GRACELAND COLLEGE, ENUGU

NOTE OF LESSON FOR FIRST TERM

SUBJECT: CHEMISTRY

CLASS: 10TH GRADE

INSTRUCTOR: MR. OGBONNA FELIX C.

NAME OF STUDENT: ………………………………………………………….

CLASS: ………………………………………………………………………………….
DATE: ……………………………………………………………………………………
SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK TOPIC CONTENT

1 Introduction to Chemistry Meaning of Chemistry; Career prospects tied to
chemistry; Uses of Chemistry; Adverse effects of
chemistry. Scientific method.
2 Chemical Industry Definition, heavy chemicals, fine chemicals. Types of
chemical industry; Importance of chemical industry.
3 Nature of Matter Physical and chemical changes. Elements,
Compounds and Mixtures.
4 Separation Techniques Methods of separating mixtures; criteria for purity.
5 Particulate Nature of Matter Atoms, molecules and ions. Sub-atomic particles;
structure of the atom. Dalton’s atomic theory.
Relative atomic mass, relative molecular mass;
Isotopes.
6 Electronic Configuration The four quantum numbers; Electronic configuration
of the first 30 elements, using s,p,d, notation.
7 Mid Term Break
8 Symbols, Formulae and Empirical and molecular formulae of compounds;
Equations molar mass, percentage composition. Writing and
balancing of chemical equations.
9 Laws of Chemical Combination Laws of conservation of matter, constant
composition, multiple proportions.
10 Chemical Bonding Types of bonds: Electrovalent, ordinary covalent,
Dative; intermolecular bonds, metallic bonds.
11 Shapes of Substances Linear molecules, non-linear molecules, tetrahedral
molecules, ionic lattice, molecular solids, layer lattice.
12 Revision/Examination
WEEK 1

TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

Learning Goals: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of Chemistry;
2. Mention career prospects tied to chemistry;
3. State the uses of Chemistry;
4. Highlight the adverse effects of chemistry;
5. Explain scientific method.

Note
Meaning of Chemistry
Chemistry is defined as the branch of science that deals with the study of matter, its properties,
composition and uses.
Our world is made up of matter; we study chemistry to acquire knowledge about matter. We perform
experiments and learn to observe, record and make intelligent inferences. This knowledge will help us to
become scientists in the field of chemistry. Such scientists are known as chemists.

Careers in Chemistry
1. Teaching service: chemistry teachers and lecturers.
2. Health services: pharmacists, biochemists, chemists, doctors, nurses, laboratory assistants, etc.
3. Food processing: food technologists, research chemists.
4. Petroleum and petrochemical industries: research chemists, chemical engineers, etc.
5. Others can be found in manufacturing industry, extractive industry, agriculture, forestry.

Uses of Chemistry
Chemistry has contributed greatly towards improving the quality of our life. This can be found in the
areas of food, clothing, housing, medicine, transportation.
1. Food: Fertilizers and insecticides have helped to increase food production.
2. Clothing: Man-made textile fibres produced as a result of intensive chemical research are now
available.
3. Housing: Cement, concrete, steel, are produced by chemical industries.

Adverse Effects of Chemistry

Chemical processes and products have affected our life adversely.
1. Pollution: oil spillage, exhaust fumes from vehicles, acid rain.
2. Drug Abuse: Cocaine, heroine, morphine are addictive.
3. Corrosion of iron: rusting requires water and oxygen.

Scientific Method
Over the years, chemistry as well as all other field of science has developed through a series of
discoveries. How do scientists make these discoveries?
Scientists are very alert and inquisitive. They use their senses to observe what is happening around
them. From a given set of observation, they see a certain pattern. This often leads to a problem which
they try to solve. They put up hypothesis, carryout experiments, and if positive, it becomes a theory and
when extensively tested, it becomes a scientific law or principle. This way of studying a problem is
known as scientific method. It is the very foundation of all scientific research.
Observation → Hypothesis → Experiments → Theory → Scientific law or Principle.

Activity 1
1. Define chemistry.
2. Mention two careers that require the study of chemistry.
3. State two uses of chemistry.

Assignment
1. Using a flow chart, show scientific method.
2. Name 10 scientists (chemists) and their discoveries.
WEEK 2
TOPIC: CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
Learning Goals: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Define chemical industry, heavy chemicals and fine chemicals;
2. Explain types of chemical industry;
3. State the importance of chemical industry.

Note
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
Chemical industry is defined as the industry that uses chemistry to make chemicals from other chemical
substances.
The chemical industry is founded on a wide variety of raw materials e.g. coal, molasses, salts, mineral
ores, water, air, fats and oil, and petroleum.

Heavy Chemicals
Heavy chemicals are chemicals that are produced in very large quantities because of their extensive use
in all the categories of the chemical industry. E.g. H2SO4, NaOH, NH3.
H2SO4 is the most useful chemical that the chemical industry makes. It is used in making fertilizers and
cleansing steel.
NaOH is used for making soap and other things.
NH3 is used also to make fertilizers.
Other heavy chemicals are HNO3, HCl, KOH, Na2CO3, CaO, CaCO3, iron, tin, aluminium, copper, zinc, coke,
coal tar, chlorine, nitrogen, hydrogen, gaseous hydrocarbons.

Fine Chemicals
Drugs and chemicals produced in relatively small amounts are referred to as fine chemicals. These are
also produced to a very high degree of purity.
Other examples are perfumes, dyes, photographic reagents, cosmetics, laboratory reagents.

Types of Chemical Industry

1. Fertilizers—are needed to increase farm produce. The three important elements in fertilizers are
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, (NPK). Nitrogen is supplied mainly in the form of ammonia,
phosphorus is obtained in nature as rock phosphorus; potassium is got from deposits of its salts. H2SO4 is
also used.

2. Plastics—the major raw materials for the production of plastics are obtained from petrochemicals.
Ethene is used to produce polythene, the commonest plastic. Ethyne is used to produce polyvinyl
chloride, PVC, a plastic. Plastics are used to produce chairs, tables, plates, tanks, casing for radio and TV
sets, etc

3. Pharmaceuticals—the industry deals with the manufacture and sales of drugs under strict
regulations. Most of the drugs are organic compounds, while others are inorganic. E.g. anaesthetics—
trichloromethane; antiseptic—dettol. Aspirin is the most common and popularly used drug, it was
discovered in coal tar.

4. Food and Beverages—food processing is biochemical. Additives, such as preservatives and flavours
are usually included in such food. The fermentation process is usually employed in the brewery for the
production of alcoholic drinks, e.g. wine and beer.
5. Metallurgy—it is a chemical process whereby metals are extracted from their ores, refined and then
processed for industrial use. Coke is one of the raw materials used as the reducing agent. Alloys are
developed from these metals for specific purposes.

6. Glass—the main raw marerials used in the glass industry are sand, SiO2, soda, Na2CO3, limestone,
CaCO3 and lime CaO. They are heated in a furnace. To obtain coloured glass, small quantities of oxides of
transition metals are added. Mirrors, drinking glasses, lenses, lab glass ware are all made of glass.

7. Cement—it is obtained by heating a mixture of limestone and clay. Cement is generally used in
binding stones and bricks together; in the construction of buildings, dams, bridges.

8. Paints—paints is a liquid mixture with pigment in suspension. The raw materials include oxides of
lead and zinc—the pigments. The solvents, binders and additives are obtained from petrochemicals.
Paints are chiefly applied to give beautiful appearances and protect the surfaces from moisture,
weathering and chemical damages.

9. Soaps and Detergents—vegetable oils (e.g. palm kernel oil) and alkalis (KOH and NaOH) are raw
materials for making soaps. Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents; the raw materials are derived
from petrochemicals. They are all used for washing and cleaning.

10. Ceramics—the raw materials are mainly clay and oxides of magnesium, thorium, titanium and
boron. Few parts of rockets and aircrafts (e.g. heat resistant windows are ceramics).

11. Textiles—deals with the production of fabrics and other woven materials, which can be used in
cloth making. The main source of raw materials used to be cotton, silk and wool.

Importance of Chemical Industry

1. Provide earnings from foreign trade (when raw materials and products are exported to other
countries).
2. Improve the standard of living by providing many materials for domestic use.
3. Provide employment.

Activity 1
1. Define chemical industry.
2. What is meant by ‘heavy chemicals’ and ‘fine chemicals’?
3. Mention three types of chemical industries.

Assignment
1. List four naturally occurring industrial raw materials.
2. Name four heavy chemicals, and state the reason why they are called heavy chemicals.
3. Name two types of chemical industry that use limestone as raw material.
4. Name one industry that uses the process of fermentation in its operation.
5. Mention one heavy chemical commonly used as the raw material in each of the following industries.
(a) soap industry
(b) plastic industry
(c) glass industry
6. State two importance of chemical industry.
WEEK 3
TOPIC: NATURE OF MATTER
Learning Goals: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Define matter;
2. State the properties of matter;
3. Define physical and chemical changes and their examples;
4. Classify matter into elements, compounds and mixtures.

Note
MATTER
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Examples of matter include plants, animals, food
we eat, etc.
Matter can exist in three physical states—solid, liquid and gas. It can change from one state to another.
e.g. ice → water → steam

Properties of Matter
Matter has two types of properties: physical and chemical.

Physical Properties of matter

These are properties associated with physical changes. Examples includes its boiling point, melting point,
density, hardness, malleability, crystalline form, colour, odour and taste.

Chemical Properties of matter

These are those properties which are involved when matter undergoes a change to form new
substances. e.g. rusting of iron; rusting is a chemical process.

Physical and chemical changes

Matter undergoes changes. These changes may be temporary and easily reversible or they may be
permanent and very difficult to reverse.

A physical change is one which is easily reversed and in which no new substances are formed. e.g.
1. Changes in the states of matter
2. The separation of mixtures
3. The magnetization and demagnetization of iron rods.

A chemical change is one which is not easily reversed and in which new substances are formed. e.g.
1. Burning of substances.
2. The dissolution of metals and limestone in acids.
3. The rusting of iron.
4. The addition of water to quicklime, i.e. the slaking of lime.
5. Fermentation and decay of substances.
6. The changes in an electrochemical cell.

Activity
1. What is a chemical change? Give two examples.
2. Classify the following as physical or chemical change
(a) Melting of candle wax
 (b) Fermentation of wine
(c) Burning of paper
(d) Magnetization of iron rods

ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS and MIXTURES

Matter may be classified into elements, compounds and mixtures.

Element: An element is a substance which cannot be split into simpler units by an ordinary chemical
process. e.g. calcium, phosphorus, iron hydrogen, oxygen, etc. There are about 109 known elements,
ninety of them occur naturally, the rest are made artificially in the laboratory. Elements are grouped as
metals, semi-metals or metalloids and non-metals.

Elements and their Symbols

Elements are represented with chemical symbols. In some cases, the first letter of the name of an
element was taken as the symbol for the element, e.g. H for hydrogen, S for sulphur, C for carbon. Such
symbols are written in capitals. In case where the first letter had already been adopted, the initial letter
in capital and with a small letter from its name was used, e.g. Ca for calcium, Cl for chlorine, because C
had been used for carbon.
Others are Al for Aluminium, He for Helium, and Sr for Strontium. The symbols for some metals were
derived from their latin names in a similar way. e.g.

Element Latin name Symbol

Sodium Natrium Na
Potassium Kalium K
Iron Ferrum Fe
Copper Cuprum Cu
Silver Argentum Ag
Tin Stannum Sn
Gold Aurum Au
Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg
Lead Plumbum Pb

Compound: A compound is a substance which contains two or more elements chemically combined
together. e.g.
Compound Formula Components
Water H2O Hydrogen, oxygen
Sand SiO2 Silicon, oxygen
Limestone CaCO3 Calcium, carbon, oxygen
Common salt NaCl Sodium, chlorine
Sugar (sucrose) C12H22O11 Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Caustic soda NaOH Sodium, oxygen, hydrogen

Characteristics of a compound
1. The component element of a given compound are always present in a fixed ratio by mass.
2. An entirely new substance is formed.
3. The properties of the new substance are different from properties of the component elements.
Mixture: A mixture contains two or more constituents which can easily be separated by physical
methods. e.g.
Mixture Constituents
Brass Copper and zinc.
Air Oxygen, carbon(IV) oxide, nitrogen, rare gases, dust, moisture.
Soil Sand, clay, humus, water, air, mineral salts.
Urine Urea, water, mineral salts.
Milk Water, sugar, fat, proteins, mineral salts, vitamins.
Sea water Water, mineral salts, bacteria, remains of organic matter.
Crude oil Petrol, heavy oil, gas oil, kerosene, naphtha, bitumen, gas, etc.

Comparisons of Mixture and Compounds

Mixture Compound
1. It may be homogeneous or heterogeneous It is always homogeneous
2. The constituents are not chemically bound The component elements are chemically
together and can be separated by physical bound together and cannot be separated by
means. physical means.
3. The constituents can be added together in The components are present in a fixed ratio
any ratio and cannot be represented by a and can always be represented by a
chemical formula. chemical formula.
4. The properties of a mixture are the sum of The properties of a compound differ entirely
those of its individual constituents. from those of its component elements.

Activity
1. Define an element and give three examples.
2. Give the names of the elements with the following symbols
(a) Sn (b) Na (c) Hg (d) P
3. Name two compounds and write their formulae.
4. Mention two differences between a mixture and a compound.
WEEK 4
TOPIC: SEPARATION OF MIXTURES
Learning Goals: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Identify the various types of separating techniques used in separating mixtures;
2. Differentiate between the methods used in separation;
3. Identify the apparatus and the conditions by which the separation of the mixture could take place.
4. Explain criteria for purity of a substance.

Note
SEPARATION OF MIXTURES
In Chemistry, the separation of constituents of mixture involves the application of simple principles and
use of special pieces of apparatus.
There are different types of mixtures:
i. Mixture of a solid and liquid e.g. precipitates
ii. Mixture of a liquid and gas, e.g. carbonated drinks
iii. Mixture of a solid and solid, e.g. brass
iv. Mixture of a gas and gas, e.g. air
The technique employed in separating mixtures make use of the physical properties of their constituents
such as different densities, different solubilities and different boiling points.

Separating solids and liquids

There are three major methods used to separate mixtures of solids and liquids. They are:
i. Decantation ii. Filtration Evaporation
If the solid is soluble, decantation or filtration cannot be used, evaporation is used instead.
1. Decantation: the top liquid portion of the mixture is carefully poured out from the bottom solid
portion.
2. Filtration: insoluble particle are separated from liquids using a porous material like filter paper. The
liquid portion passes through the filter paper (filtrate), while the solid material remains on the filter
paper (residue). Industries such as water purification plants and breweries use filtration to remove solid
particles from liquids.

3. Evaporation to dryness: the mixture is heated so that the solvent escapes leaving behind the solute.
A water bath or a sand bath is used to bring about a steady rate of evaporation.
Separating solid and solid
The methods are: i. sieving ii. magnetic separation iii. sublimation
4. Sieving: used to separate solid particles of different sizes. A sieve with a mesh of a particular size
separates smaller particles of a mixture from the bigger ones.
Application: used in garri industries and mining industries (diamond and gold).
5. Magnetic separation: A magnet is used to separate magnetic substances from non-magnetic
particles. Application—used in steel industry and to remove magnetic impurities from tin ore.
6. Sublimation: some substances when heated change directly to gaseous state without passing
through the liquid state, e.g. iodine, ammonium chloride, naphthalene. These substances can be
separated from other solids by sublimation. They can also be purified industrially by the same method.

Separating liquid from liquid

i. Distillation ii. Fractional distillation iii. Separating funnel method
7. Distillation: is used to recover a solvent from a solution. It is also used for separation of miscible
liquids with widely differing boiling points. The solution is heated in a flask to vaporize the solvent. The
vapour is passed along a condenser and collected as the distillate in a receiver. It can be used to
separate a mixture of ethanol (78oC) and water (100oC).
Application: in gin distilleries and water distilleries for the manufacture of gin and distilled water
respectively.

8. Fractional distillation: used to separate a mixture of two or more miscible liquids whose boiling
points are close. In the laboratory, a fractional distillation apparatus contains the apparatus used in
simple distillation, in addition to a fractionating column.
Application: used in petroleum industry.
9. Separating funnel method: it is used to separate a mixture of two immiscible liquids, e.g. a mixture of
petrol and water. The lower denser liquid layer (water) is tapped off, leaving the upper less dense liquid
(petrol) in the funnel.

Separating soluble solid from liquid

i. Crystallization ii. Fractional crystallization iii. Precipitation also included here is evaporation.
10. Crystallization: is used to separate salts, which decompose easily on heating from their solutions.
The salt solution is first heated to evaporate some of the solvent. The solution becomes saturated.
When the saturated solution is cooled, crystals of the solute begin to form.
Application: used in the manufacture of drugs and in sugar production.
11. Fractional crystallization: is used to separate two or more solid solutes with different solubilities in
a particular solvent at a given temperature. During the cooling process, at a particular temperature,
crystals of the relevant solute will come out of solution, leaving behind the others which are still within
their limits of solubility.
12. Precipitation: a difference in the solubility of a solid in two different miscible liquids is used to
precipitate the solid where it is dissolve in one of them. E.g. a solution of FeSO4 in water can be
precipitated out by adding ethanol to the solution. The precipitate FeSO4 is then filtered off.

Other methods of separation are

13. Centrifugation: A centrifuge is a machine which can spin test tubes containing suspension at high
speed. The spinning causes heavier solid particles in the suspension to settle at the bottom of the test
tube, while the clear liquid can easily be decanted.
Application: in hospitals, blood samples are centrifuged to separate the blood cells from the plasma.
14. Floatation: is based on the wide difference in the densities of the components of the mixture, e.g.
coarse sand and wood particles in water.
15. Froth Flotation: it is specifically used to separate an ore of a metal from earthy impurities. The ore is
crushed into powder and then mixed with water containing detergent, in order to cause frothing
(foaming). Air is then blown into the mixture so that the earthy impurities sink, while the ore floats in
the foamy suspension and is then filtered off.
15. Chromatography: it is used to separate the various components of a solute, more especially
coloured substances using a solvent moving over a porous adsorbent medium (e.g. paper or gel). The
various types of chromatography are:
i. Gas chromatography—for the separation of complex gaseous mixtures.
ii. Column chromatography—for the separation of liquid extracts from leaves, flowers, and mixture of
proteins.
iii. Paper chromatography—for the separation of dyes and mixtures of coloured substances.
The basis of separation is due to the difference in the degree of adsorption of various substances in the
mixture by the stationary phase.
Test for Purity (Criteria for Purity)
The purity of a substance is ascertained by checking the boiling points if liquid, melting point if solid, and
also the density of the substance.
These values are compared with the various theoretical values.

Effects of Impurity on Substances

Impurity increases the boiling points of a liquid and decreases the melting point of a solid. For a
substance to be pure, the theoretical value of its density must be equal to its practical value.

Activity
1. List three separation techniques suitable for separating a mixture of a solid and a liquid.
2. Name three pieces of apparatus required for filtration.
3. Mention the most suitable technique for separating the following mixtures:
(a) oil and water
(b) fractions of petroleum

Assignment
1. Draw a laboratory set-up for (i) filtration.
(ii) simple distillation.
2. Outline how you would separate a mixture of sand and sodium chloride.
3. Mention three criteria for the purity of a substance.
WEEK 5
TOPIC: PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
Learning Goals: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Mention evidences of the particulate nature of matter
2. Define an atom, a molecules and an ion.
3. Explain Dalton’s atomic theory;
4. Explain the contributions of scientists to the discovery of the structure of the atom;
5. Draw the structure of the atom.
6. List the sub-atomic particles with their corresponding charges and masses;
7. Define atomic number, mass number and isotopy;
8. Define relative atomic mass;
9. Calculate the relative atomic mass of an element whose atom exists as isotopes;
10. Define relative molecular mass and solve calculations on it.

Note
Evidences of the Particulate Nature of Matter
Matter is made up of discreet particles—atoms, molecules and ions. Certain observations point to the
existence of these particles in matter.
1. Dissolution of solid in liquids—the disappearance of the solid shows that it is made up of tiny
particles.
2. Evaporation and sublimation—the departing liquid or solid shows us that they must be leaving as tiny
invisible particles.
3. Diffusion—the movement of gases show that the form of matter contain tiny mobile particles, since
we cannot see the moving gas.
4. Osmosis
5. Brownian motion
6. Tyndall effect
7. Chemical laws
8. Dilution of coloured solution.

ATOMS
An atom is the smallest particle of an element which can take part in a chemical reaction. E.g. Hydrogen
atom, 11H, oxygen atom 168O, etc.

MOLECULES
Most atoms cannot exist alone. They generally bond with other atoms to form molecules. Molecules
may be made up of atoms of the same element or of different element.
Definition: A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that can normally exist alone and still retain
the chemical properties of that substance, be it an element or a compound. E.g.
H + H → H2 (g)
1 atom 1 atom 1 molecule
A hydrogen molecule contains two hydrogen atoms.

An oxygen molecule contains two oxygen atoms

O + O → O2 (g)
1 atom 1 atom 1 molecule

A water molecule has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom joined together.
H2 + 1/2O2 → H2O
2 atoms 1 atom water molecule

The number of atoms in each molecule of an element is called the atomicity of the element.

Element Formula Atomicity

Neon Ne 1
Hydrogen H2 2
Oxygen O2 2
Ozone O3 3
Phos[horus P4 4
Sulphur S8 8

Phosphorus and sulphur are polyatomic elements.

IONS
Some substances are not built up of atoms or molecules, but are made up of charged particles called
ions. There are two types of ions, the positively charged ions (cations) and negatively charged ions
(anions). An ionic substance has the same number of positive and negative charges, so that it is
electrically neutral.
Definition: An ion is any atom or group of atoms which possesses an electric charge.
e.g. hydrogen ion, H+, oxide ion O2-, ammonium ion NH4+, tetraoxosulphate(VI) ion, SO42-
An ion is generally formed when a single atom or a group of atoms gains or loses electron(s).
e.g. H → H+ + e-
Ca → Ca2+ + 2e-
Cl + e- → Cl-

Activity
1. Mention two evidences that show that matter is made up of particles.
2. Define the following and give two examples of each
(i) atom (ii) molecule (iii) ion

DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

In 1808, John Dalton proposed the atomic theory which can be summarized as follows:
1. All element is made up of small, indivisible particles called atoms.
2. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed.
3. Atoms of the same element are alike in every aspect and differ from atoms of all other element.
4. When atoms combine with other atoms, they do so in simple ratios.
5. All chemical changes result from the combination or the separation of atoms.
Modifications of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. Atoms are indivisible—these are no longer accepted. Some atoms with unstable nuclei disintegrate
spontaneously emitting radioactive rays. E.g.
238
92U → 23490Th + 42He

2. Atoms of the same element are identical in mass—This has been disproved by the radioactive
isotopes. However, atoms of the same element are identical in their chemical properties, which is
determined by its atomic number and not mass number.
234
90U → 23491Th + 0-1e

3. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed—This has been disproved by radioactivity, in which some
heavy atoms disintegrate to give lighter atoms. This way, new light atoms are created, while heavy
atoms are destroyed.
4. Atoms combine in simple whole number ratios—This has been disproved by the existence of
polymers like polyethene, in which the combination of atoms are far from being simple.

Activity 2
1. State two postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory, and mention their modifications.

CONSTITUENTS OF THE ATOM

Atoms are made up of three particles—protons, neutrons and electrons. Few scientists worked on the
constituents of an atom and these were their findings:
1. Henri Becquerel (1896)—discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity. Atoms of uranium, thorium
and radium were able to emit particles smaller than themselves. These atoms are radioactive.

2. J. J. Thompson (1897)—also showed that the atom was not the smallest particle after all. He
discovered negatively charged particles which he called ‘corpuscles’ later known as electrons.

3. R. A. Millikan and Harvey Fletcher (1910)—through their famous oil-drop experiment, ascertained
and confirmed the charge on the electron.
For an atom to be electrically neutral, the negatively charged electrons must equal the positively
charged protons.
4. Lord Rutherford (1899)—found that when a radioactive element disintegrates, three types of
radiation are produced. Two of them were electrically charged (alpha rays, +ve, and beta rays, -ve) while
the third was uncharged (gamma rays).

5. Chadwick (1932)—discovered neutrons.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Lord Rutherford discovered the structure of an atom. He found out after his experiments that protons
and neutrons concentrated in the center of the nucleus, while electrons revolve round the nucleus. The
nucleus is positively charged and gives the whole mass of the atom, while electrons which have a very
small mass were negatively charged.
Properties of the three Particles of an Atom

Particle Relative mass Relative charge Position

Proton 1 +1 Nucleus
Neutron 1 0 Nucleus
Electron 1/1840 -1 Shell

Another scientist by name Niels Bohr in 1913 made significant contribution to the structure of the atom.
He suggested that the electrons of an atom revolve round the nucleus around a certain imaginary path
known as orbit or shells, situated at various distances from the nucleus. These shells are named K, L, M,
N, O, P, Q.

Activity
1. List three sub-atomic particles with their corresponding charges and masses.

ATOMIC NUMBER
The atomic number, Z, of an element is the number of protons in one atom of that element.
The atomic number is a basic property of an element. Therefore, all the atoms of a particular element
have the same number of protons in their nucleus. Elements can be arranged in series according to their
atomic number.

MASS NUMBER
The mass number, A, of an element is the sum of protons and neutrons in it.
An atom of an element can be represented as
A X where A = mass number
Z
Z = atomic number
X = symbol of the element
 1 16 23
Thus, an atom of hydrogen, oxygen and sodium can be written as 1H, 8O, 11Na
23
e.g. 11Na
Proton = 11
Electron = 11
Neutron = 12

To find neutron, A = P + N
23 = 11 + N
N = 23 – 11 = 12

Activity
1. Find the number of proton, electron and neutron in the following
(i) 11H, 21H, 31H (ii) 3517Cl, 3717Cl
2. What are nuclear particles?
3. The mass number of an element is 27 and its atomic number is 13. What is the composition of
(a) the nucleus of its atom (b) its atom.

ISOTOPY
Isotopy is a phenomenon whereby atoms of an element exhibit different mass numbers, but have the
same atomic number. This is as a result of differences in the number of neutrons present in these
atoms.

Isotopes are atoms of an element that have the same atomic number but different mass number,
because of the different number of neutrons present in them.
Isotopes of an element have slightly different physical properties, but exhibit the same chemical
properties. This is because the neutrons contribute only to the mass, which is a physical property of an
atom, not its chemical behavior.
Examples of elements that exhibit isotopy are:
Chlorine 3517Cl and 3717Cl
Oxygen 168O, 178O and 188O
Carbon 126C, and 136C
Copper 6329Cu, and 6729Cu

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

The relative atomic mass of an element is the mass of the element on a scale which assigned 12 units to
carbon-12.
Or
The relative atomic mass of an element is the ratio of the mass of an atom of the element and 1/12th of
the mass of carbon-12.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
i.e. RAM = 1
𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛−12
12

The relative atomic mass of an element has no unit because it is a ratio of two masses.
The mass spectrometer is an instrument used to determine the relative atomic mass of an element.
Difference between RAM and Mass number
The mass number of an atom is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons it contains, while the
relative atomic mass is a mass assigned to the atom which shows many times its atom is heavier or
lighter than the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
e.g. An atom with RAM of 24, is two times heavier than an atom of carbon-12.

Calculation of RAM of an Element whose Atom exist as Isotopes

The relative atomic masses of some elements are not whole numbers because their atoms exist as
isotopes. Their relative atomic masses can be calculated from the mass number of their isotopes and
their percentage abundances.
Examples
1. Chlorine exists as isotopes 3517Cl and 3717Cl with relative percentage abundance 75% and 25%
respectively. Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine.

Answer
RAM of chlorine = 35 × 75 % + 37 × 25%
75 25
= 35 × 100 + 37 × 100
= 35 × 0.75 + 37 × 0.25
= 26.25 + 9.25
= 35.5

2. Chlorine exists as two isotopes 3517Cl and 37

17Cl with relative abundance 3 : 1 What is the relative
atomic mass of chlorine?

Answer
Sum of ratio = 3 + 1 = 4
3 1
RAM of chlorine = 35 × + 37 ×
4 4
= 35 × 0.75 + 37 × 0.25
= 26.25 + 9.25
= 35.5

RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS

The relative molecular mass of an element or a compound is the number of times the average mass of
one molecule of it is heavier than one-twelfth the mass of one atom of carbon-12.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
i.e. RMM = 1
𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛−12
12

The relative molecular mass of an element or a compound is the sum of the relative atomic masses of all
the atoms in one molecule of that substance. It is also referred to as the formula mass.
Examples
1. Calculate the relative molecular mass of limestone, CaCO3. (Ca = 40, C = 12, O = 16)
Answer
RMM of CaCO3 = Ca + C + O x 3
= 40 + 12 + 16 x 3
= 100

2. Calculate the relative molecular mass of Ca(OH)2. (Ca = 40, O = 16, H = 1)

Answer
RMM of Ca(OH)2 = Ca + [ O + H] x 2
= 40 + [ 16 + 1] x 2
= 40 + 34
= 74
Activity
1. Name two elements that exhibit isotopy, and give the respective nuclear symbols of the isotopes.
2. Calculate the relative molecular mass of each of the following compounds:
(i) H2SO4 (ii) Pb(NO3)2 (iii) Na2CO3.10H2O
( H = 1, C = 12, N = 14, O = 16, Na = 23, S = 32, Pb = 207 )

Assignment
1. State two postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory and their modification.
2. Naturally occurring lithium has 90% 73Li and 10% 83Li. What is the relative atomic mass of lithium?
3. An element X with relative atomic mass of 16.2 contains isotopes 168X with relative abundance of 90%
and m8X with relative abundance of 10%. What is the value of m?
WEEK 6
TOPIC: ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

Learning Goals: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Define electronic configuration, and an atomic orbital;
2. Explain the four quantum numbers;
3. Write the electronic configuration of the first 30 elements, using s,p,d, notation;
4. State the rules/principles governing the filling of electrons;
5. Draw the shapes of orbitals.

Note
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
This is the arrangement of electrons in the atomic orbitals or energy levels of the atom.

Atomic orbitals are regions round the nucleus, where there is a probability of finding electron.

To predict how electrons are arranged in space, we have to examine the energy levels in the atom, this
is done by discussing the quantum numbers.

The FOUR Quantum Numbers

1. The Principal quantum number, n: It has integral values 1,2,3,4 represented by the letters K,L,M,N
shells respectively. It is called the main shells (energy levels), and the maximum possible number of
electrons in a shell is given by 2n2.
1st shell = 2 electrons
2nd shell = 8 electrons, etc.

2. The Subsidiary or azimuthal quantum number, l: It has integral values ranging from 0 to (n - 1).
L = 0, 1, 2, 3 representing s, p, d, f electrons respectively.
This quantum number shows how many sub-levels in each shell.

3. The Magnetic quantum number, M: It has integral values ranging from -1 through 0 to +1. It shows
the number of orbitals in each energy sub-level. Example, the p sub-shell has three orbitals.

4. The Spin quantum number, S: It has values –1/2 and + ½. An orbital can only hold two electrons
which spin on their axes in opposite directions.

Summary
Energy sub-level Number of orbitals Maximum No. of Shape of orbital
electrons
s 1 2 Spherical
p 3 6 Dumb-bell
d 5 10 Double dumb-bell
f 7 14 Complicated
 Element Electr. config. In shells Electr. Config in s,p,d notation
1H 1 1s1
2He 2 1s2
3Li 2, 1 1s2 2s1
4Be 2, 2 1s2 2s2
5B 2, 3 1s2 2s2 2p1
6C 2, 4 1s2 2s2 2p2
7N 2, 5 1s2 2s2 2p3
8O 2, 6 1s2 2s2 2p4
9F 2, 7 1s2 2s2 2p5
10Ne 2, 8 1s2 2s2 2p6
11Na 2, 8, 1 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
12Mg 2, 8, 2 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
13Al 2, 8, 3 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1

18Ar 2, 8, 8 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

19K 2, 8, 8, 1 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
20Ca 2, 8, 8, 2 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

Electronic configuration of the first 10 transition series

The mnemonics Sciti Vanacramn Ferro Conicuzn can help you recall the elements.
2 2 6 2 6 2 1
21Sc = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
2 2 6 2 6 2 2
22Ti = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
23V = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d3
2 2 6 2 6 1 5
24Cr = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
2 2 6 2 6 2 5
25Mn = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
2 2 6 2 6 2 6
26Fe = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
2 2 6 2 6 2 7
27Co = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
2 2 6 2 6 2 8
28Ni = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
2 2 6 2 6 1 10
29Cu = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
2 2 6 2 6 2 10
30Zn = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d

Activity
1. Define (i) Electronic configuration
(ii) An atomic orbital
2. List the four quantum numbers.
3. Which quantum number divides the sub-shells into orbitals.
4. Write the electronic configuration of the following elements
(i) Na (ii) Al (iii) Cl (iv) Ne (v) Sc (Vi) Cr (vii) Fe

Three Principles or Rules that Govern Electron Filling into orbitals

1. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle—states that two electrons in the same orbital cannot have same values
for all four quantum numbers.

2. Hund’s Rule of maximum multiplicity—states that electrons occupy each orbital singly first before
pairing takes place in a degenerate orbital.
3. Aufbau’s Principle—states that electrons are filled into orbitals in order of increasing energy.
Orbitals with lower ( n + l ) value fill first. In case where the ( n + l ) of orbitals are the same, the orbital
with lower n value fills first.

Shapes of Orbitals
s-orbital is spherical; p-orbital is dumb-bell; d is double dumb-bell.
Assignment
1. Arrange the following in order of increasing energy: 3d, 4s, 5p, 4d, 5s, 4p, 6s.
2. Write the electronic configuration of (i) Cu (ii) Cu+ (ii) Cu2+
3a. Write the electronic configuration of Fe
b. How many unpaired electrons are in the 3d orbital of Fe.

WEEK 7 MID -TERM BREAK

WEEK 8
TOPIC: SYMBOLS, FORMULAE AND EQUATIONS
Learning Goals: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Write names of compounds;
2. Solve calculations involving Empirical and molecular formulae of compounds;
3. Solve calculations on percentage composition;
4. Balance chemical equations.

Note
CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) gave a set of rules in naming chemical
compounds. Some of these rules are:
Naming Inorganic Compounds
1. Binary Compounds: They contain two elements only, and their names end with –ide.
a. The cation (electropositive element) is named first, followed by that of the anion (electronegative
element) with its name modified to end with –ide, e.g CaO is calcium oxide. Except H2O (water), NH3
(ammonia), and PH3 (phosphine).
b. The oxidation number of a metal with more than one oxidation number is designated by Roman
numeral in brackets. E.g Cu2O is copper(I) oxide; CuO is copper(II) oxide. If an element has a fixed
oxidation number, the Roman numeral is omitted, e.g. NaCl is sodium chloride.

2. Tertiary and Quaternary Compounds: These are compounds containing three and four elements
respectively.
a. Oxoacids: These are acids that contain oxygen atoms. They are named thus:
i. Oxygen is named first as oxo, with the number of atoms indicated by the prefix mono, (1), di (2), tri
(3), tetra (4), penta (5), etc.
ii. The central atom is then named with the ending –ate, and its oxidation number designated by Roman
numeral in brackets.
iii. The word acid is finally added to the name.
Examples
Oxoacid IUPAC name
HNO2 dioxonitrate(III) acid
HNO3 trioxonitrate(V) acid
H2CO3 trioxocarbonate(IV) acid
H2SO3 trioxosulphate(IV) acid
H2SO4 tetraoxosulphate(VI) acid
HClO3 trioxochlorate(V) acid
H3PO4 tetraoxophosphate(V) acid

b. Oxoanion (Acid radicals): They are generated from oxoacids. In naming, the word acid is replaced
with ion. Examples
Oxoanion IUPAC name
NO2- dioxonitrate(III) ion
NO3- trioxonitrate(V) ion
SO4 2- tetraoxosulphate(VI) ion
CO3 2- trioxocarbonate(IV) ion
HCO3- hydrogentrioxocarbonate(IV) ion
 MnO4- tetraoxomanganate(VII) ion
CrO72- heptaoxodichromate(VI) ion

c. Normal and acid salts (anhydrous): The cation is named first (with oxidation number in bracket, if
need be), then the anion (acid radical). Examples
Salt IUPAC name
KNO3 potassium trioxonitrate(V)
CuSO4 copper(II) tetraoxosulphate(VI)
(NH4)2CO3 ammonium trioxocarbonate(IV)
NaHCO3 sodium hydrogentrioxocarbonate(IV)
Ca(HSO3)2 calcium hydrogentrioxosulphate(IV)
K2Cr2O7 potassium heptaoxodichromate(VI)

d. Hydrate salts: They are salts with water molecules in association with their crystals. In naming, the
anhydrous salt is first named, followed by the number of water molecules is written in Latin words.
Examples.
Hydrate salt IUPAC name
Na2CO3.10H2O sodium trioxocarbonate(IV) decahydrate
CoCl2.6H2O cobalt (II) chloride hexahydrate

e. Basic salts: A basic salt contain hydroxyl group. Examples

Zn(OH)Cl zinc chloride hydroxide

f. Complex salts and complex ions: A complex ion contains a metal ion surrounded by neutral
molecules or ions called ligands. In naming complexes,
i. state the number of ligands attached to the central atom using prefixes—mono, di, tri, etc.
ii. name the anion ligand ending with the suffix –o, e.g. Br- bromo, Cl- chloro, CN- cyano, OH- Hydroxo, H-
hydrido, NH3 ammine, etc.
iii. name the central metal, modified to end with –ate.
Complex ion IUPAC name
2+
[Cu(NH3)4] tetraammine copper(II) ion
[Fe(CN)6]2- hexacyanoferrate(III) ion

Complex salt IUPAC name

[Cu(NH3)4]SO4 tetraammine copper(II) tetraoxosulphate(VI)
K4[Fe(CN)6] potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) ion
LiAlH4 lithium tetrahydrido aluminate(III)

Activity
1. Give the IUPAC names of the following: i. CO2 ii. PbI2 iii. AlCl3 iv. P2O5 v. HClO3
vi. Al(NO3)3 vii. FeSO4.7H2O viii. H2CO3 ix. Ca2+ x. KMnO4

2. Write the formulae of the following:

i. Copper(I) oxide
ii. Calcium hydrogen trioxocarbonate(IV)
iii. Sodium tetraoxosulphate(VI)
iv. Aqueous ammonia
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF AN ELEMENT IN A COMPOUND
Examples
1. What is the percentage composition by mass of zinc in ZnCl2? (Zn = 65, Cl = 35.5)
Answer

𝑍𝑛 100
% comp. of Zn = x
𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙2 1

65 100
= x
65+ (35.5 ×2) 1

65 100
= 136
x 1
= 47.8%

2. What is the percentage composition of sodium in Na2SO4? (Na = 23, S = 32, O =16)
Answer
𝑁𝑎 × 2 100
% comp. of Na = x
𝑁𝑎2𝑆𝑂4 1

23 × 2 100
= 23 × 2+ 32 (16 × 4)
x 1

46 100
= x = 32.4%
142 1

Activity
1. What is percentage composition of phosphorus and oxygen in phosphorus(V) oxide?
(P = 31, O = 16)

EMPIRICAL FORMULA
It is the simplest formula of a compound.

Worked examples
1. What is the formula of the compound containing 15g carbon and 5g hydrogen?
(C = 12, H = 1)
Answer
Element C H
Given mass 15g 5g
15 5
Mole ratio = 1.25 =5
12 1

1.25 5
Divide by small 1.25
= 1 1.25
=4
Mole ratio

Formula C1H4 i.e. CH4

2. What is the formula of the oxide of sulphur which contains 60% oxygen and 40% sulphur by mass?
(S = 32, O = 16)
Answer
S O
% by mass 40 60
40 60
Mole ratio = 1.25 = 3.75
32 16

1.25 3.75
Divide by small 1.25
= 1 1.25
=3
Mole ratio

Formula S1O3 i.e. SO3

3. What is the formula of a compound which contains 2.16g of aluminium and 1.92g of oxygen?
(Al = 27, O =16)
Answer
Al O
Given mass 2.16g 1.92g
2.16 1.92
Mole ratio 27
= 0.08 16
= 0.12

0.08 0.12
Divide by small = 1 = 1.5
0.08 0.08
Mole ratio

Formula Al1O1.5
Because formula of a compound is always in whole number, then (Al1O1.5)2 = Al2O3

4. A certain compound on analysis yield 2.00g of carbon, 0.34g of hydrogen, and 2.67g oxygen. If the
relative molecular mass of the compound is 60, calculate the molecular formula.
( C= 12, H = 1, O =16)

C H O
Given mass 2.00g 0.34g 2.67g
2.00 0.34 2.67
Mole ratio = 0.17 = 0.34 = 0.17
12 1 16

0.17 0.34 0.17

Divide by small 0.17
= 1 0.17
= 2 0.17
= 1
Mole ratio

Formula C1H2 O1 i.e. CH2O

(CH2O)n = 60
(12 + 1x2 + 16)n = 60
30n = 60
60
n = 30 = 2

Molecular formula: (CH2O)2 i.e. C2H4O2

Structural formula: CH3COOH
Name of compound: ethanoic acid
Activity
1. What is the formula of the oxide of lead in which 10.35g lead combine with 1.6g oxygen?
(Pb = 207, O = 16)

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
A chemical equation is the short form of writing a chemical reaction.
e.g. Fe (s) + S (s) → FeS (s)
reactants product

Balancing Equations
All equations must be balanced in order to comply with the law of Conservation of Matter, which states
that matter is neither created nor destroyed in the course of a chemical reaction.
An unbalanced equation would imply that atoms have been created or destroyed.
When balancing equations, we must remember that:
(i) the formulae of the reactants and products in an equation are fixed and cannot be altered, so the
only way of balancing an equation is
(ii) by taking appropriate numbers of moles of the reactants and the products concerned.
Do an ‘atom count’ to check that an equation is balanced. Atoms of the reactants must be equal to
the atoms of the products.

Examples.
1. Cu + O2 → CuO
2Cu + O2 → 2CuO (balanced)

2. H2 + I2 → HI
H2 + I2 → 2HI (balanced)

3. KI + Cl2 → KCl + I2
2KI + Cl2 → 2KCl + I2 (balanced)

4. N2 + H2 → NH3
N2 + H2 → 2NH3 (balanced)

5. KClO3 → KCl + O2
2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2 (balanced)

Activity
Balance the following chemical equations
i. HCl (aq) + CaO (s) → CaCl2 (s) + H2O (l)
ii. Na (s) + O2 (g) → Na2O (s)
iii. NH3 (g) + O2 (g) → H2O (g) + N2 (g)
WEEK 9
TOPIC: LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
Learning Goals: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. State the Law of conservation of matter;
2. State the Law of constant composition;
3. Solve calculations to prove the law of constant composition;
4. State the Law of multiple proportions;
5. Solve calculations to prove the law of constant composition;
6. State the Law of reciprocal proportion.

Note
LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
There are four laws of chemical combinations which describe the general features of a chemical change.
1. The Law of Conservation of Mass states that matter is neither created nor destroyed during chemical
reaction, but changes from one form to another.
Experimental Proof
Put about 10cm3 of CuSO4 in a conical flask and 5cm3 of NaOH solution in a test tube and set the test
tube in the conical flask as shown below.

Before mixing the solution, weigh the set-up A and record the mass. Mix the two solutions. After the
reaction, weigh the set-up again and record the final mass.
Observation: The initial mass of the set-up A is equal to the final mass in B.
CuSO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + Cu(OH)2

Conclusion: Mass of matter before reaction = mass of matter after reaction.

Therefore, matter is neither created nor destroyed in the course of the chemical reaction.
Note: A balanced chemical equation also proved the law of conservation of mass.
e.g. Fe + S → FeS
56 g 32 g 88 g
So, the mass of reactant = mass of product.

2. The Law of Definite Proportion or Constant Composition states that all pure samples of a particular
chemical compound contain similar elements combined in the same proportion by mass.
Consider water for example; chemical analyses showed that as long as it is pure, its composition is
always in the ratio of 1 mole oxygen molecule (i.e. 32 g) to 2 moles of hydrogen molecule (i.e. 4g)
irrespective of whether the water comes from the river, sea, rain, wine, saliva or any other source.
O2 (g) + 2H2 (g) → 2H2O (g)

Exercise
Two samples (A and B) of carbon(IV) oxide were prepared using different methods. On analysis, 3.96g of
sample A produced 2.88g oxygen, while 2.20g of sample B gave 1.60g oxygen. Show that this result
illustrate the law of constant composition.
Hint: Calculate the percentage of oxygen in sample A and sample B, and compare their values.

Answer
A B
Mass of oxygen 2.88g 1.60g
Mass of CO2 3.96g 2.20g
2.88 100 1.60 100
% of oxygen 3.96
x 1 2.20
x 1
= 72.7% = 72.7%

This shows that the % composition of oxygen in the two samples is the same.

3. The Law of Multiple Proportions states that if two elements, A and B, combine to form more than
one chemical compound, then the various masses of one element, A which combine separately with a
fixed mass of the other element B, are in simple multiple ratio.
Some examples of paired elements that form more than one compound are as follows:
i. Copper and oxygen combine to give black copper(II) oxide, CuO, and red copper(I) oxide, Cu2O.
ii. Iron and oxygen form brown Iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3, and black iron(II) oxide, FeO.
iii. Iron and chlorine combine to give brownish-yellow iron(III) chloride, FeCl3, and green iron(II)
chloride, FeCl2.
iv. Lead and sulphur combine to give black lead(II) sulphide, PbS, and lead(IV) sulphide, PbS2.

Exercise
1. A metal M has two oxides X and Y containing 13.39% and 7.17% of oxygen respectively.
a. Calculate the masses of metal in grams that combine with one gram of oxygen in each case.
b. Which chemical law do these masses illustrate?
c. If the formula of oxide of X is MO, what is the formula for oxide of Y? (O = 16)
Answer
A B
% by mass of oxygen 13.39g 7.17g
Mass of metal 86.61g 92.83g
 13.39g oxygen combined with 86.61g of metal X
1 ×86.61
1g oxygen combined with 13.39 = 6.47

7.17g oxygen combined with 92.83g of metal Y

1 ×92.83
1g oxygen combined with 7.17 = 12.94

The masses of M combined with a fixed mass (1g) oxygen in the ratio 6.47 : 12.94
i.e. 1 : 2

b. The chemical law illustrated is law of multiple proportion.

c. Since X is MO, then formula of Y is M2O

4. The Law of Reciprocal Proportions

This states that the masses of several elements A, B, C which combine separately with a fixed mass of
another element D are the same as or simple multiples of the masses in which A, B, C themselves
combine with one another.
e.g. Consider the three compounds H2O, H2S and CaH2. The element C, S and Ca combine with a fixed
mass (H2 = 1 x 2 =2) of hydrogen.

Activity
1. State the Law of Conservation of Mass
2. State the Law of Definite Proportion.

Assignment
1. 2.50g of sample A of copper(II) oxide when completely reduced gave 2.02g of copper. 2.30g of
another sample B of the same oxide prepared by a different method, when reduced gave 1.86g of
copper. Using these data, illustrate the law of constant composition.
WEEK 10
TOPIC: CHEMICAL BONDING
Learning Goals: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Define a chemical bond;
2. List the two main types of chemical bonding.
3. Explain electrovalent bonding;
4. Explain ordinary covalent bonding;
5. Explain dative bonding;
6. Differentiate between electrovalent and covalent compounds
7. Explain intermolecular forces, and metallic bonds.

Note
CHEMICAL BONDING
A chemical bond is a force that holds atoms together in a compound.
Owing to their electronic configuration, the rare gases are very stable. The tendency of the other
elements is to try to attain this stable duplet or octet structure possessed by the rare gases.
There are two main types of chemical bonding:
1. Electrovalent (or ionic) bonding
2. Covalent bonding, which is classed into: (i) ordinary covalent bonding, and
(ii) coordinate covalent (or dative) bonding

1. Electrovalent Bonding
This involves the transfer of electron(s) from one atom to the other. e.g.
1. Electrovalent bonding between sodium and chlorine.
11Na + 17Cl → Na+ Cl-
2,8,1 2,8,7 2,8 2,8,8

In the example above, sodium atom transfers an electron to chlorine atom. The chlorine atom which
receives the electron becomes negatively charged (because electrons are negatively charged), while the
sodium atom which loses the electron becomes positively charged (because its protons now outnumber
its electrons). The two oppositely charged ions then attract each other and are held together by
electrostatic force of attraction.
Note: 1. After sodium and chlorine had been chemically bonded, they both achieve a completely filled
outermost shell (or valence shell), and therefore become like a group 8 element.
2. Only the valence shell and the valence electrons are useful in bonding.
3. The electrovalent bond is an electrostatic force of attraction between a positively and a negatively
charged ions.

Other examples
2. 12Mg + 8O → Mg2+O2-
2,8,2 2,6 2,8 2,8

3. 12Mg + Cl → MgCl2
2,8,2 2,8,7 2,8 2,8
2,8.7 2,8

4. 4Na + O2 → 2Na2O
2Na + O → Na2O
2,8,1 2,6 2,8 2,8
2,8,1 2,8

Activity
1. Define a chemical bond.
2. Explain electrovalent bonding.
3. Give two examples of electrovalent compounds.

2a. Ordinary Covalent bonding

This involves the sharing of a pair of electrons each of which is contributed by each of the two atoms.
Examples
1. Covalent bonding between two chlorine atoms
Cl + Cl → Cl2 i.e. Cl—Cl
2,8,7 2,8,7 2,8,8 2,8,8

2. Covalent bonding between two oxygen atoms

O + O → O2 O=O
2,6 2,6 2,8 2,8

3. Covalent bonding between two chlorine atoms

N + N → N2 N≡N
2,5 2,5 2,8 2,8

4. C + 2H2 → CH4 H
H—C —H
H

5. C + O2 → CO2 O=C=C
2b. Coordinate Covalent (or Dative) Bonding
This involves the sharing of a pair of electrons which has been contributed by only one of the two atoms
involved.
Examples
1. Coordinate covalent bonding between ammonia and hydrogen ion in the formation of ammonium
ion.

2. Coordinate covalent bonding between water and hydrogen ion in the formation of hydroxonium ion.
H2O + H+ → H3O+

H—O + H+ → H—O: H
H H

Activity
1. Explain with an example (i) ordinary covalent bonding
(ii) coordinate covalent bonding
2. Give two characteristics of covalent compounds.
3. What are the bond types present in each of the following compounds?
(i) Carbon(IV) oxide
(ii) Calcium oxide
(iii) Methane
(iv) Ammonium chloride

Differences between Electrovalent and Covalent Compounds

Electrovalent compound Covalent compound

1. There is transfer of electron(s) from one There is a sharing of a pair of electron
atom to another between the two reacting atoms
2. They consist of ions orderly arranged to They consist of molecules.
form crystal lattices
3. They are usually solids with high melting They are solids with low melting points or
and boiling points. liquids and gases.
4. They are held together by strong They are held together by weak
electrostatic force of attraction. intermolecular bonds.
5. They conduct electricity when molten or They do not conduct electricity and are
when dissolved in water and are used as non-electrolytes.
electrolytes.
6. They are not easily decomposed by heat. They are easily decomposed by heat.
7. They are compounds of highly reactive They are compounds of non-metals e.g. O2,
metals e.g Na, K, Mg, Ca, Al and highly reactive SO2, CO2.
non-metals e.g. F, Cl.

Activity
1. State 3 differences between electrovalent and covalent compounds.
2. The following are the electronic configuration of four lements:
A B C D
2,8,1 2,4 2,8,7 2,8,7
(a) Which elements will react to form covalent compound and write the formula.
(b) Which elements will react to form electrovalent compound(s) and write the formula.

Other Binding Forces

1. Intermolecular forces (i) Van der Waals and (ii) Hydrogen bonding
2. Metallic bond

Intermolecular Forces
Intermolecular forces are forces of attraction that hold the molecules of a substance together.
There are two intermolecular forces: (i) Van der Waals forces (in non-polar molecules like Cl2)
(ii) Hydrogen bonding ( in polar molecules like HF).

(i) Van der Waals Forces— are intermolecular force of attraction between transient molecular dipoles
of non-polar molecules as a result of the electrons. Cld+ — Cld-
Cld- — Cld+
The dipoles are temporary because the polarity of both ends changes rapidly as the bonded pair of
electrons vibrate. The temporary molecular dipoles attract each other.
These forces are very weak when compared with ionic and covalent bonds, but they are important in
the liquefaction of gases and in the formation of molecular lattices as in iodine and naphthalene crystals.

(ii) Hydrogen bond— is an intermolecular force of attraction between the hydrogen of one polar
molecule and the electronegative element of another.
When hydrogen is covalently linked to elements like nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine (strongly
electronegative), they tend to pull the shared pair of electrons towards themselves, resulting in the
formation of a dipole, where the hydrogen atom is partially positive, while the N, O, or F atom is
partially negative. An electrostatic attraction between two dipoles is set up when the positive pole of
one molecule attracts the negative pole of another. This attractive force is known as the hydrogen bond.
Examples:
1. Hd+—Fd- ……… Hd+—Fd- …….. Hd+—Fd- (Hydrogen fluoride)

Hydrogen bond

H H
2. H—N ……… H—N (Ammonia)
H H

3. H —O ………. H—O (Water)

H H

Effects of Hydrogen Bond on Molecules

1. It makes them to have high boiling points, e.g the boiling point of water is 100oC, which is high for a
liquid.
2. It makes them to be soluble in water because of hydrogen bond between them and water molecules.

Metallic Bond
The valence electrons of metallic atoms are loosely held because metals have low electronegativity (i.e.
less ability to attract electrons). Consequently, they leave the outermost shell and wonder about around
the atoms. In this state, they are called delocalized electrons. The delocalized electrons are attracted by
each of the metal atoms which has now become positively charged (since they have lost their valence
electrons). In this way, the valence electrons bind the atoms together. This type of bonding is called
metallic bonding.

Effects of Metallic Bond on Metals

1. It makes them good conductors of electricity.
2. It makes them malleable and ductile (it results from moving electrons, thus atoms can be rearranged
along with the atoms together).

Activity
1. Explain (i) Van der Waals forces
(ii) Hydrogen bond
(iii) Metallic bond
WEEK 11
TOPIC: SHAPES OF MOLECULES
Learning Goals: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Draw shapes of some molecules, and
2. Write their bond angles

Note
SHAPES OF MOLECULES
The shape of a molecule is the way its atoms are arranged in space.

1. Linear molecules: In linear molecules, atoms are arranged in a straight line. Examples are CO2 and all
diatomic molecules—Cl2, H2, CO, O2, etc. The bond angle is 180o.
O = C = O , Cl—Cl , C = O , O = O

2. Non-linear molecules (or bent structures)

In bent molecules, the atoms are not arranged in a straight line. Examples are H2O, H2S. The bond
angle is 105o.
O S

H H H H
Reasons for bent molecules
The molecules of water and hydrogen sulphide are bent because their central atom contains pair of
electrons which repels each other. Hence, they push bonded parts of electrons down.

3. Trigonal Pyramidal Shape

The molecules have the shape of a triangle base of a pyramid. Examples are ammonia, NH3, and
phosphine, PH3. The bond angle is 107o.

N P
H H
H H H H

4. Tetrahedral molecules
In tetrahedral molecule, the atoms are directed towards the four corners of a regular tetrahedral
shape. The bond angle is 109.5o

H Cl

C C
H Cl
H H Cl Cl

5. Ionic Lattice Structure

Electrovalent compounds like NaCl have the ionic lattice structure. In ionic lattice structure, positively
charged ions are surrounded by negatively charged ions, which are in turn surrounded by positively
charged ions. Na+ cl-
Cl- Na+
- +
Cl Na
6. Layered lattice structure
Here, the atoms are arranged in layers. Graphite is a good example of a substance with a layered
lattice structure.

7. Covalent Network Solids

The solids contain a network of atoms held together by covalent network. Examples are diamond,
white phosphorus, silica.

8. Molecular solids
These are solids whose atoms exist as molecular lattices. E.g. iodine, red phosphorus, naphthalene
and camphor.

Activity
1. Name a molecule with tetrahedral shape and write the bond angle.
2. Name two linear molecules
3. What is the bond angle in water molecule.
4. What is the shape and bond angle in ammonia molecule.

WEEK 12 Revision/Examination

REFERENCE
1. New School Chemistry for Secondary Schools (6th edition), by Osei Yaw Ababio. Africana First
Publishers PLC. 2011.
2. Understanding Chemistry for Schools and Colleges (revised edition), by Godwin Ojokuku. Press-on
ChemResources, 2012.
3. Exam Focus, Chemistry by G N C Ohia et al.