SOLUTIONS

CHY47.1
Biochemistry Laboratory
 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the exercise, the students should be able to:

1. define and classify solution;

2. identify the solute(s) and the solvent in a solution;
3. discuss the factors that affect the solubility of a substance;
4. state the different ways of increasing the rate of dissolution of
a solute in a given solvent;
5. express qualitatively and quantitatively the concentration of
solution;
6. convert one concentration unit to another;
7. calculate the mass or volume or amount of a substance
needed to prepare a solution; and
8. prepare solutions from component substances and by
dilution of existing solutions.
SOLUTIONS
•homogeneousmixtureof two
ormoresubstances
•consistsofasolventand
solute(s).
▪ The solute is(are)
the substance(s)
present in the
smaller amount(s).

▪ The solvent is the

substance present
in the larger
amount.
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
Solute Solvent Solution
Gas Gas Gas

Example: Air
Solutes: oxygen and other trace gases
Solvent: nitrogen
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
Solute Solvent Solution
Gas Liquid Liquid

Example: Soda pop

Solute: CO2
Solvent: water
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TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
Solute Solvent Solution
Gas Solid Solid

Example: palladium with hydrogen

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TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
Solute Solvent Solution
Liquid Liquid Liquid

Example: whiskey
Solute: alcohol
Solvent: water
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
Solute Solvent Solution
Solid Liquid Liquid

Example: brine/salt water

TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
Solute Solvent Solution
Solid Solid Solid

Example: steel
Solute: carbon
Solvent: iron
 [Link]

Solubility Dissolution
• Maximum amount of solute which can • Kinetic process
be dissolved in a given amount of
• Quantified by its rate
solvent at a specified temperature
(Rate of Dissolution)
• Amount of solute necessary to saturate
• How fast? Fast or slow
a given amount of solvent
• How much? Soluble, slightly soluble, or
insoluble
 FORMATIONOFSOLUTION
Breaking of solute-solute bonds Breaking of solvent-solvent bonds
FACTORS AFFECTING
SOLUBILITY
Nature of the Solute and Solvent

• Like dissolves like

• polar or ionic solute
dissolves in a polar solvent
• non-polar solute dissolves
in a non-polar solvent
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SOLUBILITYOFALCOHOLSINWATER

Water (H 2 O) H - O H
Alcohol C x H y -O H
nonpolar polar

CH3OH, miscible (soluble) in all proportions

CH3CH2OH, miscible (soluble) in all proportions
CH3CH2CH2OH, miscible (soluble) in all proportions
CH3(CH2)3OH, reduced solubility
CH3(CH2)4OH, very reduced solubility
CH3(CH2)5OH, very, very reduced solubility
CH3(CH2)7OH, very, very, very reduced solubility
 FACTORS AFFECTING
SOLUBILITY
Temperature (For solids)

• For endothermic dissolution,

low temperature inhibits
solubility
• Endothermic (absorbs heat)
Energy + Solute + Solvent Solution
• Example: K2Cr2O7
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 FACTORS AFFECTING
SOLUBILITY
Temperature (For solids)

• For exothermic dissolution,

high temperature inhibits
solubility
• Exothermic (release of heat)

Solute + Solvent Solution + Energy

• Example: Ce2(SO4)3
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FACTORS AFFECTING
SOLUBILITY
Temperature (For Gases)

• Gases are more soluble in

a cold solvent.
• Exothermic dissolution
always
THERMALPOLLUTIONOFWATER
Many industries return warm water to a river or lake.
What effect would this have?
Dissolved O2 ↓ (decreases)
as Temperature ↑ (increases)
Marine life can suffer.
FACTORS AFFECTING
SOLUBILITY
Pressure

• For solids and liquids: no

change of solubility with
changes in pressure Opening a bottle of carbonated beverage reduces
the pressure of the gaseous carbon dioxide above
• For gases: increase in solubility the beverage.
with an increase in pressure The solubility of CO2 is thus lowered, and
some dissolved carbon dioxide may be seen
leaving the solution as small gas bubbles.
FACTORS AFFECTING
SOLUBILITY
Pressure

• For solids and liquids: no

change of solubility with
changes in pressure
• For gases: increase in solubility
with an increase in pressure
FACTORS AFFECTING THE
RATE OF DISSOLUTION

Particle size/surface area of contact

• Increasing the surface

area of the solute by
Powdering
FACTORS AFFECTING THE
RATE OF DISSOLUTION

• Agitation brings
undissolved solute in
contact with fresh solvent.

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FACTORS AFFECTING THE
RATE OF DISSOLUTION

• Warming – applicable
only to endothermic
solutions

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CONCENTRATION
• Concentration of a solution is a measure of the
relative amount of the components in a solution.
• It refers to the amount of solute present in a given
quantity of solution or solvent.
• It is an intensive property because the solute is
uniformly distributed throughout the solution,
obtaining a small portion of the solution will have
the same concentration as the bulk solution.
• It can be expressed either qualitatively or
quantitatively.
CONCENTRATION(QUALITATIVEEXPRESSION)

Qualitative (subjective)
▪ Dilute – a solution that contains a small quantity of the solute in proportion
to that of the solvent.
▪ Concentrated – a large quantity of solute
CONCENTRATION(SEMI-QUANTITATIVE)
SOLUBILITYANDSATURATIONPOINT
• When the limit of solute has been
reached, the solution can hold no
more solute and is saturated.

• The concentration of a saturated

solution is the solubility of the
substance in that particular solvent at
a specified temperature.

• Solubility is the maximum quantity of

solute that can dissolve in a certain
quantity of solvent at a specified
temperature or pressure (in the case
of gaseous solutes).
CONCENTRATION(QUANTITATIVEEXPRESSION)
Quantitative (objective)
▪ Percentage
• weight by weight (w/w)
• weight by volume (w/v)
• volume by volume(v/v)
▪ ppm (parts per million)
▪ ppb (parts per billion)
▪ Mole fraction
▪ Molality (molal, m)
▪ Molarity (molar, M)
▪ Normality (normal, N)
 PERCENTAGECOMPOSITION

Mass (w/w) % =
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎 Mass percent
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
Mass per volume (w/v) % = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎 Mass-volume percent

𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
Volume (v/v) % = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 Volume percent
Notes: Solution= solute + solvent
Mass and volume units must match.
(g & mL) or (Kg & L)
 PERCENT WEIGHT BY WEIGHT (% W/W)

1. Percent weight by weight (% w/w) or mass percentage is the percent mass of

solute in the total mass of the solution. Thus, a 10% (w/w) NaCl solution is made
by weighing 10 g NaCl and dissolving it in 90 g of solvent, making a total of 100 g
of solution.

% (w/w) of solute = mass of solute, g x 100 (Equation 1)

mass of solution, g

% (w/w) of solute = _ mass of solute, g x 100 (Equation 2)

mass of solute, g + mass of solvent, g

Note: Solutions of concentrated reagents, such as 37% hydrochloric acid and 85% phosphoric acid, are percent
solutions by mass. In general, the percent solutions are by mass.
PERCENT WEIGHT BY WEIGHT (%w/w) and VOLUME BY VOLUME (%V/V)

2. Percent weight by volume (% w/v) is the percent weight of solute in a total

volume of solution. Thus, a 4% (w/v) NaCl solution is 4 g of NaCl in 100 mL of
solution.

% (w/v) of solute = _ mass of solute, g x 100 (Equation 3)

volume of solution, mL

3. Percent volume by volume is the percent volume of solute in a total volume of

solution. Thus, a 10% (v/v) ethanol solution is 10 mL of ethanol in 100 mL of solution.

% (v/v) of solute = volume of solute, mL x 100 (Equation 4)

volume of solution, mL
 PERCENTAGECOMPOSITION
Practice Exercises:
1. A solution is made by mixing 250.0 g of hexane and 50.0 g of octanol. What is the
mass percentage of octanol? (Answer: 16.7%)
2. What mass of a drug solution that is 1.5% morphine by mass should be administered
to a patient who requires 190 mg of the drug? (Answer: 12.7 g)
3. A solution that contains 28% phosphoric acid by mass. What does this mean?
(Answer: 100 g of solution contains 28 g of phosphoric acid)
4. What is the concentration in % (m/v) of a NaCl solution prepared by dissolving 9.3 g
of NaCl in sufficient water to give 350 mL of solution? (Answer: 2.7%)
 PARTS PER MILLION, BILLION, AND TRILLION

• ppm- parts per million are essentially mass ratios (solute to solution) x a million
(1.0 x106)
• ppb – parts per billion (used for heavy metals and organics)
• ppt – parts per trillion (used for trace metals and trace organics)

Unit Solutions Solids

ppm mg/L ug/mL mg/kg ug/g
ppb ug/L ng/mL ug/kg ng/g
ppt ng/L pg/mL ng/kg pg/g
 PARTS PER MILLION AND BILLION
▪ These units are often used for the acceptable maximum concentrations of
toxic and carcinogenic substances.

ppb ppm ppm ppm

Percentage composition, ppm, and ppb
Mass solvent, g

Mass solute, g
% (w/w) = mass of solute, g x 100
mass of solution, g
Mass solution, g Mass solution = mass solute + mass of solvent

ppm (mg/kg) = mass of solute, g x 106

mass of solution, g

ppb (µg/kg) = mass of solute, g x 109

mass of solution, g
 PARTSPERMILLIONANDBILLION
Practice Exercises:
1. A solution is prepared by dissolving 13.5 g of glucose in 0.100 kg of water. What is
the mass percentage of the solute in the solution? (Answer: 13.5 %)
2. How many grams of NaCl and water are required to make 100 g of a 20% (w/w)
NaCl solution? (Answers: 20.0 g of NaCl and 80.0 g of water)
3. If there are 0.551 mg of arsenic in 348 g of solution, what is the arsenic
concentration in ppm? )Answer: 1.58 ppm or 1.58 mg/kg or 1.58 g/g)
OTHER WAYS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION

▪ Mole Fraction
▪ Molality (m) Directly relates to the
number of moles
▪ Molarity (M)

Indirectly relates
▪ Normality (N)
to the number of moles
 CALCULATIONSUSINGMOLARMASS

Molar mass factors are used to convert between the grams of a

substance and the number of moles.

Grams Molar mass factor Moles

% Mole fraction
ppm Molality
ppb Molarity
Molar mass serves as a bridge between the mass of material and the number of
moles since it is not possible to measure the number of moles directly.
39
 MOLAR MASS OF AN ELEMENT
▪ The characteristic molar mass of an ELEMENT is simply the
atomic mass in g/mol.

▪ For sodium…
Atomic mass = Molar mass = 22.990 g/mol
1 mol of Sodium has a mass of 22.990 g.
 MOLARMASSOFACOMPOUND
Calculate the molar mass of K 2 Cr 2 O 7
Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

LIST MULTIPLY INSERT

SUBSCRIPTS By atomic mass ATOMIC MASS
FROM PERIODIC TABLE

LIST
ELEMENTS K 2 X 39.0 9g/mol
g/MOL = 78.18 gg/mol
Step1
HERE
Cr 2 X 51.9 9g/mol
g/MOL = 103.98 gg/mol

O 7 X 15.9 9g/mol
g/MOL = 111.93 gg/mol

Add SUBTOTALS 294.09 g/mol

Step 5
 MOLARMASSOFACOMPOUND
The molar mass of a compound is the sum of the molar masses of the elements
in the formula.
Example: Calculate the molar mass of CaCl2.

Element Number Atomic Mass Total Mass

of Atoms
or moles
Ca 1 40.1 g/mol 40.1 g/mol
Cl 2 35.5 g/mol 71.0 g/mol
CaCl2 111.1 g/mol
molar mass = (1 x 40.1) + (2 x 35.5) = 111.1 g/mol
 MOLARMASSOFACOMPOUND
The molar mass of a compound is the sum of the molar masses of the
elements in the formula.

Example: Calculate the molar mass of K3PO4.

Element Number of Atomic Mass Total Mass in

atoms or Moles
K3PO4
K 3 39.1 g/mol 117.3 g/mol

P 1 31.0 g/mol 31.0 g/mol

O 4 16.0 g/mol 64.0 g/mol

K3PO4 212.3 g/mol

molar mass = (3 x 39.1) + (1 x 31) + (4x 16) = 212.3 g/mol

Calculate the molar mass of Al2(SO4)3.
Number
Element of Atoms Atomic Mass Total Mass
or moles
Al 2
S 1x3=3
O 4 x 3 =12
Al2(SO4)3

44
Calculate the molar mass of Cu(SO4)2.5H2O
Number of
Element Atomic Mass Total Mass
Atoms or moles
Cu 1
S 1x2=2
O ( 4 x 2) +
(1 x 5)
= 13
H 2 x 5 = 10
Cu(SO4)2.5H2O

45
 MOLARMASSFACTORS
Molar mass conversion factors
• are written from molar mass.
• relate grams and moles of an element or compound.

Example: Write molar mass factors for methane, CH4, used in gas stoves and gas heaters.
Molar mass:
1 mol CH4 = 16.0 g
Conversion factors:
16.0 g CH4 and 1 mole CH4
1 mole CH4 16.0 g CH4
MOLARMASS
FACTORS
Acetic acid C2H4O2 gives the sour
taste to vinegar. Write two molar
mass conversion factors for acetic
acid.
MOLARMASSFACTORS
Acetic acid C2H4O2 gives the sour taste to vinegar.
Write two molar mass factors for acetic acid.

Calculate molar mass:

24.0 + 4.04 + 32.0 = 60.0 g/mole

1 mole of acetic acid = 60.0 g acetic acid

Molar mass factors

1 mole acetic acid and 60.0 g acetic acid
60.0 g acetic acid 1 mole acetic acid
 MOLESTOGRAMS

Aluminum is often used to build lightweight bicycle frames. How many

grams of Al are in 3.00 mol Al?

Molar mass equality: 1 mole Al = 27.0 grams Al

Setup with molar mass as a factor:

3.00 mole Al x 27.0 g Al = 81.0 g Al

1 mole Al
molar mass factor for Al
 GRAMSTOMOLES
Allyl sulfide C6H10S is a compound that has the odor of garlic.
How many moles of C6H10S are in 225 g?
Calculate the molar mass of C6H10S.
(6 x 12.0) + (10 x 1.01) + (1 x 32.1) = 114.2 g/mole

Set up the calculation using a mole factor.

225 g C6H10S x 1 mole C6H10S
114.2 g C6H10S
molar mass factor (inverted)
= 1.97 mole C6H10S
 MOLEFRACTION(X)
B A
A B
A A
A B
B A B A A
A

 A = sum of moles of all components

moles of A A
A + B

 B = sum of moles of all components

moles of B B
A + B

Since A + B make up the entire mixture,

their mole fractions will add up to one.
A + B =1.00
 MOLEFRACTION(X)
Mole fraction of a component of a solution is the ratio of the number of moles of that component to
the total number of moles of all substances present in the solution.

mole fraction of solute = _ mole solute = mole solute (Equation 7)

mole solute + mole solvent mole solution

mole of substance = mass of substance, g (Equation 8)

molar mass of substance, g/mol

Notes:
• Molar mass is the mass of 1 mole of a substance in grams. It is numerically equal to the formula
weight in atomic mass unit.
• The sum of the mol fraction of all components of a mixture is always equal to 1.
 MOLEFRACTION(X)
Molar mass
Mass solvent Moles of solvent

Molar mass
Mass solute Moles of solute

Moles of solution

Moles solution = mole solute + mole of solvent

Mole fraction of solute = mole of solute Mole fraction of solvent = mole of solvent
mole of solution mole of solution
 MOLEFRACTION(X)
Practice Exercise:
0.100 mole of NaCl is dissolved into 100.0 grams of pure H2O (molar
mass= 18 g/mol). How many moles of water are there in the solution?
What is the mole fraction of water and NaCl?
(Answers: moles of water = 5.56 mol; mole fraction of water = 0.982;
mole fraction of NaCl =0.018)
 MOLALITY

𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒍

Molality = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒈
m= 𝒌𝒈

𝑔
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = = =
𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
 MOLALITY
Sample Problem: Determine the molality of 3000 grams of solution containing 37.3 grams of
potassium chloride KCl.
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
Molality = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒈 or m = 𝒌𝒈 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕

1. Convert grams KCl to moles KCl

1 mole KCl
37.3 g KCl

2. Determine the mass of pure solvent from the given grams of solution and solute

Total grams = Mass of solute + Mass of solvent

Mass of pure solvent = Mass of solution – Mass of solute
= 3000 g - 37.3 g = 2962.7 g = 2.9627 kg
3. Apply the definition for Molarity:
Molality 0.500 moles
concentration = = 0.169 m
2.9627 kg
 MOLALITY

Practice Exercise:
What is the molality of 56.0 mL of CCl4 (density=1.59 g/mL,
molar mass = 153.8 g/mol) dissolved in 300.0 mL of water
(density water= 1.00 g/mL)? (Answer: 1.92 molality)
 MOLARITY
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒍
Molarity = 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
M= 𝑳

moles of solute moles of solute

Molarity = M = Molality = m =
liters of solution mass of solvent (kg)
 MOLARITY
Sample Problem 1: A sample of NaNO3 (molar mass of 85 g/mol) weighing 8.50 grams is
placed in a 500. mL volumetric flask and distilled water was added to the mark on the
neck of the flask. Calculate the molarity of the resulting solution.
1. Convert the given grams of solute to moles of solute :
1 mole NaNO3
8.50 g NaNO 3 = 0.100 mole NaNO 3
85 g NaNO 3

2. Convert given mL of solution to liters

1 liter
500. ml = 0.500 liter
1000 ml
moles solute
3. Apply the definition for Molarity: M =
L solution
0.100 mole
Molarity
Concentration = = 0.100 M
0.500 liter
 MOLARITY
Sample Problems:
2. Glycine has the simplest structure of the 20 amino acids that make up proteins.
What is the molarity of a solution that contains 0.715 mol of glycine in 495 mL?
0.715 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑒 1000 𝑚𝐿
M= 𝑋 = 1.44 M glycine
495 𝑚𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 1𝐿

3. What is the Molarity of the solution that contains of 78.9 g of NaCl (molar mass
=58.44 g/mol) in 80.6 mL of solution?
78.9 𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 1000 𝑚𝐿 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
M= 𝑋 𝑋 = 16.8 M NaCl
80.6 𝑚𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 1𝐿 58.4 𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
 MOLARITY
Sample Problem:
4. How many moles of KI (MW= 166 g/mol) are in 84 mL of 0.50 M KI?
0.50 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾𝐼 1𝐿
moles of KI = 𝑋 𝑋 84 𝑚𝐿 = 0.042 moles KI
𝐿 𝐾𝐼 1000 𝑚𝐿
Practice Exercises:
1. What is the concentration of a sodium chloride solution prepared by dissolving
0.159 moles of NaCl in sufficient water to give 350 mL solution? (Answer: 0.454 M)
2. What is the molarity of a solution that contains 30. g of NaOH in 500 mL of solution?
Molar mass of NaOH = 40 g/mol. (Answer: 1.5 M)
3. How many grams of NaOH are there in 500.0 mL of a 0.175 M NaOH solution?
(Answer: 3.50 g)
4. How many grams of H3PO4 are in 175 mL of a 3.5 M solution of H3PO4? Molar mass of
H3PO4 = 98. g/mol. (Answer: 60. g)
 NORMALITY
𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒆𝒒
Normality, N = N=
𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑳
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒈
𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐭, 𝐞𝐪 = 𝒆𝒒 = 𝒈
𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 /𝒆𝒒
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭, 𝐄. 𝐖. = =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑎

𝑔/mol 𝑔
𝐸. 𝑊. = = a is an integer constant ≥ 𝟏.
eq/𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒𝑞
 NORMALITY

Substance a Example
Acid # of H+ HCl → a=1
H2SO4 → a=2

Base # of OH- NaOH → a=1

Al(OH)3 → a=3

Salt Total valence of cation or KCl → a=1

anion Na2SO4 → a=2
 MOLARITY(M)ANDNORMALITY(N)

Normality = Molarity x "a" =  mole solute   equivalent solute  = eq

 liter solution  mole solute  L

N= M xa
 MOLARITYandNORMALITY
For acid/base reactions: a is the number of moles of H+ ions
produces or neutralized per mol of acid or base supplied.

Acid/base a Molar mass (g/mol) Equivalent weight (g/eq)

HCl 1 36.5 36.5
H2SO4 2 98 49
CaCO3 2 100 50.0
Al(OH)3 3 78.0 26.0

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭, 𝐄. 𝐖. = =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑎
 MOLARITYandNORMALITY
N= Mxa
Sample Problems:
1. What is the normality of 0.1 M H2SO4?
For H2SO4, the “a” = 2 since H+ = 2
N = M x a = (0.1 M ) x 2 = 0.2 N

2. What is the molarity of 1N H2SO4?

M = N/a = 1N / 2 = 0.5 M
Mass solvent, g Recap

Mass solute, g

Mass solution, g Mass solution = mass solute + mass of solvent

% (w/w) = mass of solute, g x 100

mass of solution, g
ppm (mg/kg) = mass of solute, g x 106
mass of solution, g
ppb (µg/kg) = mass of solute, g x 109
mass of solution, g
 Mole Fraction Recap
Molar mass
Mass solvent Moles of solvent

Molar mass
Mass solute Moles of solute

Moles of solution

Moles solution = mole solute + mole of solvent

Mole fraction of solute = mole of solute

mole of solution
Mole fraction of solvent = mole of solvent
mole of solution
 Molality (m)
Recap (mol/kg solvent)

Mass solvent

Molar mass
Mass solute Moles of solute

Mass solution

density

Volume solution

“a” Molarity (M)

Normality (N) (mol/liter solution)
(eq/liter solution)
 PREPARATIONOFSOLUTIONS
The following are the steps in the preparation of an aqueous solution:
1. Obtain an exact mass of the substance (solute) in a beaker or any other
container. For more accurate weighing, use an analytical balance.
2. Dissolve the solute with a small amount of distilled or deionized water. If it
would not dissolve readily, heat and stir constantly the mixture until the solute
dissolves.
3. Transfer the mixture to a clean and dry volumetric flask.
4. Using a wash bottle containing distilled or deionized water, thoroughly wash
the beaker and add the washings to the volumetric flask.
5. Add more water until the flask is 2/3 full and swirl the flask to mix.
6. Once the solution is at room temperature, dilute to the mark with water and
invert the flask at least 12 times to mix.
7. Transfer to the reagent bottle and label the bottle properly.
 PREPARATIONOFSOLUTIONS
[Link]

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

 DILUTION
▪ When a solution is diluted, the
solvent is added to lower its
concentration.
▪ The amount of solute remains
constant before and after the
dilution:
moles BEFORE = moles AFTER

C1V1 = C2V2
where:
C1 = concentration of the original solution
V1 = volume of the original solution
C2 = concentration of the desired solution
V2 = volume of the desired solution
 SERIALDILUTION

In microbiology, the colony-forming unit (CFU) is a unit that estimates the number of microbial cells
(bacteria, fungi, viruses, etc.) in a sample that is viable, able to multiply via binary fission under the
controlled conditions
 DILUTION
Conc. 1 x Volume 1 = Conc. 2 x Volume 2
C 1 V 1 = C2V2

Sample Problem: Isotonic saline is 0.15 M aqueous NaCl. It simulates the total
concentration of ions in many cellular fluids, and its uses range from cleaning contact
lenses to washing red blood cells. How would you prepare 0.80 L of isotonic saline from
a 6.0 M stock solution?
C1V1 = C2V2
V1 = C2V2
C1

0.15 𝑀 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑋 0.80 𝐿

Volume needed from stock solution = = 0.020 L of 6.0 M NaCl
6.0 𝑀 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
 DILUTION
[Link]
Practice Exercises:
1. What volume of a concentrated solution of potassium hydroxide (6.00 M) must be
diluted to 200 mL to make a 0.880 M solution of potassium hydroxide?
(Answer: 29.3 mL)
2. What is the concentration of an aqueous methanol solution produces when 0.200
L of a 2.00 M solution was diluted to 0.800 L? (Answer: 0.500 M)
3. How would you prepare 500.0 mL of a 2.00 mol/L solution of HCl from a
concentrated solution of 12.0 mol/L? (Answer: 83.3 mL; To some water in a 500.0
mL volumetric flask, add 83.3 mL of concentrated acid then dilute to mark.
 PREPARATION OFSOLUTION
• Solute dissolved in a solvent.
mass of solution = mass of solute +mass of solvent
• What is the mass percent of a solution prepared by dissolving 5 g of sugar with 80
mL of water? The density of water is 1 g/mL.

% (w/w) = mass of solute, g x 100

mass of solution, g
So the mass of water = 80 mL (1 g/mL) = 80 g.
Mass of solution = 5 g solute + 80 g solvent = 85 g
Mass % = (mass of solute/mass of solution) 100 = (5 g/85 g)100 = 5.88%
 PREPARATION OFSOLUTION
A solute is dissolved and …diluted up to a certain volume….
Total volume of solution = “certain volume’

What is the mass percent of a solution prepared by dissolving 5.0 g of sugar with enough
water and diluting the mixture upto 200 mL?
% (w/w) = mass of solute, g x 100
mass of solution, g

The volume of solution = 200 mL; Density of the solution is 1 g/mL.

So the mass of solution = 200 mL (1g/mL) = 200 g
Mass % = (mass of solute/mass of solution) 100 = [5.0 g/ 200 g] 100 = 2.5%
 NOTES:

▪ There are several ways to express the relative amounts of solute

and solvent in a solution.
▪ The choice often depends on convenience. For example, it is
sometimes easier to measure the volume of a solution rather than
the mass of the solution.
▪ However, it should be noted that Volume is temperature-dependent while mass is
temperature-independent.
▪ Some expressions for concentration such as % (w/v), % (v/v), molarity, and normality
are temperature-dependent, whereas others such as % (w/w), mole fraction, and
molality are not.
▪ As temperature increases, the volume of liquids expands, thus, % (w/v), % (v/v), molarity,
and normality decrease.
▪ Conversely, as temperature decreases, these concentration expressions increase.