxmi Vihar
Bhubaneswar-751029, Odisha, India
 Electromagnetic Fields (3-0-0)
Prerequisites:
1. Mathematics-I
2. Mathematics-II

Course Outcomes
At the end of the course, students will demonstrate the ability
1. To understand the basic laws of electromagnetism.
2. To obtain the electric and magnetic fields for simple configurations under static conditions.
3. To analyse time-varying electric and magnetic fields.
4. To understand Maxwell's equation in different forms and different media.
5. To understand the propagation of EM waves.

Module 1: (08 Hours)

Co-ordinate systems & Transformation: Cartesian co-ordinates, circular cylindrical coordinates, spherical
coordinates. Vector Calculus: Differential length, Area & Volume, Line, surface and volume Integrals, Del
operator, Gradient of a scalar, Divergence of a vector & Divergence theorem, Curl of a vector & Stoke's theorem,
Laplacian of a scalar.

Module 2: (10 Hours)

Electrostatic Fields: Coulomb's Law, Electric Field Intensity, Electric Fields due to a point, line, surface and
volume charge, Electric Flux Density, Gauss's Law- Maxwell's Equation, Applications of Gauss's Law, Electric
Potential, Relationship between E and V- Maxwell's Equation and Electric Dipole & Flux Lines, Energy Density
in Electrostatic Fields., Current and current density, Ohms Law in Point form, Continuity of current, Boundary
conditions. Electrostatic boundary-value problems: Poisson's and Laplace's Equations, Uniqueness Theorem,
General procedures for solving Poisson's and Laplace's equations, Capacitance.

Module 3: (06 Hours)

Magneto static Fields: Magnetic Field Intensity, Biot-Savart's Law, Ampere's circuit Law-Maxwell Equation,
applications of Ampere's law, Magnetic Flux Density-Maxwell's equations. Maxwell's equation for static fields,
Magnetic Scalar and Vector potentials. Magnetic Boundary Conditions.

Module 4: (10 Hours)

Electromagnetic Field and Wave propagation: Faraday's Law, Transformer & Motional Electromagnetic Forces,
Displacement Current, Maxwell's Equation in Final forms, Time-Harmonic Field. Electromagnetic Wave
Propagation: Wave Propagation in lossy Dielectrics, Plane Waves in loss less Dielectrics, Free space, Good
conductors Power & Poynting vector.

TEXTBOOKS:

1. Matthew N. O. Sadiku, Principles of Electromagnetics, 6th Ed., Oxford Intl. Student Edition, 2014.

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. C. R. Paul, K. W. Whites, S. A. Nasor, Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields, 3rd Ed, TMH.

2. W.H. Hyat, Electromagnetic Field Theory, 7 th Ed, TMH.
3. A. Pramanik, "Electromagnetism - Theory and applications", PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 2009.
4. A. Pramanik, "Electromagnetism-Problems with solution", Prentice Hall India, 2012.
5. G.W. Carter, "The electromagnetic field in its engineering aspects", Longmans, 1954.
6. W.J. Duffin, "Electricity and Magnetism", McGraw Hill Publication, 1980.
7. W.J. Duffin, "Advanced Electricity and Magnetism", McGraw Hill, 1968.
8. E.G. Cullwick, "The Fundamentals of Electromagnetism", Cambridge University Press, 1966.
9. B. D. Popovic, "Introductory Engineering Electromagnetics", Addison- Wesley Educational Publishers,
International Edition, 1971.
10. W. Hayt, "Engineering Electromagnetics", McGraw Hill Education, 2012.
 MODULE-III

1. Magneto static Fields

 Magnetic Field Intensity
 Biot-Savart’s Law
 Ampere’s Circuit Law-Maxwell’s Equations
 Maxwell’s Equation for Static Field
 Magnetic Scalar and Vector Potentials
 Magnetic Boundary Conditions
3.1 Introduction
The Scientist Oersted stated that when the charges are in motion, they are
surrounded by a magnetic field. The charges in motion i.e. flow of charges
constitutes an electric current. Thus a current carrying conductor is always
surrounded by a magnetic field. If such a current flow is steady i.e. time invariant,
then the magnetic field produced is a steady magnetic field which is also a time
invariant. The direct current (d.c.) is a steady flow of current hence magnetic field
produced by a conductor carrying a d.c. current is a static steady magnetic field.
The study of steady magnetic field, existing in a given space, produced due to the
flow of direct current through a conductor is called magnetostatics.
3.1.1Magnetic Field and its Properties
The region around a magnet within which the influence of the magnet can
be experienced is called magnetic field. Such a field is represented by imaginary
lines around the magnet which are called magnetic lines of force. The direction
of such lines is always from N pole to S pole, external to the magnet as shown in
the Fig. 3.1.1. These lines of force are also called magnetic lines of flux or
magnetic flux lines.
An important difference between electric
flux lines and magnetic flux lines can be observed
here. ln case of electric flux, the flux lines
originate from an isolated positive charge and
diverge to terminate at infinity. While for a
negative charge, electric flux lines converge on a
charge, starting from infinity. But in case of
magnetic flux, the poles exist in pairs only. Hence
every magnetic flux line starting from north pole must end at south pole and
complete the path from south to north internal to the magnet.
Key Point: An isolated magnetic pole cannot exist. The magnetic flux lines exist
in the form of closed loop.
3.1.2 Magnetic Field Intensity
The quantitative measure of strongness or weakness of the magnetic field
is given by magnetic field intensity or magnetic field strength. The magnetic field
intensity at any point in the magnetic field is defined as the force experienced by
a unit north pole of one weber strength when placed at that point. The magnetic
flux lines are measured in webers (Wb) while magnetic field intensity is measured
in newtons/weber (N/Wb) or amperes per metre (A/m) or ampere-turns/metre
(AT/m). It is denoted as 𝐻 ⃗ . It is a vector quantity. This is similar to the electric
field intensity 𝐸⃗ in electrostatics.
3.1.3 Magnetic Flux Density
The total magnetic lines of force i.e. magnetic flux crossing a unit area in
a plane at right angles to the direction of flux is called magnetic flux density. it
is denoted as 𝐵 ⃗ and is a vector quantity. It is measured in weber per square metre.
(Wb/m ) which is also called Tesla (T). This is similar to the electric flux density
2

⃗ in electrostatics.
𝐷
3.1.4 Relation between ⃗𝑩 ⃗ and ⃗𝑯⃗⃗
ln electrostatics, 𝐸⃗ and 𝐷⃗ are related to each other through permittivity ε of
the region. In magnetostatics, the 𝐵 ⃗ and 𝐻⃗ are related to each other through the
property of the region in which current carrying conductor is placed. It is called
permeability denoted as µ. It is the ability or ease with which the current carrying
conductor forces the magnetic flux through the region around it. For a free space,
the permeability is denoted as µ0 and its value is 4𝜋 × 10−7 . As ε is measured in
F/m, the perrneability it is measured in henries per metre (H/m). For any other
region, a relative permeability is specified as µr and 𝜇 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 .
The 𝐵 ⃗ and 𝐻⃗ are related as,
⃗ = 𝜇𝐻
𝐵 ⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐻⃗
For free space, 𝐵 ⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐻 ⃗ and for all nonmagnetic media, 𝜇𝑟 = 1 while for
magnetic materials 𝜇𝑟 is greater than unity.
3.2 Biot-Savart Law
Consider a conductor carrying a direct current I and a steady magnetic field
produced around it. The Biot-Savart law allows us to obtain the differential
magnetic field intensity 𝑑𝐻 ⃗ , produced at a point P, due to a differential current
element 𝐼𝑑𝐿⃗. The current carrying conductor is shown in the Fig.3.2.1.
Consider a differential length 𝑑𝐿, hence the
differential current clement is 𝐼𝑑𝐿. This is very small
part of the current carrying conductor. The point P is
at a distance R from the differential current element.
The θ is the angle between the differential current
element and the line joining point P to the differential
current element.
The Biot-Savart law states that, the magnetic field intensity 𝑑𝐻 ⃗ produced
at a point P due to a differential current element 𝐼𝑑𝐿 is,
l. Proportional to the product of the current 𝐼 and differential length 𝑑𝐿.
[Link] sine of the angle between the element and the line joining point P to
the element.
3. And inversely proportional to the square of the distance R between point
P and the element.
 Mathematically, the Biot-Savart law can be stated as,
𝐼𝑑𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐻 ∝
𝑅2
𝑘𝐼𝑑𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐻⃗ =
𝑅2
Where 𝑘 = constant of proportionality
1
In SI units, 𝑘=
4𝜋
𝐼𝑑𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∴ 𝑑𝐻 = ………… (1)
4𝜋𝑅 2
Let us express this equation in vector form.
Let 𝑑𝐿 = Magnitude of vector length 𝑑𝐿⃗ and
𝑎𝑅 = Unit vector in the direction from differential current
element to point P
Then from rule of cross product,
𝑑𝐿⃗ × 𝑎𝑅 = 𝑑𝐿|𝑎𝑅 |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑑𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 since |𝑎𝑅 | = 1
Replacing in equation (1),
⃗
⃗ = 𝐼𝑑𝐿×𝑎⃗2𝑅 A/m………… (2)
𝑑𝐻
4𝜋𝑅
⃗
𝑅 ⃗
𝑅
But 𝑎𝑅 = ⃗|
=
|𝑅 𝑅
⃗ ⃗
Hence ⃗ = 𝐼𝑑𝐿×𝑅
𝑑𝐻 3
A/m………… (3)
4𝜋𝑅
The equations (2) and (3) is the mathematical form of Biot-Savart law.
According to the direction of cross product, the direction of 𝑑𝐻 ⃗ is normal
to the plane containing two vectors and in that normal direction which is along
the progress of right handed screw, turned from 𝑑𝐿⃗ through the smaller angle θ
⃗ is normal
towards the line joining element to the point P. Thus the direction of 𝑑𝐻
to the plane of paper. For the case considered, according to right handed screw
⃗ is going into the plane of the paper.
rule, the direction of 𝑑𝐻
The entire conductor is made up of all such differential elements. Hence to
obtain total magnetic field intensity 𝐻 ⃗ the above equation (2) takes the integral
form as,
⃗
⃗ = ∫ 𝐼𝑑𝐿×𝑎⃗2𝑅 A/m………… (4)
𝐻
4𝜋𝑅
This is called Integral form of Biot-Savart law.
3.2.1 Biot-Savart Law ln-terms of Distributed Sources
Consider a surface carrying a uniform current over its surface as shown in
⃗ and measured in
the Fig.3.2.2. Then the surface current density is denoted as 𝐾
amperes per metre (A/m). Thus for uniform current I in any width b is given by
𝐼 = 𝐾𝑏 Where width b is perpendicular to the direction of current flow.
 Thus if dS is the differential surface area
considered of a surface having current density 𝐾 ⃗
then,
𝐼𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐾⃗ 𝑑𝑆…… (5)
If the current density in a volume of a given
conductor is 𝐽 measured in 𝐴 / 𝑚2 then for a
differential volume dv we can write,
𝐼𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐽𝑑𝑣…… (6)
Hence the Biot-Savart law can be expressed for surface current considering
⃗ 𝑑𝑆 while for volume current considering 𝐽𝑑𝑣.
𝐾
⃗
∴ ⃗ = ∫ 𝐾×𝑎⃗𝑟 2𝑑𝑆 A/m………… (7)
𝐻 𝑆 4𝜋𝑅

𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗ = ∫ 𝐽×𝑎⃗𝑟 𝑑𝑣
𝐻 A/m………… (8)
𝑣 4𝜋𝑅 2
3.2.2 H due to Straight Conductor of Finite Length

Consider a conductor of finite length placed

along z-axis, as shown in the Fig. 3.2.3. It
carries a direct current I. The perpendicular
distance of point P from z-axis is ρ. The
conductor is placed such that its one end is
at 𝑧 = 𝑧1 while other at 𝑧 = 𝑧2 .
Consider a differential element 𝑑𝐿⃗
along z-axis, at a distance z from origin.
∴ 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝑑𝑧𝑎𝑧 …… (1)
The unit vector in the direction
joining differential element to point P is
𝑎𝑅12 and can be expressed as
⃗ 12
𝑅 𝜌𝑎⃗𝜌 −𝑧𝑎⃗𝑧 𝜌𝑎⃗𝜌 −𝑧𝑎⃗𝑧
𝑎𝑅12 = ⃗ 12 |
= = ….. (2)
|𝑅 √(𝜌)2 +(−𝑧)2 √𝜌2 +𝑧 2
𝜌𝑑𝑧
∴ 𝑑𝐿⃗ × 𝑎𝑅12 = 𝑎𝜙
√𝜌2 +𝑧 2
⃗ at point P is,
According to Biot-Savart law, 𝑑𝐻
𝐼𝑑𝐿⃗ × 𝑎𝑅12
𝑑𝐻 ⃗ =
4𝜋𝑅12 2
𝐼𝜌𝑑𝑧𝑎𝜙
=
4𝜋√𝜌2 + 𝑧 2 (√𝜌2 + 𝑧 2 )2
𝐼𝜌𝑑𝑧𝑎⃗𝜙
= ……….. (3)
4𝜋(𝜌2 +𝑧 2 )3/2
 ⃗ at P due to conductor of finite length can be obtained by
The total 𝐻
⃗ over 𝑧 = 𝑧1 to 𝑧 = 𝑧2 .
integrating 𝑑𝐻
⃗𝜙
𝐻 ⃗ = ∫𝑧2 𝐼𝜌𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗ = ∫𝑧2 𝑑𝐻 ……. (4)
𝑧 1 𝑧 4𝜋(𝜌 +𝑧 2 )3/2
2
1

Let 𝑧 = 𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛼 hence 𝑑𝑧 = −𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝛼𝑑𝛼 and (𝜌2 + 𝑧 2 )3/2 =

𝜌3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝛼 then equation (4) becomes
𝑧2
𝐼 𝛼2 𝜌2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝛼 𝑑𝛼
⃗𝐻 = ∫ 𝑑𝐻 ⃗ =− ∫ 𝑎𝜙
𝑧1 4𝜋 𝛼1 𝜌3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝛼
𝐼 𝛼2 𝑑𝛼 𝐼 𝛼2
=− ∫ 𝑎 =− ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑑𝛼 𝑎𝜙
4𝜋 𝛼1 𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼 𝜙 4𝜋𝜌 𝛼1
𝐼
∴ ⃗ =
𝐻 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼1 )𝑎𝜙 …………… (5)
4𝜋𝜌
µ𝐼
∴ ⃗ =
𝐵 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼1 )𝑎𝜙 …………… (6)
4𝜋𝜌
Key Points: Equation (5) and (6) is applicable to straight filamentary conductor
of finite length. The conductor need not lie on z-axis but it must be straight. The
direction of 𝐻⃗ and 𝐵
⃗ are always 𝑎𝜙 i.e. along concentric circular path irrespective
of length of wire or point of interest.
Special cases:
1. When the conductor is semi-infinite with respect to P so that point 𝑧1 is
now at (0, 0, 0) while 𝑧2 is at (0, 0, ∞), 𝛼1 = 900 , 𝛼2 = 00 and equation
(5) and (6) become
∴ 𝐻⃗ = 𝐼 𝑎𝜙 …………… (7)
4𝜋𝜌
µ𝐼
∴ ⃗ =
𝐵 𝑎𝜙 …………… (8)
4𝜋𝜌
2. When the conductor is of infinite with respect to P so that point 𝑧1 is now
at (0, 0, -∞) while 𝑧2 is at (0, 0, ∞), 𝛼1 = 1800 , 𝛼2 = 00 and equation (5)
and (6) become
∴ 𝐻⃗ = 𝐼 𝑎𝜙 …………… (9)
2𝜋𝜌
µ𝐼
∴ ⃗ =
𝐵 𝑎𝜙 …………… (10)
2𝜋𝜌
Hence 𝑎𝜙 can be determine as , 𝑎𝜙 = 𝑎𝑙 × 𝑎𝜌 …….. (11)
Where 𝑎𝑙 is a unit vector along the line current and 𝑎𝜌 is a unit vector along
the perpendicular line from the line current to field point.
⃗⃗ on the Axis of a Circular Loop
3.2.3 𝐇
Consider a circular loop carrying a direct current I, placed in xy plane, with
⃗ at point
z-axis as its axis as shown in the Fig. 3.2.4. The magnetic field intensity 𝐻
P is to be obtained. The point P is at a distance z from the plane of the circular
loop, along it’s axis.
 The radius of the circular loop is ‘ρ’.
Consider the differential length 𝑑𝐿⃗ of the circular
loop as shown in the Fig. 3.2.4.
In the cylindrical co-ordinate system,
𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝑑𝜌𝑎𝜌 + 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑎𝜙 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎𝑧
But loop is in the plane for which ρ is
constant and 𝑧 = 𝑜 = constant plane. The I𝑑𝐿⃗
is tangential at point 1 in 𝑎𝜙 direction.
∴ 𝐼𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐼𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑎𝜙 …… (12)
The unit vector 𝑎𝑅12 is in the direction along the line joining differential
current element to the point P.
⃗ 12
𝑅
∴ 𝑎𝑅12 = ⃗ 12 |
|𝑅
From the Fig.3.2.4, it can be observed that,
𝑅⃗12 = −𝜌𝑎𝜌 + 𝑧𝑎𝑧 From point 1 to point 2
Hence |𝑅⃗12 | = √(−𝜌)2 + 𝑧 2 = √𝜌2 + 𝑧 2
⃗ 12
𝑅 −𝜌𝑎⃗𝜌 +𝑧𝑎⃗𝑧
∴ 𝑎𝑅12 = ⃗ 12 |
= …….. (13)
|𝑅 √𝜌2 +𝑧 2
𝑎𝜌 𝑎𝜙 𝑎𝑧
Now 𝑑𝐿⃗ × 𝑎𝑅12 = | 𝑑𝜌 𝜌𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝑧| = 𝑧𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑎𝜌 + 𝜌2 𝑑𝜙𝑎𝑧
−𝜌 0 𝑧

Note that while calculating cross product |𝑅⃗12 | is neglected for

convenience, which must be considered in further calculations.
⃗ at point P
According to Biot-Savart law, the differential field strength 𝑑𝐻
is given by,
⃗ 𝐼(𝑧𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑎⃗𝜌 +𝜌2 𝑑𝜙𝑎⃗𝑧 )
⃗ = 𝐼𝑑𝐿×𝑎⃗𝑅12
𝑑𝐻 2 = 2 …… (14)
4𝜋𝑅12 4𝜋√𝜌2 +𝑧 2 (√𝜌2 +𝑧 2 )
⃗ is to be obtained by integrating 𝑑𝐻
The total 𝐻 ⃗ over the circular loop i.e.
for 𝜙 = 0 to 2𝜋.
Note : It can be observed that though 𝑑𝐻 ⃗ consists of two components
𝑎𝜌 and 𝑎𝑧 , due to radial symmetry all 𝑎𝜌 components are going to cancel each
other. So 𝐻⃗ exists only along the axis in it direction.
𝐼 𝜙=2𝜋 𝜌2 𝑑𝜙𝑎⃗𝑧
∴ ⃗ =
𝐻 ∫
4𝜋 𝜙=0 (𝜌2 +𝑧 2 )3/2
2𝜋
𝐼𝜌2 𝑎𝑧
= ∫ 𝑑𝜙
4𝜋(𝜌2 + 𝑧 2 )3/2 0
 𝐼𝜌2 𝑎𝑧 × 2𝜋
=
4𝜋(𝜌2 + 𝑧 2 )3/2
𝐼𝜌2
∴ ⃗ =
𝐻 𝑎𝑧 A/m……… (15)
2(𝜌2 +𝑧 2 )3/2
where r = Radius of the circular loop
z = Distance of point P along the axis
Note: If point P is shifted at the centre of the circular loop i.e. z = 0, we get the
result obtained in earlier section.
𝐻⃗ = 𝐼 𝑎𝑧 A/m……… (16)
2𝜌
where 𝑎𝑧 is the unit vector normal to xy plane in which the circular loop is
lying.
3.3 Ampere’s Circuital Law
In electrostatics, the Gauss’s law is useful to obtain the 𝐸⃗ in case of
complex problems. Similarly, in the magnetostatics, the complex problems can
be solved using a law called Ampere’s circuital law or Ampere’s work law.
The Ampere’s circuital law states that,
The line integral of magnetic field intensity 𝐻 ⃗ around a closed path is
exactly equal to the direct current enclosed by that path.
The mathematical representation of Ampere’s circuital law is,
⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 ……… (1)
∮𝐿 𝐻
The law is very helpful to determine 𝐻 ⃗ when the current distribution is
symmetrical.
By applying Stoke’s theorem to left side of equation (1), we get
⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ = ∫ (∇ × 𝐻
∮𝐿 𝐻 ⃗ ). 𝑑𝑆........ (2)
𝑆
 But 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = ∫𝑠 𝐽. 𝑑𝑆……… (3)
Comparing equation (2) and (3), reveals that
∇×𝐻 ⃗ = 𝐽…….. (4)
This is one of the Maxwell's equations.
3.3.1 Proof of Ampere's Circuital Law
Consider a long straight conductor carrying direct current I placed along z
axis as shown in the Fig. 3.3.1. Consider a closed circular path of radius ρ which
encloses the straight conductor carrying direct current I. The point P is at a
perpendicular distance ρ from the conductor. Consider 𝑑𝐿⃗ at point P which is in
𝑎𝜙 direction, tangential to circular path at point P.
∴ 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑎𝜙 ……… (5)

While 𝐻 ⃗ obtained at point P, from Biot-Savart law due to infinitely long

conductor is,
⃗ = 𝐼 𝑎𝜙 ……. (6)
𝐻
2𝜋𝜌
𝐼 𝐼
∴ ⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ =
𝐻 𝑎𝜙 . 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑎𝜙 = 𝑑𝜙
2𝜋𝜌 2𝜋
⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ over the entire closed path,
Integrating 𝐻
𝜙=2𝜋
𝐼 𝐼 2𝜋
⃗ ⃗
∮𝐻 . 𝑑𝐿 = ∫ 𝑑𝜙 = [𝜙]
𝐿 𝜙=0 2𝜋 2𝜋 0
∮𝐻 ⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐼2𝜋 = 𝐼 Current carried by conductor
𝐿 2𝜋
⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ along the closed path gives the direct
This proves that the integral 𝐻
current enclosed by that closed path.
Key Point: The path enclosing the direct current need not be a circular and it may
be any irregular shape. The law does not depend on the shape of the path but the
path must enclose the direct current once. This path selected is called Amperian
path similar to the Gaussian surface used while applying Gauss’s law.
3.3.2 Steps to Apply Ampere’s Circuital Law
Follow the steps given to apply Ampere’s circuital law:
Step 1: Consider a closed path preferably symmetrical such that it encloses the
Direct current I once. This is Amperian path.
Step 2: Consider differential length 𝑑𝐿⃗ depending upon the co-ordinate system
used.
Step3: Identify the symmetry and find in which direction 𝐻 ⃗ exists according to
the co-ordinate system used.
Step 4: Find 𝐻 ⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ the dot product. Make sure that 𝑑𝐿⃗ and 𝐻 ⃗ in same direction
Step 5: Find the integral of 𝐻 ⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ around the closed path assumed. And equate it
to current I enclosed by the path.
Solving this for the 𝐻 ⃗ we get the required magnetic field intensity due to
the direct current I.
To apply Ampere’s circuital law, the following conditions must be
satisfied,
1. The 𝐻 ⃗ is either tangential or normal to the path, at each point of the
closed path.
2. The magnitude of 𝐻 ⃗ must be same at all points of the path where 𝐻 ⃗ is
tangential.
Thus identifying symmetry and identifying the components of 𝐻 ⃗ present,
plays an important role while applying the Ampere’s circuital law.
3.3.3Applications of Ampere’s Circuital Law
Let us steady the various cases and the application of Ampere's circuital
law to obtain 𝐻 ⃗.

[Link] ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ due to Infinitely Long Straight Conductor
Consider an infinitely long straight conductor
placed along z-axis, carrying a direct current I as shown
in the Fig.3.3.2. Consider the Amperian closed path,
enclosing the conductor as shown in the Fig.3.3.2.
Consider point P on the closed path at which 𝐻 ⃗ is to be
obtained. The radius of the path is ρ and hence P is at a
perpendicular distance ρ from the conductor.
The magnitude of 𝐻 ⃗ depends on ρ and the direction is always tangential
⃗ has only component in 𝑎𝜙 direction.
to the closed path i.e. 𝑎𝜙 . So 𝐻

∴ ⃗ = 𝐻𝜙 𝑎𝜙 and 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑎𝜙

𝐻

∴ 𝐻⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐻𝜙 𝜌𝑑𝜙
According to Ampere’s circuital law,
 ⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐼
∮𝐻
𝐿
𝜙=2𝜋
∴ ∫ 𝐻𝜙 𝜌𝑑𝜙 = 𝐼
𝜙=0
∴ 𝐻𝜙 𝜌2𝜋 = 𝐼
𝐼
∴ 𝐻𝜙 =
2𝜋𝜌
⃗ at point P is given by,
Hence 𝐻
𝐻⃗ = 𝐻𝜙 𝑎𝜙 = 𝐼 𝑎𝜙 A/m……. (7)
2𝜋𝜌
⃗⃗⃗ due to a Co-axial Cable
[Link] 𝑯
Consider a co-axial cable as shown in the Fig.3.3.3. Its inner conductor is
solid with radius ‘a’, carrying direct current I. The outer conductor is in the form
of concentric cylinder whose inner radius is ‘b’ and outer radius is ‘c’. This cable
is placed along z axis. The current I is uniformly distributed in the inner
conductor. While - I is uniformly distributed in the outer conductor.

The space between inner and outer conductor is filled with dielectric say
⃗ is divided corresponding to various regions of the cable.
air. The calculation of 𝐻
Region 1: Within the inner conductor, ρ< a.
Consider a closed path having radius ρ < a. Hence
it encloses only part of the conductor as shown in the
Fig.3.3.4. The area of cross section enclosed is 𝜋ρ2 .The
total current flowing is I through the area 𝜋a2 . Hence the
current enclosed by the closed path is,
𝜋ρ2 ρ2
𝐼′ = 2
𝐼= 𝐼…… (8)
𝜋a a2
⃗ and 𝑑𝐿⃗ are again only 𝑎𝜙 direction and depends only on ρ.
The 𝐻
∴ ⃗ = 𝐻𝜙 𝑎𝜙 and 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑎𝜙
𝐻
∴ 𝐻⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐻𝜙 𝜌𝑑𝜙
According to Ampere’s circuital law,
⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝐼 ′
∮𝐻
𝐿
𝜙=2𝜋
ρ2
∴ ∫ 𝐻𝜙 𝜌𝑑𝜙 = 𝐼
𝜙=0 a2
ρ2
∴ 𝐻𝜙 𝜌2𝜋 = 2 𝐼
a
𝐼𝜌
∴ 𝐻𝜙 =
2𝜋𝑎2
⃗ at point P is given by,
Hence 𝐻
⃗ = 𝐻𝜙 𝑎𝜙 = 𝐼𝜌 2 𝑎𝜙 A/m……. (9)
𝐻
2𝜋𝑎
Region2: Within 𝒂 < 𝝆 < 𝒃
Consider a circular path which encloses the inner conductor carrying direct
⃗ in
current I. This is the case of infinitely long conductor along z-axis. Hence 𝐻
this region is,
⃗ = 𝐼 𝑎𝜙 A/m……. (10)
𝐻
2𝜋𝜌
Region3: Within 𝒃 < 𝝆 < 𝒄
Consider a circular path as shown in Fig.
3.3.5. The current enclosed by the closed path is
only the part of current – 𝐼, in the outer conductor.
The total conductor – 𝐼 is flowing through the
cross section 𝜋(𝑐 2 − 𝑏 2 ) while the closed path
encloses the cross section 𝜋(𝜌2 − 𝑏 2 ).
Hence the current enclosed by the closed
path of outer conductor is,
𝜋(𝜌2 −𝑏2 ) (𝜌2 −𝑏2 )
𝐼′ = (−𝐼) = − 𝐼…… (11)
𝜋(𝑐 2 −𝑏2 ) (𝑐 2 −𝑏2 )
Key Point: Note that the closed path also encloses the inner conductor hence the
current I flowing through it.
∴ 𝐼 ′′ = 𝐼 =Current in inner conductor enclosed …... (12)
Total current enclosed by the closed path is,
′ ′′
(𝜌2 − 𝑏 2 )
𝐼 =𝐼 +𝐼 =− 2 𝐼+𝐼
(𝑐 − 𝑏 2 )
(𝜌2 − 𝑏 2 ) (𝑐 2 − 𝜌2 )
= 𝐼 [1 − 2 ] = 𝐼[ 2 ]
(𝑐 − 𝑏 2 ) (𝑐 − 𝑏 2 )
The 𝐻 ⃗ and 𝑑𝐿⃗ are again only 𝑎𝜙 direction and depends only on ρ.
∴ ⃗ = 𝐻𝜙 𝑎𝜙 and 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑎𝜙
𝐻

∴ 𝐻⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐻𝜙 𝜌𝑑𝜙
According to Ampere’s circuital law,
⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐
∮𝐻
𝐿
𝜙=2𝜋 (𝑐 2 − 𝜌2 )
∴ ∫ 𝐻𝜙 𝜌𝑑𝜙 = [ 2 ]𝐼
𝜙=0 (𝑐 − 𝑏 2 )
(𝑐 2 − 𝜌2 )
∴ 𝐻𝜙 𝜌2𝜋 = [ 2 ]𝐼
(𝑐 − 𝑏 2 )
(𝑐 2 − 𝜌2 ) 𝐼
∴ 𝐻𝜙 = [ 2 ]
(𝑐 − 𝑏 2 ) 2𝜋𝜌
⃗ at point P is given by,
Hence 𝐻
2 2
⃗ = 𝐻𝜙 𝑎𝜙 = 𝐼 [(𝑐 2−𝜌2 )] 𝑎𝜙 A/m……. (13)
𝐻 (𝑐
2𝜋𝜌 −𝑏)
Region 4 : Outside the cable, 𝝆 > c.
Consider the closed path with 𝜌 > 𝑐 such that it encloses both the
conductors i.e. both currents + 𝐼 and − 𝐼.
Thus the total current enclosed is,
𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = +𝐼 − 𝐼 = 0𝐴
∴ ⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 0 (as 𝜌 > 𝑐)
∮𝐿 𝐻 Ampere’s circuital law
⃗ against 𝜌
The magnetic field does not exist outside the cable. The variation of 𝐻
is shown in the Fig.3.3.6.
[Link] 𝑯⃗⃗⃗ due to Infinite Sheet of Current
Consider an infinite sheet of current in the 𝑧 = 0 plane. The surface
current density is 𝐾 ⃗ . The current is flowing in positive y direction hence 𝐾⃗ =
𝐾𝑦 𝑎𝑦 . This is shown in the Fig.3.3.7.
Consider a closed path 1-2-3-4 as shown
in Fig.3.3.7. The width of the path is ‘b’ while
the height is ‘a’. It is perpendicular to the
direction of current hence in xz plane.
The current flowing across the distance b
is given by 𝐾𝑦 𝑏.
𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝐾𝑦 𝑏…….. (14)
Consider the magnetic lines of force due to the current in 𝑎𝑦 direction,
according to right hand thumb rule. These are shown in the Fig. 3.3.8.

In Fig.3.3.8 (b), it is clear that in between two very closely spaced

conductors, the components of 𝐻 ⃗ in z direction are oppositely directed (−𝐻𝑧 , for
position 1 and +𝐻𝑧 in for position 2 between the two positions). All such
components cancel each other and hence 𝐻 ⃗ cannot have any component in z
direction. As current is flowing in y direction, 𝑯 ⃗⃗⃗ can not have component in
y direction.
So 𝐻⃗ has only component in x direction.
∴ 𝐻⃗ = 𝐻𝑥 𝑎𝑥 ….for 𝑧 > 0 ………(15(a))
= −𝐻𝑥 𝑎𝑥 ….for 𝑧 < 0 ………(15(b))
Applying Ampere’s circuit law,
⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐
∮𝐻
𝐿
Evaluate the integral along the path 1-2-3-4-1.
For path 1-2, 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝑑𝑧𝑎𝑧
 For path 3-4, 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝑑𝑧𝑎𝑧
⃗ is in x direction while 𝑎𝑥 . 𝑎𝑧 = 0
But 𝐻
⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 0.
Hence along the paths 1-2 and 3-4, the integral ∮𝐿 𝐻
Consider path 2-3 along which 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝑑𝑥𝑎𝑥 .
3
∴ ⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ = ∫3 −𝐻𝑥 𝑎𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥𝑎𝑥 = 𝐻𝑥 ∫3 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑏𝐻𝑥
∫2 𝐻 2 2
The path 2-3 is lying in 𝑧 < 0 region for which 𝐻 ⃗ is −𝐻𝑥 𝑎𝑥 . And limits
from 2 to 3, positive x to negative x hence effective sign of the integral is positive.
Consider path 4-1 along which 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝑑𝑥𝑎𝑥 and it is in the region 𝑧 > 0
⃗ = 𝐻𝑥 𝑎𝑥 .
hence 𝐻
1
∴ ∫ 𝐻 ⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ = ∫1 𝐻𝑥 𝑎𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥𝑎𝑥 = 𝐻𝑥 ∫1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑏𝐻𝑥
4 4 4
∴ ⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝑏𝐻𝑥 + 𝑏𝐻𝑥 = 2𝑏𝐻𝑥 …………. (16)
∮𝐿 𝐻
Equating this to 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 in equation (14),
2𝑏𝐻𝑥 = 𝐾𝑦 𝑏
1
∴ 𝐻𝑥 = 𝐾𝑦
2
Hence, ⃗ = 1 𝐾𝑦 𝑎𝑥
𝐻 for 𝑧 > 0……….. (17(a))
2
1
= − 𝐾𝑦 𝑎𝑥 for 𝑧 < 0……….. (17(b))
2
⃗ A/m we can write,
In general, for an infinite sheet of current density 𝐾
1
𝐻⃗ = 𝐾 ⃗ × 𝑎𝑁 …… (18)
2
Where 𝑎𝑁 = Unit vector normal from the current sheet to the point
⃗ is to be obtained.
at which 𝐻
3.4 Magnetic Flux and Flux Density
The magnetic flux density 𝐵 ⃗ is analogous to the electric flux density 𝐷
⃗ . The
relation between 𝐵 ⃗ and 𝐻
⃗ is already mentioned, which is through the property of
medium called permeability µ. The relation is given by,
𝐵⃗ = 𝜇𝐻 ⃗ ……. (1)
For the free space, 𝜇 = 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 H/m hence,
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐻
𝐵 ⃗ for free space……… (2)
The magnetic flux density has units Wb/m2 and hence it can be defined as
the flux in webers passing through unit area in a plane at right angle to the
direction of flux.
 If the flux passing through the unit area is not exactly at right angles to the
plane consisting the area but making some angle with the plane then the flux ϕ
crossing the area is given by,
ϕ = ∫𝑆 𝐵⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 weber ……. (3)
where ϕ = Magnetic flux in webers
⃗ = Magnetic flux density in Wb/m2 or Tesla (T)
𝐵
𝑑𝑆 =Open surface through which flux is passing.
Now consider a closed surface which is defining a certain volume. The
magnetic flux lines are always exist in the form of closed loop. Thus for a closed
surface the number of magnetic flux lines entering must be equal to the number
of magnetic flux lines leaving. The single magnetic pole cannot exist like a single
isolated charge. No magnetic flux can reside in a closed surface. Hence the
integral 𝐵⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 evaluated over a closed surface is always zero.
∴ ∮𝑆 𝐵⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 = 0…….. (4)
This is called law of conservation of magnetic flux or Gauss’s law in
integral form for magnetic fields.
Applying divergence theorem to equation (4),
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ (∇. 𝐵
∮𝑆 𝐵 ⃗ )𝑑𝑣………. (5)
𝑣
where dv = Volume enclosed by the closed surface.
But as dv is not zero, we can write,
⃗ = 0……… (6)
∇. 𝐵
The divergence of magnetic flux density is always zero. This is called
Gauss’s law in differential form for magnetic fields. This is another Maxwell's
equation.
3.5 Maxwell's Equations for Static Electromagnetic Fields
Let us summarize the Maxwell’s equations for static electric and magnetic
fields.

Maxwell’s equations in differential or point form

⃗ = 𝜌𝑣
1. ∇. 𝐷 Gauss’s law
2. ∇ × 𝐸⃗ = 0 Conservation of electric field
3. ∇ × 𝐻 ⃗ =𝐽 Ampere’s circuital law
⃗ =0
4. ∇. 𝐵 Single magnetic pole cannot exist i.e.
conservation of magnetic flux.
Table 3.1
The Maxwell's equations in integral form an be summarized as,
Maxwell’s equations in integral form
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑄
1. ∮𝑠𝐷 𝑣
2. ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 0
𝐿
⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ = ∫ 𝐽. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐼
3. ∮𝐿 𝐻 𝑆
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 = 0
4. ∮𝑆 𝐵
Table 3.2
3.6 Magnetic Scalar and Vector Potentials
In electrostatics, it is seen that there exists a scalar electric potential V
which is related to the electric field intensity 𝐸⃗ as 𝐸⃗ = −∇𝑉.
Is there any scalar potential in magnetostatics related to magnetic field
intensity 𝐻⃗ ?
In case of magnetic fields there are two types of potentials which can be
defined:
1. The scalar magnetic potential denoted as 𝑉𝑚 .
2. The vector magnetic potential denoted as 𝐴.
To define scalar and vector magnetic potentials, let us use two vector
identities which are listed as the properties of curl, earlier.
∇ × ∇𝑉 = 0, V = Scalar………... (1)
∇. (∇ × 𝐴) = 0, 𝐴 = Vector………… (2)
Every Scalar V and Vector 𝐴 must satisfy these identities.
3.6.1 Scalar Magnetic Potential
If 𝑉𝑚 is the scalar magnetic potential then it must satisfy the equation (1),
∴ ∇ × ∇𝑉𝑚 = 0……….. (3)
But the scalar magnetic potential is related to the magnetic field intensity 𝐻 ⃗ as,
⃗ = −∇𝑉𝑚 ………… (4)
𝐻
Using in equation (3),
∇ × −𝐻⃗ =0 ⃗ = 0 ……… (5)
i.e. ∇ × 𝐻
But ∇×𝐻 ⃗ = 𝐽 i.e. 𝐽 = 0……… (6)
Thus scalar magnetic potential 𝑽𝒎 can be defined for source free
region where 𝑱 i.e. current density is zero.
∴ ⃗ = −∇𝑉𝑚 only for 𝐽 = 0……… (7)
𝐻
Similar to the relation between 𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗ and electric scalar potential, magnetic
scalar potential can be expressed in terms of 𝐻 ⃗ as,
𝑏
𝑉𝑚 𝑎,𝑏 = − ∫ 𝐻 ⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ …… Specific path
𝑎
3.6.2 Laplace's Equation for Scalar Magnetic Potential
It is known that as monopole of magnetic field is non existing,
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 = 0……… (8)
∮𝑆 𝐵
Using Divergence theorem,
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 = ∫(∇. 𝐵
∮𝐵 ⃗ )𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝑆 𝑣
∴ ⃗ = 0 as 𝑑𝑣 ≠ 0…….. (9)
∇. 𝐵
∴ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0 but 𝜇0 ≠ 0
∇. (𝜇0 𝐻)
∴ ⃗ =0
∇. 𝐻
∴ ∇. (−∇𝑉𝑚 ) = 0
∴ ∇2 𝑉𝑚 = 0 for 𝐽 = 0…….. (10)
This is Laplace’s equation for scalar magnetic potential. This is similar to
the Laplace’s equation for scalar electric potential ∇2 𝑉 = 0 .
3.6.3 Vector Magnetic Potential
The vector magnetic potential is denoted as 𝐴 and measured in Wb/m. lt
has to satisfy equation (2) that divergence of a curl of a vector is always zero.
∴ ∇. (∇ × 𝐴) = 0, 𝐴 = Vector magnetic potential
But ⃗ = 0 ... from equation (9)
∇. 𝐵
∴ ⃗ = ∇ × 𝐴……… (11)
𝐵
Thus curl of vector magnetic potential is the flux density.
Now ∇×𝐻 ⃗ =𝐽
⃗
𝐵
∴ ∇× =𝐽 as ⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐻
𝐵 ⃗
𝜇0
∴ ∇×𝐵 ⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽
∴ ∇ × (∇ × 𝐴) = 𝜇0 𝐽 ⃗ =∇×𝐴
as 𝐵
Using vector identity to express left hand side we can write,
∇(∇. 𝐴) − ∇2 𝐴 = 𝜇0 𝐽………. (12)
 1 1
∴ 𝐽=
𝜇0
[∇ × ∇ × 𝐴] = 𝜇 [∇(∇. 𝐴) − ∇2 𝐴]……… (13)
0

Thus if vector magnetic potential is known then current density 𝐽 can be

obtained. For defining 𝐴 the current density need not be zero.
3.6.4 Poisson's Equation for Magnetic Field
In a vector algebra, a vector can be fully defined if its curl and divergence
are defined. For a vector magnetic potential 𝐴, its curl is defined as ∇ × 𝐴 = 𝐵 ⃗
which is known.
But to completely define 𝐴 its divergence must be known. Assume that
∇. 𝐴, the divergence of 𝐴 is zero. This is consistent with some other conditions to
be studied later in time varying magnetic fields. Using in equation (13),
1
𝐽 = [−∇2 𝐴]
𝜇0
2
∇ 𝐴 = −𝜇0 𝐽……… (14)
This is the Poisson's equation for magnetostatic fields.
3.6.5 𝑨⃗⃗ due to Differential Current Element
Consider the differential element 𝑑𝐿⃗ carrying current I. Then according to
Biot-Savart law the vector magnetic potential 𝐴 at a distance R from the
differential current element is given by,
⃗
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝐿
𝐴 = ∮𝐿 Wb/m……… (15)
4𝜋𝑅
For the distributed current sources, 𝐼𝑑𝐿⃗ can be replaced by 𝐾
⃗ 𝑑𝑆 where 𝐾
⃗
is surface current density.
⃗ 𝑑𝑆
𝜇0 𝐾
𝐴 = ∮𝑆 Wb/m……… (16)
4𝜋𝑅
The line integral becomes a surface integral. If the volume current density𝐽
is given in A/m2 then 𝐼𝑑𝐿⃗ can be replaced by𝐽𝑑𝑣 where 𝑑𝑣 is differential volume
element.
𝜇0 𝐽𝑑𝑣
𝐴 = ∮𝑣 Wb/m……… (17)
4𝜋𝑅
It can be noted that,
1. The zero reference for 𝐴 is at infinity.
2. No finite current can produce the contributions as 𝑅 → ∞.
3.7 Force on a Moving Point Charge
According to the discussion in the previous chapters, a static electric field
𝐸⃗ exerts a force on a static or moving charge Q. Thus according to Coulomb's
law, the force 𝐹𝑒 exerted on an electric charge can be obtained. The force is related
to the electric field intensity 𝐸⃗ as,
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑄𝐸⃗ Newton ……. (1)
For a positive charge, the force exerted on it is in the direction of 𝐸⃗ . This
force is also referred as electric force (𝑭⃗ 𝒆 ).
Now consider that a charge is placed in a steady magnetic field. It
experiences a force only if it is moving. Then a magnetic force (𝐹𝑚 ) exerted on a
charge Q, moving with a velocity 𝑣 in a steady magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ is given by,
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑄(𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗ ) Newton ……. (2)
The magnitude of the magnetic force 𝐹𝑚 is directly proportional to the
magnitudes of Q, 𝑣 and 𝐵 ⃗ and also the sine of the angle between 𝑣 and 𝐵 ⃗ . The
direction of 𝐹𝑚 is perpendicular to the plane containing 𝑣 and 𝐵 ⃗ both, as shown
in the Fig. 3.7.1.
 The total force on a moving charge in the presence of both electric and
magnetic fields is given by,
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑒 + 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑄(𝐸⃗ + 𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗ ) Newton…… (3)
Above equation is called Lorentz Force Equation which relates
mechanical force to the electrical force. If the mass of the charge is m, then we
can write,
⃗
𝑑𝑣
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 = 𝑄(𝐸⃗ + 𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗ ) Newton…… (4)
𝑑𝑡
3.8 Magnetic Boundary Conditions
The conditions of the magnetic field existing at the boundary of the two
media when the magnetic field passes from one medium to other are called
boundary conditions for magnetic fields or simply magnetic boundary
conditions. To study conditions of 𝐵⃗ and 𝐻⃗ at the boundary, both the vectors are
resolved into two components ;
a) Tangential to boundary and
b) Normal (perpendicular) to boundary.
Consider a boundary between two isotropic, homogeneous linear materials
with different permeabilities 𝜇1 and 𝜇2 as shown in the Fig.3.8.1. To determine
the boundary conditions, let us use the closed path and the Gaussian surface.

3.8.1 Boundary Conditions for Normal Component

To find the normal component of 𝐵 ⃗ , select a closed Gaussian surface in the
form of a right circular cylinder as shown in the Fig.3.8.1. Let the height of the
cylinder be ∆ℎ and be placed in such a way that ∆ℎ/2 is in medium 1 and
remaining ∆ℎ/2 is in medium 2. Also the axis of the cylinder is in the normal
direction to the surface.
According to the Gauss’s law for the magnetic field,
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 = 0……… (1)
∮𝑆 𝐵
The surface integral must be evaluated over three surfaces, (i) Top, (ii)
Bottom and (iii) Side.
 Let the area of the top and bottom is same, equal to ∆𝑆.
∴ ⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 + ∮
∮𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝐵 ⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 + ∮ 𝐵
𝐵 ⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 = 0……. (2)
𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
As we are very much interested in the boundary conditions, reduce ∆ℎ to
zero. As ∆ℎ → 0 , the cylinder tends to boundary and only top and bottom
surfaces contribute in the surface integral. Thus surface integrals are calculated
for top and bottom surfaces only. These surfaces are very small. Let the
magnitude of normal component of 𝐵 ⃗ be 𝐵
⃗ 𝑁1 and 𝐵⃗ 𝑁2 in medium 1 and medium
2 respectively. As both the surfaces are very small, we can assume 𝐵 ⃗ 𝑁1 and 𝐵
⃗ 𝑁2
constant over their surfaces. Hence we can write,
For top surfaces:
∮𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝐵⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 = ∮ 𝐵 ⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 = |𝐵 ⃗ 𝑁1 |∆𝑆….. (3)
𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑁1
For bottom surface:
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 = ∮
∮𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝐵 ⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 = −|𝐵
𝐵 ⃗ 𝑁2 |∆𝑆……….. (4)
𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑁2
For side surface
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 = 0 ……… (5)
∮𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐵
Putting values of surface integrals in equation (2), we get
|𝐵⃗ 𝑁1 |∆𝑆 − |𝐵⃗ 𝑁2 |∆𝑆 = 0
∴ |𝐵⃗ 𝑁1 | = |𝐵
⃗ 𝑁2 | ………. (6)
Note that the negative sign is used for one of the surface integrals because
normal component of surface in medium 2 is opposite to the normal component
of surface in medium 1.
Thus the normal component of B is continuous at the boundary. As the
magnetic flux density and the magnetic field intensity are related by
⃗ = 𝜇𝐻
𝐵 ⃗
Thus. equation (6) can be written as,
⃗ 𝑁1 = 𝜇2 𝐻
𝜇1 𝐻 ⃗ 𝑁2
⃗ 𝑁1
𝐻 𝜇1 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟1 𝜇𝑟1
∴ ⃗ 𝑁2
= = = …….. (7)
𝐻 𝜇2 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟2 𝜇𝑟2
Hence the normal component of 𝐻 ⃗ is not continuous at the boundary. The
field strengths in two media are inversely proportional to their relative
permeabilities.
3.8.2 Boundary Conditions for Tangential Component
According to Ampere’s circuital law,
⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐼 ……… (9)
∮𝐿 𝐻
Consider a rectangular closed path abcda as shown in the Fig. 3.8.1. It is
traced in clockwise direction as a-b-c-d-a. This closed path is placed in a plane
normal to the boundary surface. Hence ∮𝐿 𝐻 ⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ can be divided into 6 parts.
 ⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐼 = ∫𝑏 𝐻
∮𝐿 𝐻 ⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ + ∫2 𝐻⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ + ∫𝑐 𝐻
⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ + ∫𝑑 𝐻
⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ + ∫1 𝐻
⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ +
𝑎 𝑏 2 𝑐 𝑑
𝑎
∫ 𝐻⃗ . 𝑑𝐿⃗ ………. (10)
1

From the Fig. 3.8.1 it is clear that, the closed path is placed in such a way
that its two sides a-b and c-d are parallel to the tangential direction to the surface
while the other two sides are normal to the surface at the boundary. This closed
path is placed in such a way that half of its portion is in medium 1 and the
remaining is in medium 2. The rectangular path is an elementary rectangular path
with elementary height ∆ℎ and elementary width ∆𝑤. Thus over small width ∆𝑤,
𝐻⃗ can be assume constant say 𝐻 ⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛1 in medium 1 and 𝐻 ⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 in medium 2.
Similarly, over a small height ∆ℎ/2, 𝐻 ⃗ can be assumed constant say 𝐻 ⃗ 𝑁1 in
medium 1 and 𝐻 ⃗ 𝑁2 in medium 2. Now assume that 𝐾 ⃗ is the surface current. Thus
equation (10) can be written as,
𝐼 = |𝐾 ⃗ |∆𝑤 = |𝐻⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛1 |∆𝑤 + |𝐻⃗ 𝑁1 | ∆ℎ + |𝐻
⃗ 𝑁2 | ∆ℎ − |𝐻
⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 |∆𝑤 − |𝐻⃗ 𝑁2 | ∆ℎ −
2 2 2
∆ℎ
⃗ 𝑁1 |
|𝐻 …… (11)
2
To get conditions at boundary, ∆ℎ → 0. Thus,
⃗ |∆𝑤 = |𝐻
|𝐾 ⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛1 |∆𝑤 − |𝐻 ⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 |∆𝑤
⃗ | = |𝐻
|𝐾 ⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛1 | − |𝐻⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 |…….. (12)
In vector form, we can express above relation by a cross product as
𝐻⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛1 − 𝐻
⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 = 𝑎𝑁12 × 𝐾⃗ ……… (13)
Where 𝑎𝑁12 is the unit vector in the direction normal at the boundary from
medium 1to medium 2.
For 𝐵⃗ the tangential components can be related with permeabilitis of two
media using equation (12),
⃗ ⃗
⃗ | = |𝐵𝑡𝑎𝑛1| − |𝐵𝑡𝑎𝑛2|…… (14)
|𝐾 𝜇 1 𝜇 2
 Consider a special case that the boundary is free of current. In other words,
media are not conductors; so K = 0. Then equation (12) becomes
⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛1 | − |𝐻
|𝐻 ⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 | = 0….. (15)
For tangential components of 𝐵 ⃗ we can write,
⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛1 | |𝐵
|𝐵 ⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 |
− =0
𝜇1 𝜇2
⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛1 |
|𝐵 𝜇1 𝜇𝑟1
∴ ⃗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 |
= = ………… (16)
|𝐵 𝜇2 𝜇𝑟2

Let the fields make angles 𝛼1 and 𝛼2

with the normal to the interface as shown in the
Fig.3.8.2. In-terms of angle 𝛼1 and 𝛼2 , we can
write relationship between normal components
⃗.
of 𝐵
In medium 1,
𝐵𝑡𝑎𝑛1
tan 𝛼1 = ……. (17)
𝐵𝑁1

Similarly, in medium 2,
𝐵𝑡𝑎𝑛2
tan 𝛼2 = ……. (18)
𝐵𝑁2
Dividing equation (17) by equation (18)
tan 𝛼1 𝐵𝑡𝑎𝑛1 𝐵𝑁2
= ×
tan 𝛼2 𝐵𝑁1 𝐵𝑡𝑎𝑛2
As we know, 𝐵𝑁1 = 𝐵𝑁2 ,
tan 𝛼1 𝐵𝑡𝑎𝑛1 𝜇𝑟1
= =
tan 𝛼2 𝐵𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜇𝑟2