MEG-13

Writings From the Margins

Indira Gandhi
National Open University
School of Humanities

Block

5
THEORY, CULTURE AND THE HISTORY OF TRIBALS
UNIT 1
Historical Background 5
UNIT 2
Tribal World View 11
UNIT 3
Tribal Discourse 18
UNIT 4
Nature and Celebration in Tribal Life 25
UNIT 5
Tribal Thought: Some Voices-I 35
UNIT 6
Tribal Thought: Some Voices-II 45
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. Shyamla Narayan (Retired) Prof. Satyakam
Jamia Millia Islamia Director (SOH).

Dr. Anand Prakash (Retired) English Faculty, SOH

Delhi University Prof. Anju Sahgal Gupta
Prof. Neera Singh
Dr. Payal Nagpal Prof. Malati Mathur
Janki Devi College Prof. Nandini Sahu
Delhi University Dr. Pema E Samdup
Dr. Ivy Hansdak Ms. Mridula Rashmi Kindo
Jamia Millia Islamia Dr. Parmod Kumar
Dr. Malthy A.
Dr. Richa Bajaj
Hindu College
Delhi University

COURSE COORDINATION AND EDITING

Ms. Mridula Rashmi Kindo Dr. Anand Prakash
IGNOU Ms. Mridula Rashmi Kindo

COURSE PREPARATION
Prof. Anand Mahanand (Unit 1,2,3 & 6) Dr. Anand Prakash (Retd.) (Unit 4 & 5)
Hyderabad University Delhi University
Hyderabad Delhi

PRINT PRODUCTION
C. N. Pandey
Section Officer (Publication)
SOH, IGNOU, New Delhi

January, 2019
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2019
ISBN : 978-93-88498-59-3
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BLOCK INTRODUCTION
Block 5 Unit 1 will delve into the history of tribals that would also provide the
background to their writings. Unit 1 would elaborate that the history of the tribals
goes back to the pre-historical period though the documentation was neglected for
centuries.

Unit 2 familiarizes us with the tribal world view with its concept and characteristics.
It will give you a closer look at the attitude of tribal people towards life and the
beliefs they hold.

Unit 3 discusses the concept of the tribal discourse as well as its significance. The
unit also looks at the forms of tribal discourse and its features.

Unit 4 focuses on the aspects of nature and celebration in tribal life. The tribals take
inspiration from nature and also the rituals performed on various occasions and are
happy to celebrate life.

Unit 5 explains the important point made by G.N. Devy and Thingnam Kishan
Singh in their essays. These writings are significant to understand the way of life of
the tribals and their world view.

Unit 6 discusses the essays of Verrier Elwin and John Mac Dougall that explain the
cultural past of the tribals and the tribal social system. These essays are significant
in understanding their writings in this units that follow.
Theory, Culture and This
History of Tribals

4
 Historical Background
UNIT 1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Key Questions
1.3 How to use the Study Material?
1.4 Understanding Tribal History
1.5 Tribal History: The Tribals in Ancient Times
1.6 Tribal History: The Tribals in the Middle Ages
1.7 Tribal History: The Tribals in the Colonial Period
1.8 Tribal History: The Contemporary Times
1.9 The Interface between Tribal History and Tribal Literature
1.10 Let Us Sum Up
1.11 Glossary
1.12 Questions
1.13 Suggested Readings

1.0 OBJECTIVES
The main objective of this unit is to provide a historical background to the tribal
writing. This will help students in understanding tribal literature better. We know
that context and text are intimately related — the text is a product of the context in
which it has been produced. The tribal writing should be viewed in context since it
is a product of its time. It is also a historical product. It is necessary therefore to
look at the time, the past and present that give rise to such writing. Tribal writing, is
not only a product of history, but it also recapitulates and reconstructs history, too.
It is quite necessary thus to look into the past before we look at the writings about
the tribal people. This unit will provide a background to the tribal writings available
to us in the contemporary period.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
History has traditionally been understood as the story of kings and queens, their
conquests and defeats. Common people had no significant place in such historical
narratives. For instance, the tribal people have hardly been mentioned in mainstream
historical narratives. Regarding them, we only find stray references here and there.
Does that mean they had no contribution? Does that mean they didn’t exist around
that time? We should tell ourselves that they existed and also contributed significantly
to society but their achievements and contributions have not been valued. They
were not written at all, because the dominant class made their history the accepted
one. And the tribals? They were not equipped to write. Then, how did they retain
their history? The answer is: through oral narratives. They expressed their experience
in songs, stories, epics, ballads and lyrics. If we study them, we will find their
history. Sadly, nothing much of these narratives has been collected and documented.
Whatever sources are available, are to be studied so that we are able to foreground
tribal history. 5
Theory, Culture and The In recent years, the concept of history has undergone change. In the new situation,
History of Tribals
history also includes the life of the common people including women, dalits and
tribals. Though there are very scanty historical accounts about tribal people, we
will try to delve into their history by looking at different sources.

1.2 KEY QUESTIONS

i) What do you know about tribal history?
ii) Why is there scanty information about tribal past?
iii) Why is it necessary to reconstruct tribal history?
iv) What is the relationship between tribal history and literature?

1.3 HOW TO STUDY THIS STUDY MATERIAL?

Do you agree that the sources of tribal history are different from that of mainstream
history?

As mentioned in the introduction, we need to depend on a number of unusual sources

to learn about tribal history. For instance, we need to look at their oral traditions,
namely their myths, legends, songs and folk tales. We also need to look at mainstream
history which gives some information about tribal people. Before going through
this unit, it will be useful to look at some narratives of the tribal people and historical
accounts that do mention the tribal people. Then we may go through this unit in
detail. The suggested readings will be of great help in this regard. The glossary will
also help you understand certain concepts used in the unit.

1.4 UNDERSTANDING TRIBAL HISTORY

Tribal people form a major segment of the world population. They are found all
over the world and called by different names such as primitive, tribal, indigenous
aboriginal, natives and so on. India has a large number of tribal people. According
to R.C. Verma, “They constitute about 8.08 percent of the total population. They
would be about 6.78 crores out of the total population of 83.86 crores according to
1991 census” (1). The major tribes in India are the Gonds, the Bhils, the Santhals,
the Oraons and the Minas. They live in different regions and speak their own
languages. The state of Jharkhand, Chhatisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar,
Maharastra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh , West Bengal and North Eastern regions have
greater concentration of the tribal population. The Andaman and Nicober islands
are also inhabited by several tribes such as the Great Andamanese, Sentelese, Onges,
Jawas Sompens, and so on.

The tribes are “the autochthonous people of lndia who are believed to be earliest
settlers in Indian Peninsula” (Verma 1).

1.5 TRIBAL HISTORY: THE TRIBALS IN ANCIENT

TIMES
Tribals are known by different names. One of the names for the tribal people is
“adivasis.” It means the first settlers. It is said that their history goes back to the
prehistoric period. Yet, due to lack of a written tradition, it is difficult for the historians
6 to chronicle their past. As Nadeem Hasnain says, “ it has now become an established
fact that the aboriginal tribes in India, in most cases, are survivals for the later Tribal World View
prehistoric groups” (23).

As mentioned, tribal history is dependent on the mainstream history. There are

references to tribal people in different texts at different times. For instance, tribals
have been mentioned in the ancient texts such as The Ramayana and Mahabharata
and Puranas by different names. In those texts they have been described as dasyus,
kiratas, ahiras, sabaras, nishadas and so on. In the Ramayana it has been mentioned
about a Sabari woman offering fruits to Rama. In Mahabharata we come across
mention of Ekalavya, who was a Bhil boy and who learned archery from Dronacharya
and offered his thumb as “dakshina.” The other literary works such as the Puranas
give description of the tribal people.

During the feudal period (400-1000) tribal areas were invaded by the non-tribals.
The Mundas and the Nagas claimed to have fought on the side of the Kurus against
the Pandavas. We also learn that Arjuna married Chitrangada, a Naga princess.

1.6 TRIBAL HISTORY: THE TRIBALS IN THE

MIDDLE AGES
In the middle age, we find glimpses of the tribal people being attacked by the Turko-
Afgan and Mughal rulers. With the advent of the Muslim invaders in the 11th and 12
centuries, some Rajputs who did not submit to the invaders and replaced tribal
chiefs as kings away from their own place. In some areas, the tribal chiefs were
forced to accede to the Moghul kingdoms. We find such instances in Chhotanagpur
and North Eastern regions. “Apart from the Moghuls, the other groups who disturbed
the tribal regions were the Persians, the Greeks, the Sakas, the Huns and other
hordes of Nomadic invaders who came periodically from the Northwest” ( Mahanand
26) . Thus we may note that tribal history is full of instances of invasions. The
tribals have been chased from one place to another by the dominant class in different
phases of history.

1.7 TRIBAL HISTORY: THE TRIBALS IN THE

COLONIAL PERIOD
We come across the colonial narratives in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
They include autobiographies, travelogues, administrative documents, novels and
short stories. Among the administrators who have written on the tribals are J.P.
Mills, G.H. Hutton and E.T. Dalton. The other writers include John Masters, Verrier
Elwin, Christopher Von Furer Haimendorf, Rudyard Kipling all these have written
extensively about the tribal people in their report, diaries, short stories, poems and
novels.
It is useful here to describe how the word “tribal” has been used for people living in
the forest by the colonial administration. It was during the colonial period that the
tribals were studied by scholars for the purpose of knowing and managing in the
colonial context. A number of administrators and anthropologists who were engaged
in studying the tribes provided classified information about the tribals and their
population. In the Census Report of 1891, V. A .Bains, the Commissioner of Census,
classified the castes according to their traditional occupation. Under the category
of Agricultural and Pastoral castes; he formed a subheading called “Forest Tribes.”
In the Census Report of 1901, they were classified as “Animists” and in 1911 as 7
Theory, Culture and The “tribal animists” or people following tribal religion (Verma 5). In the Census Report
History of Tribals
of 1921 they were specified as “Hill and Forest Tribe” and in the 1931 census they
were described as Primitive Tribe. The Government of India Act specified them as
Backward Tribes. However, the Census Report of 1941 classified them as “Tribes”
only. Thus the term “ tribe “ was used persistently by the British to the people in
the forest. In an essay titled, “The Idea of Tribe in Indian Scene” Jagannath Pathy
explores the origin and policies of using the term. He states that before India was
colonized, there was no equivalent indigenous word for the English term “tribe”.
Later some tribes were categorized Scheduled Tribes by the Indian Constitution.

1.8 TRIBAL HISTORY: THE CONTEMPORARY

TIMES
Among the Indian historians we have scholars such as R.C. Verma, Ramachandra
Guha, Meena Ramakrishna, K.S. Singh, L.P. Vidyarthi, Dilip Desouza, G. N. Devy
among others who have written extensively on tribal people and their predicament.
Their works will be of valuable information.

Apart from these accounts the tribals have a rich resource of the oral tradition. They
include songs, folktales, myths, legends, ballad, and epics. They also bear their
historical accounts. There have been attempts to compile and document these
different narratives by many writers such as G. N. Devy, Randhir Khare, Sitakanta
Mahapatra,Ramanika Gupta and others.

1.9 THE INTERFACE BETWEEN TRIBAL

HISTORY AND TRIBAL LITERATURE
The historical events of which we made mention in the previous pages have
tremendous impact on writers. Many creative writers have used historical events
and infused them in their writings. It is interesting to see how Mahasweta Devi has
fused tribal history into fiction. We can take three of her novels namely (In the
Name of Birthday), Araner Adhikar (Rights over the Forests) and Choti Munda
eband Tar Tir ( Choti Munda and His Arrow) to illustrate this point. The first novel
is available in Bangla and Hindi but is yet to be translated into English. The second
novel, Aranyer Adhikar has been translated into many Indian languages but is yet
to be translated into English. Her novel Sal Girar Dake or In the Name of Birthday
was published in Bangla in 1984 and it is based on a Tribal (Santhal) Revolt that
took place in the 18th century in Chotanagpur region. She depicts how the Santhals
resisted the invasion of the East India Company. The novel Aranyer Adhikar (1977)
is based on Birsa Munda’s Movement for tribal emancipation. Mahasweta Devi
has used K.S. Singh’s historical account Dust, Storm and Hanging Mist which was
given a different title as Birsa Munda and His Movement 1874-1901 as the source
for her novel. She uses an old Munda as the narrator, and tells the history of the
tribal people to younger generation. In this novel we find a glimpse of Birsa’s revolt
against the British. Mahasweta Devi’s Choti Munda ebang Tar Tir (1980) or Choti
Munda and His Arrow is also based on another Tribal Movement known as Tilka
Majhi Movement. It deals with a tribal hero called Chotti Munda who leads the
revolution against the money lenders and contractors who exploit the tribals even
after Independence despite laws meant to safeguard the tribal people. The three
tribal movements have been documented by historians like K. S. Singh and A.R. N.
Srivatsava as historical accounts. Mahasweta Devi sees these sources and artistically
8
infuses them into her fiction. Apart from these, she also brings in mythical characters Tribal World View
such as Raktabija and the tribal warriors of Kurukshetra to weave them in her
fiction. Her recently published novel After Kurukshetra lays bare the predicament
of the tribal warriors.

In the recent years, tribals have started writing about their own conditions and
issues. We have writers like Laxman Gaikwad who are engaged in reconstructing
the tribal past through their autobiographical narratives. Gaikwad in his
autobiographical novel Uchalya (The Branded) brings to the fore the issue of
Denotified tribes. He also gives a vivid picture of the life of the people who were
branded by the British during the colonial regime. Thus, we can understand how
historical accounts on tribal history may help us grasp the contemporary writings of
the tribal people.

Even today poets like Bhujang Mesram invoke Birsa Munda in their poems:
Birsa, you have to come,
You have to come from somewhere
A sickle for grass, an axe for wood
No east west south north matter
Come from somewhere my Birsa
As the breeze in the fields…
People await, await your coming ( Mahanand 28).

1.10 LET US SUM UP

• This unit begins by making a place for tribal history in the midst of dominant
history. We have had for a long time.
• It argues that the concept of history has undergone change. Now history is not
confined to the story of kings, queens, and the feudal lords, but is also a story
of the marginals such as dalits, tribals and women.
• It also explains that history does not mean past records of archival details, but
also fiction, folklore and forms of oral narratives.
• It talks about the importance of documenting tribal past as it has been neglected
for centuries.
• It also explains how historical narratives are important in understanding
contemporary writings of the margins as many writers use them in their creative
endeavour.

1.11 GLOSSARY
Dominant Class : The upper sections (class) of society
Indigenous people : people having particular ties to a particular area and
cultural and historical distinctness. In the Indian
context, the tribal people are also called indigenous.
Nomadic : people who don’t reside in a particular place but
wander from one place to another for livelihood.
Some tribal communities in India are included in this
category.
9
Theory, Culture and This Colonial narratives : Narratives written by colonial administrators, scholars
History of Tribals
and writers.
Animists : people who believe in the existence of spiritual beings
that inhabit in natural objects like animals, trees, and
so on.

1.12 QUESTIONS
1) What is the dominant concept of history?
2) How do you define tribal people?
3) Why is tribal history relevant today?
4) What kind of impact does history have on literature?
5) How do writers use history in their writings?

1.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

Devi, Mahasweta. Aranyer Adhikar. Trans. Anjali Ray. Cuttack:Grantha Mandir,
1987.
Sal Girah Ki Pukar Par ( In the Name of Birthday) Delhi: Radhakrishna prakashan,
1998.
—. Chotti Munda and his Arrow. Calcutta: Seagull, 2002.
—.After [Link] Katyal. Calcutta:Seagul,2005.
DeSouza, Dilip. Branded by Law:Looking at India’s Denotified Tribes.
Delhi:Penguin, 2001.
Devy, G.N. The Painted Words: An Anthology of Tribal literature. Delhi: Penguin,
2002.
—. A Nomad Called Thief: Reflections on Adivasi Silence. Delhi: Orient Blackswan,
2006.
Gaikwad, Laxman. The Branded. Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1997.
Hasnain, Nadeem. Tribal India. Delhi:Palaka Prakashan, 1992.
Mahanand, Anand. Tribal Literature in India. Hyderabad: CIEFL, 2005.
—. Representations of Tribal India in Fiction. Saarbrucken: LAP, 2011.
Mahapatra, Sitakant. The Awakened Wind. Delhi: Vikash Publishing House, 983.
—. The Endless Weave. Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1991.
Radhakrishna, Meena. Dishonoured by History:Criminal Tribes and British Colonial
Policy. Hyderabad: Orient Longman,2001.
Verma, R.C. Indian Tribes through the Ages. Delhi: Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting, 1995.

10
 Historical Background
UNIT 2 TRIBAL WORLD VIEW
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Key Questions
2.3 How to Study this Study Material?
2.4 Tribal World View: Concept and Characteristics
2.5 The Place of Myths, Rituals, Signs, Songs and Sayings
2.5.1 Features of Tribal World View
2.6 What does the Tribal Life Offer to the Non-tribal World?
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 Glossary
2.9 Questions
2. 10 Suggested Readings

2.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit we will have a closer look at tribal world view. We will discuss different
features of the tribal world view and stress how people of these significant
communities are distinct, self-sufficient and independent. The discussion will also
provide an idea of their relationship with others, the environment in which they live
and the beliefs they hold. As a whole this unit will acquaint the reader with the
feeling and attitude of tribal people towards their life.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
What do we mean by world view?
‘World view,’ according to the Oxford Dictionary means a person’s thinking and
understanding of life. It refers to two things: (a) thought and attitude of a person at
the individual level; and (b) the collective level—What a person thinks about oneself
and what he/she thinks about others. We shall focus our discussion on these points
to understand tribal world view. Thinking about one self is a big question. It has a
larger philosophical meaning. However, in our context, it can mean how a tribal
person defines himself/herself. A tribal person looks at himself/herself as a member
of a larger community. He/She is generally, content and happy in life. Their world
is limited and the needs are also limited. They are not greedy and do not exploit
others for their personal gain. They are independent and love freedom. This is evident
from the Gond’s (one of the tribes) idea of heaven and hell. The Gond’s idea of
heaven is “miles of forest without any forest guards, and their idea of hell is miles
and miles of forest without any mohua trees” (Elwin, Baiga 58). The above statement
proves that the tribal person loves freedom and does not like restrictions from others.
Apart from their love for freedom, they are also honest, and straightforward.

How does an individual relate to others including their community, environment

and the spiritual world? The tribal people have a strong sense of community life.
They are intimately related to one another and believe in sharing. Verrier Elwin 11
Theory, Culture and The gives an instance of this aspect in one of his novels Phulmat of the Hills. He says
History of Tribals
that one day the villagers go to get wild mangoes from the jungle, and at the end of
the day, “half the village was sucking mangoes” (Elwin, Phulmat 91-102). Apart
from their community life they are connected to nature. They have filial relationship
with trees, animals and other living beings. They are also connected to spirits of
their ancestors with whom they interact and seek support and guidance from them
in important matters of their life.

2.2 KEY QUESTIONS

a) What does one mean by the tribal world view?
b) How is tribal world view distinct? How the myths, rituals, signs, symbols and
sayings contribute to the tribal world view?
c) What is the relevance of tribal world view to the present-day world?
d) Is the tribal world view static?

2.3 HOW TO STUDY THIS MATERIAL?

a) Before going further in this unit, it will be beneficial for you to observe some
paintings, and have a look at the arts and crafts of the tribal people in addition
to reading any book on tribal people and the tribal discourse and thought . If
you can read their songs and stories, please do. If you watch a film on tribal
life such as Aakrosh or Mrigaya, it will be easier for you to understand this
unit and the points made here.
b) Consult an encyclopedia or search the Net to find the meaning of World View.
c) Try to identify the features of the tribal world view in the introduction. Then
read the other parts and consult the books suggested below.

2.4 CONCEPTS AND CHARACTERISTICS

We have discussed in the introduction, world view means thinking, and attitude of
a person to oneself and towards others. When we say attitude towards oneself, we
mean the way in which one places oneself as an individual. A tribal person thinks s/
he is part of a community that is larger and these social and political institutions are
immensely powerful. He/She thinks also that they are not all powerful but there is
a supreme power which supervises the well-being of all. This can be Thakur Deo,
Dhartimata or Mahapuru. Along with this Supreme Being, there are spirits of the
ancestors around him/her who guide, counsel and protect members of the tribe. A
tribal person, for this reason, is not anxious, depressed, exploitative and mean but
is content, secure, and self-sufficient.
Another aspect of world view is relationship of a person with others, their
environment and the supernatural. As we have already observed, tribal people live
a community- based life. Hence, they are intimately related to other people in society.
They may include their family members (parents and siblings), neighbours, villagers,
elders, and so on. Parents are taken care of in their old age. If some one neglects
his/her parents, the elders of the village and social organizations counsel the person.
They never think that it is the private matter of the family. We find not only sharing
but cooperation among tribal communities. In case of need and adversity, they come
forward to help one another and are bound by community rules. Verrier Elwin states
12 “community rules are more important than rules of the government” (133). There is
a saying among the tribal people that “the village court is superior to the high Tribal World View
court.”The villagers respect the village elder and the head of the community. Severe
punishment is pronounced for breaking community rules. The village council also
plays an important role in their social and political life.

Apart from their relationship with other individuals of family and community, tribal
people are also related to spirits of their ancestors. They believe in the existence of
these spirits and seek their counsel at the time of need. They also make effort to
keep the spirits satisfied. That way, the tribals feel protected and secured. Apart
from these spiritual beings, the tribals believe in their presiding deities and other
supernatural powers and mythological figures. Verrier Elwin rightly says that tribals
are “possessed by their mythology” (56). It is to be added that the totems, signs and
symbols also are respected as they learn about them from their myths and they are
related to their clan, past or belief system. They make icons to satisfy the ancestors.
Elwin describes that “before the ikons were made the ancestors used to give people
a great deal of trouble” (183).

Festivals, arts and crafts, songs and dance play an important role in their life. The
Karma dance of the Gond is a precious occasion when they invoke the goddess to
protect their crops from insects. The practice also connects them to nature as they
sing and dance around the karam tree celebrating the occasion. Songs are there to
redeem their culture from mediocrity. Elwin describes the artistic nature of tribal
people in several places by narrating their art and craft, motifs in paintings, and so
on. This is how he talks about their poetic bent of mind, “And I soon found…
among these gentle and romantic tribal people, poetry jumps out at you. It is there
every where, in their eyes, on their lips, even in some of their actions” (Elwin, The
Tribal World 53). He further mentions, “I found the people talking poetry . An old
woman speaks of fire as a flower blossoming on a dry tree of an umbrella as a
peacock with one leg. Children playing round their fire at night ask each other
riddles which are sometimes real poems” (53).

The tribal people are also related to their environment including trees, birds and
animals. They have a filial relationship with them. Many trees, birds and animals
figure in their myths. Hence they respect them and do not destroy them. That’s how
their belief system helps to preserve trees and forests. They not only regard the
forest as their Mother or Dharti Mata but also love the forest with passionate
devotion. It is to them the forest of joy, the forest of sweet desire. It is the scene of
the early romances of their childhood, the arena in which they engage upon their
most heroic struggles with nature” (Elwin, The Tribal World 115). They are not
afraid of animals, even tigers. Verrier Elwin describes how he saw a tiger when he
was travelling with a Baiga. “He was scared as it was an open car. But the Baiga
who sat near him was cool and started his magic spell. Later he told about a man
who could play with these tigers” (59). They generally draw a lot of lessons for
their life from sayings, proverbs and songs.
Tribal people are not only cooperative but affectionate, helpful and hospitable. Elwin
shares his experience as to how they helped him to reach a hospital when he was ill.
He says, “Once in Patangarh I developed a very large septic boil which I attempted
to cure by some antibiotic tablets or Milk of Magnesia which they resembled in
size, so they did not do very much good and I got steadily worse, until I was in acute
pain and fever. It was the height of the rains, no motor transport was possible and I
had to be carried thirty two miles to a place where I could get a car to take me
another ninety miles to the nearest hospital. I shall never forget the cheer and 13
Theory, Culture and The tenderness of the men who carried me in a sort of litter through pouring rain and
History of Tribals
partly by night. We had to cross flooded rivers into which my bearers plunged up to
the neck, raising my litter above their heads to keep me dry. When I ultimately
reached the hospital I was told that if I had delayed even a few hours I should have
developed generalized blood poisoning, but an immediate operation put me right.
Yet it was my tribal friends who saved me” (Elwin, The Tribal 125). You might
have seen in films or read in books about the helpful nature of tribal people. Elwin
also recalls and says, “Around this house and other houses in which we lived there
was a strong atmosphere of affection”(124). The tribal people’s sense of cooperation
and commitment to community has been described by Elwin in following terms,
“But inspite of the realm of fantasy in which they lived, these women are practical
and devoted servants of their tribe. They were always ready to hasten to minister to
the sick and console the sorrowful (Elwin, The Tribal World 192)

If we look at their individual characteristics they are gentle, have no jealousy, no

individual attachment to property and personal possessions and have special civic
and social instincts. They are gentle and kind in their attitude.

2.5 THE PLACE OF MYTHS, RITUALS, SIGNS

AND SAYINGS
Myth, rituals, signs, songs and sayings —all of these play an important role in the
life of the tribals. Myth, as Elwin mentions, plays a bigger role than social institutions
and reminds them of their role and place on the earth. Elwin points out, “Myth does
far more than explain the Baiga’s institutions; it is their motive power and their
authorization. When a Baiga is summoned to control a man-eating tiger, he faces
this dangerous task with more courage because he knows that the duty has been his
from the beginning. When he comes to perform magic to Dhartimata and Thakur
Deo on behalf of Gond or fellow Baiga cultivators, he recites the myth of the creation
of the world and reminds his hearers of the unique quality that his tribe had in it.
When he is overwhelmed by his own poverty, he comforts himself and his family
by reminding them that to be poor and to live close to the earth was the voluntary
choice of his great ancestor, their glory and not their shame” (216-217). This is
something all of us must emulate in the present times since the present generations
are engulfed by greed and exploitation.

Tribal life is completely bound by religion the members of the tribe believe in.
Elwin describes Saora life as follows, “Saora life was completely dominated by
their religion. Beyond and around this life and this visible world is an unseen realm
of vital reality, peopled by a host of spirits whose activities impinge on normal
existence at every turn. The ghosts live in an underworld, which is something like
the world of our own, but everything is on a Lilliputian scale. The houses are very
small; the clouds lie low upon the land; it is always twilight under the infernal
moon. The ghosts live a sad half life, ill fed and poorly clad, until they themselves
die again and, if they are created in proper form, vanish from the misery of existence
for ever” ( Elwin, The Tribal World 191-192).

The tribals believe in myths which tell the story of their past origins and ancestors.
Almost each clan is informed about their past through myths. Myths also tell them
about many other things— giving them directions in life. They tell about their story
of origin and totems. The tribals respect their totems. Totem is a being , object or
symbol representing an animal or plant that serves as an emblem of a tribe or a clan,
14
family lineage reminding them of their ancestry. According to a Muria myth the Tribal World View
Murias consider the dandai fish as their totem (Elwin, Selected 115). Out of respect
they don’t kill the fish but have a lot of veneration for it. Each clan has its totems.
It could be an animal, bird or an object. Another clan may consider cobra as their
totem.

Rituals show their discipline and devotion towards traditions. Rituals not only offer
them psychological satisfaction but also enhance a sense of renewal in life. The
signs portrayed in their wall paintings show their creativity and specific style of art.
The songs and sayings not only add meaning to their life but educate them about
different aspects of existence.

Happiness is another quality of the tribal people. They are happy in their life. The
Gond folksong, for instance, idealizes the concept of happiness in the following
terms:
“In all the world a village is the place for happiness
In every house are ploughs and bullocks
And every one goes farming” ( Elwin, The Tribal World, 139).
The tribal people celebrate life and beauty in living. Nari Rustamji felt about the
tribal people in the following manner: “Much of the beauty of living still survives
in these remote and distant hills, where dance and song are a vital part of everyday
living, where people speak and think freely without fear or restrain”(qtd. In Elwin,
The Tribal, 296).

2.5.1 Features of Tribal World View

We can list the features of tribal world view in the following manner:
a) Tribals are self contented, peaceful, righteous and free from inhibitions, not
individualistic, or ridden with jealousy.
b) They have a strong sense of community life which makes them closely related
to other members of the community.
c) They are also closely related to Nature. They consider Nature as their Mother.
They have filial relationship with trees, animals, rivers and mountains—
elements of Nature.
d) They believe in the spirit of their ancestors and take counsel and guidance
from them. They also believe in the supernatural elements like their presiding
deities.
e) Their myths, songs, signs and symbols reflect their origin, creativity as well as
belief system.
f) Their world view is not a static subject but fluid. It changes over a period of
time. It also varies from tribe to tribe.

2.6 WHAT DOES THE TRIBAL LIFE OFFER TO

THE NON-TRIBAL WORLD?
This is a very interesting question. We know that the contemporary world dominated
by non-tribal population lacks many of the good things the tribal people possess.
Firstly, the contemporary world has become individualistic, exploitative and greedy.
15
Theory, Culture and The We are insensitive to others, exploit others and nature and have become self-centred.
History of Tribals
Tribal world views such as cooperation, contentment and the collective spirit trait
should be emulated by the contemporary world.

We are becoming more and more individualistic forgetting cooperation and good
aspects of community life. The tribal view of life which is based on community and
cooperative life offers us lessons to lead a life of cooperation.

We are distancing ourselves from Nature. Not only that, we are using it very roughly.
As a result, there are natural calamities like Tsunami, floods and other disastrous
events. Deforestation causes drought and many land areas become deserts. Melting
of the snow occurs. Sea water level may go up. All these are negative effects of
exploiting nature. Respect for nature and the spirit to protect it is something we
learn from the tribal world view.

Finally, the tribal belief in the supernatural makes them less anxious, stressed and
depressed.

Finally, It must be stated that the tribal world view is not a static concept. It is
subject to change from time to time and place to place. It is also not a homogenous
concept meaning all tribals having the same world view. You might have observed
that we have gleaned evidences from different tribal groups such as Gond, Baiga,
Saora and so on.

2.7 LET US SUM UP

• World view in general is defined as a person’s thinking and understanding of
life keeping in view how people are related to others including individuals
and environment
• Tribal people consider themselves as part of this larger world, particularly of
Nature. They are happy and self-contented. They are non-exploitative, non-
individualistic and have a strong sense of community and cooperation. They
are affectionate and hospitable.
• They are tradition bound; believe in their totems, ancestors and spirits.
• Their world view is a message to others particularly when modern societies
are moving away from community based life and from nature.
• The tribal world view is not static, instead it is dynamic marked by innocent
curiosity.

2.8 GLOSSARY
World View : A person’s way of thinking about and understanding
life which depends on his/her beliefs and attitudes.
Akrosh : A Hindi Film by Govind Nihalani depicting
exploitation of tribal people. Important actors in the
films were Om Puri, Smita Patil, and Naseeruddin
Shah
Mrigaya : A film by Mrinal Sen depicting tribal life during
British rule.

16
Thakur Deo and Dharti : supreme deities of the Baiga. Tribal World View
Mata
Tot em : An object, or symbol representing an animal or plant
that serves as an emblem of a group of people such
as clan or family reminding them of their ancestry.

2.9 QUESTIONS
a) What do you understand by World View? What are the basic features of the
tribal world view?
b) How does a tribal individual understand himself/herself?
c) How does a tribal person relate to others?
d) What is the attitude of a tribal towards Nature?
e) What do you understand by totem? Explain it with a few examples.
f) What is the role of myth in tribal belief system?
g) Tribal world view is not static and homogenous. Explain.

2. 10 SUGGESTED READINGS
Elwin, Verrier Selected Writings. Delhi: OUP, 2009.
The Tribal World of Verrier Elwin: An Autobiography. Delhi: OUP, 1964.
Leaves from the Jungle: Life in a Gond Village. Delhi: OUP, 1992.
Tribal Myths of Odisha. Bombay: OUP,1943.
Baiga. Delhi: Gian Publishing House, 1986.
Phulmat of the Hills. London: Murray, 1937.
Jensen, A. E. Myth and Cult Among Primitive People. Trans. Mariana Tax Choldin
and Wolfgang Weissleder. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951.
Mahanand, Anand. Representations of Tribal India in Fiction. Saarbrucken
(Germany): Lambert Academic Publishers, 2011.
Lo(K)cal Knowledge: Perceptions on Dalit, Tribal and Folk Literature. Delhi:
Authors Press,2012.
Singh, Kumar Suresh. Ed. The Tribal Situation in India. Shimla: IIAS, 1972

17
Theory, Culture and The
History of Tribals UNIT 3 TRIBAL DISCOURSE
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Key Issues to be Discussed in this Unit
3.3 How to Study this Study Material?
3.4 Tribal Discourse- the Concept
3.5 Forms of Tribal Discourse
3.6 Features of Tribal Discourse
3.7 Significance of Tribal Discourse
3.8 Let us Sum Up
3.9 Glossary
3.10 Questions
3.11 Suggested Readings

3.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this Unit are to understand the concept of discourse in general
and tribal discourse in particular terms. One of the objectives is to sensitize students
about different forms of tribal discourse. The unit also talks about the relevance of
the tribal discourse.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The tribal discourse deals with information, communication and intellectual
resources of the tribal people. It is a vast area of knowledge concerning society,
culture, thought, polity, economy, language, literature and history of the tribal people.
We have a wealth of information, about the mentioned areas that should be
disseminated and shared.

3.2 KEY ISSUES TO BE DISCUSSED IN THIS UNIT

We shall address here the following areas:
a) The term discourse
b) The identity of the tribal people and the specific way in which tribal discourse
is to be interpreted.
c) The analysis of the tribal discourse.

3.3 HOW TO STUDY THIS MATERIAL?

a) We suggest that you go through the materials you already have, particularly in
Units 1 and 2 of Block 5. These will give you the basic idea about tribal
history, life and culture.
b) Ask yourself-(i) what do you know about the India tribes? (ii) Make a list of
18 points you may learn from this Unit. These will later form a background to
 your approach needed for examining and exploring the issues that the tribal Tribal Discourse
face in their day –to-day living.
c) Read through this unit and see if your ideas about the Indian tribes are correct.
The information available from other sources may be clubbed with what you
get from this unit.
d) After going through the Unit, look at the points you had made before reading
and compare whether your guesses were right.
e) Make a comparison between Dalit discourse and tribal discourse.
f) Read more about discourse from Wikipedia, encyclopedia and other sources.

3.4 TRIBAL DISCOURSE- THE CONCEPT

The word discourse comes from the Latin word “discursus” meaning running to
and fro. It also means the written and spoken communication. It means intellectual
inquiry. In Humanities and Social Sciences, the term is used to describe a formal
way of thinking that can be expressed through language. Discourse is linked with
different aspects of human life. From that point of view, we can relate discourse to
different aspects of tribal life. For instance, if we look at the economic aspect of
tribal life, we may relate our thoughts, discussions and communications with the
productivity of the tribals. We also need to see the thoughts; discussions and
communications the tribal people have about their economic aspect. This will be
regarded as economic discourse of the tribal people.

In the same way, we try to think of philosophical discourse of the tribal people, and
take into consideration their world view and attitude towards life.

3.5 FORMS OF TRIBAL DISCOURSE

Tribal discourse with regard to History
Historical knowledge makes us aware of our past, our origin and development as a
collective entity . We learn about our heritage, society, economic and political
situations through history. If we look at the tribal history, we may find it to be a
history of erasure and displacement. The mainstream historical account says very
little about these people. Tribal people themselves have no written history. But we
see that they possess enormous resources about their past in oral forms. Thus we
may study oral literature and through it come to know that they had a rich and
eventful past. We know that they are the original inhabitants of India and for this
reason they are called adivasis. As a result of invasion and war waged against them
by organized powerful groups, they were dispersed to remote parts and became
forest dwellers, staying away from the so-called civilization. We also come to know
that they were once rulers of some kingdoms. For instance, the Kingdom Gondwana
in middle India was ruled by the Gond kings. There were many tribal chiefs and
kings in different parts of India in the ancient period. The tribal people were driven
away by outsiders to the remote areas. They resisted such invasions through resistant
movements but were eventually suppressed. Even history of these movements was
suppressed because of which the sense of the past got obliterated from their memory.
Since they were not literate, they did not write their history. The mainstream history
written about them was presented in a distorted way. Take for example, their fight
against the British for preserving their land and forests. The British described them
19
Theory, Culture and The as criminals. But in reality, it was the British government which looted their
History of Tribals
resources! This is how history is used to misrepresent people. Such an understanding
will help us to look at history in a different manner. If we look at the historical
situation from a tribal point of view, we will see a shift in our attitude. Tribal discourse
of history thus helps us to look at history from the tribal point of view. Out of this
will finally emerge the tribal discourse. In the same way we need to look at political
discourse.

Political Discourse
We see that tribal history is embedded in the oral traditions of the tribal people.
The political system of tribal people is based on their traditional ethos. It is worth
going to a tribal village to observe how their political system works, and the hierarchy
that exits there. First of all we need to understand their traditional political
institutions. If we observe their traditional political structure, we would find that
they have a leader of their community who is called raja. For instance the Oraon
tribe of a particular region has their community leader who is called Oraon Raja.
Then at the local (village) level, they have a Chief. This is the traditional structure.
The Raja and the Chief traditionally decide matters related to their tribe at the
community and the village levels respectively. They are traditional heads. But
these communities are not free from modern political system. They have their local
Sarpanchs, [Link], [Link] and elected leaders. So the tribal people are governed
by two systems. It would be interesting to see how these two are related and how
they function. It has been of interest to scholars as to how the tribal communities
relate themselves to the Indian State and how has the State been treating these
communities. We might have heard a lot about the debate of Isolation and
Assimilation, Prime Minister Nehru’s Panchsheel and so on. All these matters
constitute the political discourse with regard to the tribal people. We might observe
from this discussion that political and social domains are intimately related. Hence
let us go to the social domain.

Social Discourse
In order to understand social discourse of the tribal people, we need to understand
the different aspects of their social institutions like family, clan, community among
others. We also need to know about how these are related to one another. We should
also have some idea about their social customs like marriage and the concept of
gender relations among these people. For example many tribal communities do not
have dowry system. In fact the groom has to pay the bride -price. If he is not able to
pay it, he has to work in his in-law’s place. In some tribal communities, the woman
enjoys more freedom. In Bonda community, for instance, the bride is about ten year
older to the groom. The tribal discourse constitutes all these aspects of their life.
Social and cultural discourses are interrelated. Let us discuss the cultural discourse.

Cultural discourse
Culture is a complex term. A single definition of the term cannot include its varied
aspects. In a simple way, we can understand it as a way of life. Culture means the
way people earn their livelihood, the way they dress, conduct themselves, and so
on. It may also include their attitude towards themselves and others. Culture also
includes rituals, festivals, songs, dance, and forms of entertainment, art, crafts,
festivals, languages, literature and traditions. The tribal communities have a rich
reservoir of cultural resources. One needs to understand these forms. Each of these
forms of culture and cultural practices are to be studied. There are discussions and
20 communications on these. This constitutes the cultural discourse of the tribal people.
Gender discourse Tribal Discourse

In the discussion on social discourse, we talked about marriage as a social institution.

Gender discourse includes subjects on how men and women are related in a tribal
community. What is the place of woman in the community and family? What are
the performative roles women play in family and community? A lot of social scientists
and writers have studied these aspects of tribal life and written on them. These
writings and narratives from the community would constitute the gender discourse
of the tribal people.

These are a few aspects of tribal life and there are writings and discussions available
on these. These aspects together would be termed as Tribal discourse. It may be
produced by the tribals or by others on the tribes. For understanding tribal narratives
these will provide us a background. One may ask, Isn’t tribal writing or literature
part of tribal discourse?

One may say yes. It may constitute a part of tribal discourse, but since it is linked
with the above mentioned aspects, we need to use them as background to understand
tribal literature or writing.

Creative Writing
In the field of creative writing, tribal people have been used as subjects by a number
of writers. We can start from the oral narratives or from our epics the Ramayana
and Mahabharata. Creative writers like Verrier Elwin, John Masters, Rudyard
Kipling who had produced colonial narratives have left behind a wealth of resources
on the tribal people. We have Indian English writers like Arun Joshi, Kamala
Markandaya, Gita Mehta who have differently dealt with this theme. In Indian
languages writers like Gopinath Mohanty, Shivarama Karanth, and Mahasweta Devi
have written about the tribal people. There are many tribal writers like Ram Dayal
Munda, Grace Kujur, Mahadev Toppo, Rose Kerketta, in Jharkhand who have been
writing about their own life. The writers from Kerala- C.K. Janu and Narayanan
have contributed to tribal discourse through their narratives. In the North East, we
have writers like Rongbong Terang, Estherine Iralu, Temsula Ao, Dorje and others
who have produced a world of literature on the life of their own people.

These works would be regarded as tribal discourse in creative writing.

Literary Criticism
Many scholars and critics have also responded to works written by tribal writers
tribal literature has become an important area for research and scholarship in the
recent years. It is important to gather a data base on these works. Prolific writers on
tribal issues include Ganesh Devy; Mahasweta Devy; Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak
who has written extensively on literature on the tribal people. Anand Mahanand’s
Tribal Literature in India (2005) and Representations of Tribal India in Fiction
(2010) also deal with criticism on the writings of these creative writers.

Films and Visual Discourse

It is not that only oral and written narratives constitute discourse. Discourse may
also include films and visual narratives. There are many films produced on tribal
people in Indian languages. It will be interesting to talk about films on tribal people
in our own languages. The popular films on the tribals include Mrinal Sen’s Mrigaya,
Govind Nilhani’s Aakrosh, Satyajit Ray’s Agantuk and Aranyer Din Ratri. There
21
Theory, Culture and The are also visual media such as paintings, advertisements and so on that speak about
History of Tribals
the life of the tribal people.

3.6 FEATURES OF TRIBAL DISCOURSE

a) An Emerging Discourse: Unlike other discourses, tribal discourse is relatively
new and still in the process of forming itself. The tribal point of view has for
long been silenced. The dominant discourse has often presented its own version
of tribal life which has caused much harm to the way the tribals are perceived
today. However, with change of time and with the education and consciousness
of tribal people a new trend has emerged. With the tribals raising their voice
against prejudice in literary writing, sociological and political writings, in
protest songs on environment, against exploitation, against deforestation, and
so on it has caught the attention of the country’s centre. Though it has been
there in the forms of protest movements, with collective consciousness and
networking through electronic media , it has become quite visible today.

b) Tribal discourse is forward looking: Tribal discourse picks up the concerns

of the tribal people pertinent to the present time. Tribal discourse, no doubt
revisits the past, but it also looks towards the future. Tribal people have their
own history, their heroes, legends, traditions, and myths. All these get
emphasized tribal discourse. At the same time, they are also concerned about
their future and future generations. So they write about their future. Tribal
discourse has remained relatively an unexplored area of research and study
hence it has much scope in future.

c) It is about inclusive growth: Tribal discourse is concerned with development

of the tribal people who constitute one of the marginalized and neglected
sections of society. If adequate attention is paid to their problems concerning
education, social upliftment, and economic development, this will contribute
to inclusive growth of our nation as well as the world. Tribal discourse on
these aspects can further the cause of inclusive growth. Tribal discourse can
positively impact the government’s policy on tribal education.

d) It leads to sustainable development: The western model of development

stands in contrast to the traditional ways of living. It has to a large extent
destroyed ecology and natural environment and snatched away people’s
traditional means of livelihood. Though it gives immediate prosperity, it is for
a short span of time. For instance, rapid industrialization in certain areas has
given employment, but it has caused damage to the local environment. It has
caused air, water and earth pollution. The water level has gone down and
there is no adequate water supply. Due to deforestation and ecological
destruction, people have lost their traditional livelihood. This is an example
of rapid development against sustainable development. Tribal discourse
emphasizes sustainable development, a development that would be self-
sufficient for the local community and would be able to regenerate resources.
This is evident from the writings of tribal authors and authors who empathize
with tribal issues.

e) It is indigenous and rooted in our life and surrounding: Tribal discourse

comes from local experience. It is not based on any extraneous theory but
emanates from the experience and expertise of the tribal people. Be it
22
 sociological discourse, economic analysis or creative writing, they emanate Tribal Discourse
from the experience of the tribal people.

g) Tribal discourse is primarily collective: A major portion of tribal discourse

is in oral narratives. Most of these are in folk forms. These forms of knowledge
are based on collective memory and contribution. However, the written
discourse is based on individual authorship/ownership. Even autobiographical
writings of the tribal writers talk about their communities.

3.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF TRIBAL DISCOURSE

One may ask what is the significance of tribal discourse? We may answer the
question in the following manner. The primary significance is that it had been
marginalized for centuries in spite of its eventful past and richness and it has to be
highlighted only in the recent times. We know that the tribal people of India have
rich historical and cultural traditions. Their history is as old as human civilization.
Their culture is varied and rich. Their social customs, outlook, philosophy, knowledge
systems are valuable. However, these forms of knowledge and cultural practices
are considered inferior. They are marginalized by the dominant systems. For instance,
the tribal people fought many battles against the British. There are several tribal
movements present in the collective memory of the community. But our mainstream
history hardly records their contribution. By suppressing these forms and practices
the dominant culture makes the tribal people dispossessed and inferior. If the
achievements of the tribal community are highlighted the tribal people will feel
empowered and rich. They will get back their social rights. The second point is that
these discourses and values are not affected by modernized and westernized processes
and have been preserved and retained by the people. Hence they are precious and
may help in the welfare of the present humankind. For instance, tribal medicine
may help to cure many diseases that are not curable by allopathic medicine. There
are many social and cultural practices the mainstream society can learn from the
tribal community. For instance, community based life, respect for our environment,
dowry-free marriage and so on. Tribal discourse can offer so much to the so called
mainstream world.
Even though we forget about superiority and inferiority of culture and cultural
practices, exploration in the field of tribal discourse will pave way for dialogue
among different cultures. This dialogue will also facilitate inter-disciplinary studies.
Tribal discourse is also significant as they are unique and valuable resources. Just
like tribal medicine, tribal oral narratives, for instance are rare and aesthetically
pleasant and educative. They have influenced many great writers such as Mahasweta
Devi and Girish Karnard. They are also a valuable source of knowledge. Even the
creative writing produced by the contemporary writers are unique forms of
expression.
Let us consider the following questions to understand the above mentioned points
in detail.

3.8 LET US SUM UP

i) Discourse concerns with communication, system of knowledge and ideology.

ii) Tribal discourse deals with different domains of tribal life which include
language, literature, culture, society and history 23
Theory, Culture and The iii) It is an emerging field, with collective consciousness
History of Tribals
iv) Tribal discourse has greatly contributed to research and knowledge generation
vis-à-vis the tribal community that had been neglected for a long time. It has
helped in reconstructing tribal past and has further helped us understand
different aspects of tribal life, culture and heritage.

3.9 GLOSSARY
Discourse : The word discourse comes from the Latin word
“discursus” meaning running to and fro. It also
means written and spoken communication. It can
mean intellectual inquiry. In Humanities and Social
Sciences the term is used to describe a formal way
of thinking that can be expressed through language.

Tribe : Roughly it means an ethnic group organized largely

on kinship. In Indian context, tribe is referred to the
tribal people who are also known as adivasis.

Sustainable development : A mode of development that meets the needs of the

present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.

Indigenous people : This term broadly refers to people of ethnic minority

with a distinct culture with common ancestry with
non-dominant form of society.

3.10 QUESTIONS
i) What do you understand by the term “discourse”? What is tribal discourse?
ii) Why is tribal discourse important in our time?

3.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Gupta,[Link] Writers of [Link]: Ramanika Foundation,2006.

Mahanand, Anand. Loc(k)al Knowledge: Perceptions on Dalit, Tribal and Folk

Literature. Delhi: Authors Press, 2013.

Tribal Literature in India. Hyderabad; CIEFL, 2005.

Miri, Mrinal. Change and Continuity in the Tribal World. Shimla:IIAS,1992.

Yadav, Kumkum. Tribals in Indian Narratives. Shimla:IIAS,2003.

24
 Tribal Discourse
UNIT 4 NATURE AND CELEBRATION IN
TRIBAL LIFE
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Nature as a Rescuer
4.2 The Poet-subject and the Surrounding World
4.3 Absence of Power Structure in Tribal Community
4.4 Spontaneity and Variety in Tribal Life
4.5 Openness and Distinctness in the Tribal Community
4.6 Unity of Nature and Humans
4.7 Harmony and Peace as the Core of Tribal Life
4.8 Let Us Sum Up
4.9 Questions
4.10 Suggested Readings

4.0 OBJECTIVES
We consider in this unit aspects of nature and celebration that are reflected in the
life and behaviour of the tribal community. It is observed that the tribal has a close
organic association with nature. S/he is born in nature, looks at it on a daily basis as
no other in the rest of the country, and relates to it as if one is a part of it. On the
other side, nature has its different phases. It shows itself in rain, sunshine, clouds,
streams and rivers, animals and birds, various sounds and colours. The tribal changes
his/her mood in accordance with all these, believing that all these are its guides
protectors, and well-wishers. Nature has also its joyous aspects, such as breeze,
storm, flowers, singing of birds, roar of lions, etc. The tribal takes inspiration from
these as well as from the rituals performed on various occasions in life because of
which he becomes happy and therefore celebrates. These are taken up in some
detail in this unit.

4.1 NATURE AS A RESCUER

In the beginning, let us have a look at the lines from a poem by Temsula Ao “Soul
Bird.” The poem is from the point of view of a girl child whose vision is constructed
by the environment surrounding her. At one stage, she loses her mother and she
misses her. There is no way she can come to terms with her pain. The issue is who
or what will rescue her in this sad situation. The lines go as follows:
She slowly turns heavenwards
As her red-rimmed eyes
Settle on the circling silhouette,
And then with a sudden
Unseemly whoop
She draws me closer
Whispering in my ear,
25
Theory, Culture and The “See that keening bird in the sky?
History of Tribals
That is your mother’s soul
Saying her final good-bye,
It is over
Come, let us go home now.”
First, we might take a note of the distance between the girl and her companion with
“red-rimmed” eyes. The companion is senior in age, has known the ways of the
world and the bigger surroundings of nature where exist centres of peace and stability.
The dramatized situation has participants such as the young girl, her senior
companion, the figure of the bird in the sky and, finally the poet-presenter of the
scene. For reason of this multiplicity of angles, there is a complex of discourses in
the poem. Quite subtly, the lines are woven together to chart the link between the
community existence and nature. The poet Ao’s insistence is on the equation of the
child with the bird. This is to be highlighted.
The message of this poem is simple, and therefore extremely problematic. It is
simple since the bird as symbol of the mother flies away to leave the daughter in
hands of the older woman who will protect her and take her home to settle down
there. But the problematic part is that in the modern world of technology and tortuous
economic and social interests that work to the disadvantage of the tribal community,
going home is not easy. The “home” has its own aspects of deprivation and
helplessness. Does the tribal have a home in the existing circumstance? Also, even
if nature saved the child, that would be a temporary rescue act. This problematic,
difficult to comprehend, renders the poem significant.
From here, we move to the poet Temsula Ao, a middle class intellectual and a
sympathetic perceiver of the phenomenon. The sympathy has led her to state that
the tribal may stay protected only in the imagination but in the concrete reality of
the socio-economic kind, s/he has no escape from doom. Therefore, the more
problematic the poem, the more realistic and threateningly conscious it becomes.
Coming back to the basic point with which we started, the lines quoted have an
answer, and a positive one at that; it has an immediate apprehension of not suggesting
long-term stability, but as perspective it is a statement of far-reaching consequences.
At the higher level of making and having a home and keeping it alive for a long
duration, the poem provides an answer in which the existence of nature is profoundly
established. In the context, coexistence of humans with ecological factors, to use
terms of the modern world, is not just required but is desirable and worth working
for. This is the place we might give to nature in our scheme of things.

4.2 THE POET-SUBJECT AND THE

SURROUNDING WORLD
What is suggested about the surrounding world in the preceding paragraph requires
a more elaborate description of the present issue. In a sense that is stark in the
quoted lines, it is the death of the young girl’s mother. Following it, the child is
taken by someone, a family member, away from home to a place from where the
sky is clearly visible. Whereas the child innocently watches the surroundings and
then is asked to look at a bird flying high in the sky, and imagine that the mother’s
soul became a bird and is soon seen keening away. The wailing mother has no
option but to leave the child behind. That is why she is heard crying. The reason for
this is that she is attached to the daughter. There is a beautiful fusion here of the
26
human and the nature-related. The senior person, presumably the grandmother, Nature and Celebration in
Tribal Life
tells about, and explains in some detail, the belief system of the tribe that humans
and birds are so closely related with each other that they might transfer themselves
to the form of each other under a bigger principle of commonness. The question
that can be raised in this context is whether humans are merely individuals or else
a part of nature that assumes different shapes in the process of dynamic movement
and change.
In response to the question raised above, we may state that humans have this approach
under which they live with one another in a relationship. The relationship may be
of members within a family and those others who live nearby in the same place.
Cities, towns and villages have homes and these define the way humans would
spend their time establishing contact, creating a sense of peace and harmony. In
general terms, all these constitute society. At the same time, humans also arrange
food, clothing and other necessities of life taking help from fields, rivers, trees,
mountains and valleys, as well as forests. In the case of a tribal community, most
needs of life are fulfilled with help coming from the forest; that is the larger
surrounding in which all constituents exist and depend upon one another for
sustenance. This enables tribal communities to feel at home and organise their living
in simple and easy terms. The lesson to be learnt from this is that humans have a
social character that can be explained as mutuality. Extend this idea to say that one
is complete within oneself. In this, where is that individuality people in urban centres
talk about? Theoretically speaking, individuality indicates one person living alone
and keeping one’s attention focused on the choice made that putting in practice that
choice to one’s best capacity. But the idea is theoretical, shedding light only on the
restrictive nature of present-day context. In another context, for example, the task
assigned by a collective structure might leave full scope to the person involved for
experiment and innovation. The life of the tribal individual shows such a thing
quite explicitly as well as convincingly. This happens for two reasons—the first is
associated with the urge to live in a specific place along with its geographical contours
and remain there as if one belonged to it. On the other hand, the second is linked not
with power structure of any kind as such, but with a point of inspiration coming
from a specific direction. In the case of a tribal community, it comes from nature.

4.3 ABSENCE OF POWER STRUCTURE IN

TRIBAL COMMUNITY
Let us consider the first reason, which is that the tribal community does not have a
power structure that it evolved to manage its affairs. Indeed, it works without a
power structure. Consultations may happen. People may sit together and ponder
over an imminent danger. Also, the work, the labour is not divided, and no conscious
plan exists for execution to further long term goals. Nor is knowledge an end-result
of a venture in which the community participated as such. The group of people
living together at a place form themselves into a community not to a well laid out
plan that set for itself high ideals to achieve. They form themselves into a community
in the functional sense—it may have been the will of a few and others followed it.
Conversely a natural circumstance, such as flood or famine, threw them together,
and this resulted in their association with one another for a longer duration than
visualized. The implication here is that most of what followed was a matter of
chance happenings beyond the community’s control. If we expanded the scope of
such a development to cover centuries and millennia, we may reach the conclusion
that early societies worked on the principle of all resources of the planet being of 27
Theory, Culture and The use for all the people. The question is whether such a visualization is a matter of
History of Tribals
utopianism, something belonging to fantasy and thus without any tangible basis. If
we surmised happenings in the past as thrown up by necessity that people faced in
times of ease or distress, we shall see the said visualization not as a utopia. On the
other hand, if we brought in the framework of production for increased comfort and
convenience, of seeking pleasure in more acquisition of resources that led to higher
or lower ranks of living, we might rate the tribal community lower down in scale.

So far as the second reason goes, we may state that nature with its cycles, variety,
and aesthetic-inspiring quality sends out messages to the tribe as a matter of course.

4.4 SPONTANEITY AND VARIETY IN TRIBAL

LIFE
Spontaneity and variety are the crux of a tribe. This goes opposite to the established
view. A preconceived notion about a tribal community is that it is ancient, static and
undynamic. Nothing is farther from the truth. A process of curious looking around
and learning from what is around continues uninterrupted. This causes the occurrence
that judgment seldom forms a part of the life of a tribe. As we come across in day to
day living, people see and soon begin to assess, as if the whole thing exists for them
to grasp and use. It is assumed that the observed part of the surroundings is a chapter
of the book of life. When one has ‘read’ it, one is supposed to carry on from there.
From where? Obviously, from the happening one witnessed and went through. Stretch
it further to see that the happening has already opened the door of further movement
in a specific direction that lay potentially in the happening. In this manner, the
happening is the point of departure, a beginning that will direct and govern the
future effort. We move in the already existing direction born in the middle of the
previous episode. Becoming its prisoners, as it were, we lose freedom and carry out
that came up as a chance occurrence. The binding of the action we did would drive
us under its principle. It will not give us enough space to choose a path that suits our
desires and aspirations. We should indeed put it beside the method of learning the
tribal individual or the general tribal life, which are inseparable.

As suggested, the tribal community does not seek guidance from what happened in
the past, but from what happens on the day that followed the previous night. To see
the pattern that may finally emerge from actions done over a long time, one may
realize that the order of preference and choice was dictated by the dynamically
changing socio-natural scenario. The tribal community only keeps pace with the
changes in the environment. Also, in view of a governing logic prevented from
emerging, the tribal community absorbs the truth of the socio-cultural scenario in a
radically new way.

4.5 OPENNESS AND DISTINCTNESS IN THE

TRIBAL COMMUNITY
The question is whether this method of learning is non-intrusive; it maintains
consonance with the organically evolving nature-human link. That is where the
answer is found to the innocence and sympathy with the outside world the tribal life
enjoys. Let us call it spontaneity. Where is variety and the ongoing process of seeing
more and more in such a case? An answer to this query is not to be found in theory.
Instead, one appreciatively and sympathetically recognises features that are added
28
to the tribal existence over decades, centuries and millennia, enriching it and lending Nature and Celebration in
Tribal Life
it depth. Sanjoy Hazarika has observed:

The Northeast has been described as Asia in miniature, a place where the
brown and yellow races meet and mingle. The oral history of the tribes of
Mizoram, Nagaland, Manipur and other areas tell of ancestors from the
shadowy past, from mountains steeped in mist and romance, from lands
far away, of snake gods and princesses, epic battles and great warriors.
(Misra, Tilottama. Ed., The Oxford Anthology of Writings from North-
East India: Poetry and Essays. New Delhi: OUP, 2011.P.160)

In this quotation, the phenomenon of variety has been effectively outlined. The
Northeast here is an identity collectively evolved for telling the world that there is
an alternative character of living is present in it. Significantly, the area under mention
is given the extremely suggestive and appealing name “Asia in miniature.” The
first impression of the name it is a beautiful entity, making the onlooker curious
about what the place contains and in what measure. Since, beauty has been brought
in, there must be an artistic aspect to it. That indeed is the case. In art, proportion is
important. It creates symmetry. One part integrates with another as if the two
complement each other and show their interdependence. Look at the community
visualized in the word and find that each component of it, human and natural, lives
for itself and the others with equal respect and dignity. The beauty also comprises
the various cultures that coexist to inspire one another and finally form a collective
unit suggested by the beautiful word.

What do “the brown and yellow races [that] meet and mingle” tell? To my mind,
they tell the story of coexistence that naturaly evolved. People of one area and
culture saw something appealing in another area and the two enjoyed the mixing.
Initially, they had different languages to use for communication, but as they moved
near each other, they happily borrowed words, phrases, short crisp expression, jokes,
comments and finally views. All formed a spectacle of happiness. Did a different
colour matter? Did a different set of rituals draw line of demarcation and division?
The answer to both the questions was a firm no, since the “meet and mingle” act
had raised the living by a few notches and added value to the union unthinkable
earlier.

Again, in the quotation “ancestors from the shadowy past” along “from mountains
steeped in mist and romance, from lands far away” combine time and place
containing community life spread over millennia in a manner at once aesthetic and
philosophical. The description appears to suggest there was complete unity between
ancestors and mountains as well as mist and romance. Note that it is not specificity
that is evoked, but a vision that takes us to post-development phase of history. In
this sense, socialism as envisioned by history outside of and freed from “prehistory”
could be sensed in the quotation and its clear reference to those inhabitants in “the
shadowy past” who bore witness to an era of positive and dynamic mutuality. To
this, another statement by Sanjoy Hazarika becomes an apt corollary:

The people of the Northeast are the guardians of its most precious asset: its
uniqueness. Which other area has such beauty among its people and its environment?
Which sees such a range of religions, creeds, communities, lifestyles and traditions?
Which other area can match it in the sheer raw power of nature: whether it is the
Brahmaputra that resembles a great sea during its rain-swollen, flood-hungry days;
or the force of its gales and the grace of its waterfalls, the lushness of its forests and
29
Theory, Culture and The bamboo thickets. And the solitude of its spirit, found in the mist of the mountains.
History of Tribals
(Misra, Tilottama. Ed., The Oxford Anthology of Writings from North-East India:
Poetry and Essays. New Delhi: OUP, 2011.P.163)

Mark the word “uniqueness” here that denotes a value worth preserving by posterity.
Literally, the word speaks of something not seen anywhere in the world. This is an
exaggeration we should appreciate for its emphasis on the vital life the Northeast
represents. Metaphorically, it might go in an entirely new direction to send the
message that we watch in the region a future that we may have to consciously and
assiduously work for. Indeed, that is possible if we saw in clear terms the
“preciousness” of the “asset”. It cannot be captured through prose. That is why
Hazarika has taken recourse to the broad manner of poetry and created the sense of
wonder and loftiness by talking of Brahmaputra “resembling a great sea” and “the
lushness of it forests and bamboo thickets.” However, the picture would not be
complete if he did not make a telling reference to “the solitude of its spirit, found in
the mist of the mountains.” This underlines the unity between what humans have
(in the form of urge and will) and what they observe in nature. On the other hand, if
humans reduce their capabilities to the level of possessing more things than required,
they lose out on the invaluable wealth of nature, something that puts them in touch
with the magic of the mind. The tribal community in their songs, in their simple-
looking rituals re-enact the drama that they see with the help of imagination in their
own memory. Do they have history, do they have a progressive knowledge with
which to harness the power of nature? In response to this, we might say that the
terms of their knowledge and what to remember from the past are not those of
going forward. On the contrary, their terms are inspired by make-believe, re-working
and re-living acts of happiness and fulfilment. All these fall in the category of
celebration. For them, the mantra of life is to share with one another those moments
that will put them in touch with the rhythm that the movement of waters, animals,
birds and the slow-growing plants and trees follow and work with. In the latter,
there is life. This life is recognised and worshipped. It also makes them believe that
such a life generates a sense of belonging. The tribal community lives in and for the
forests and streams that they strive to preserve and nurture. Charles Chasie mentions
a practice where forces of nature, chance, gods and the deep faith residing in the
tribal person come together to construct the act of sustenance. In this case, even as
ordinary a practice as blessing a young person who may be going on a journey to
conduct business away from one’s place will reveal the creative mindset of the
tribe. Important in it would be the faith reflected in the blessing where help from
gods or the tribe’s ancestors is invoked. At one level, it is a flight of one’s imagination,
at another it might as well be a pointer to something unknown but so near that the
reference may directly assure safety and security.

4.6 UNITY OF NATURE AND HUMANS

The tribal mind draws strength from sensuous capturing of the surrounding reality,
as if it first appealed to that part of the observer that receive sensation as well as the
associated pleasure. In case of representation of a state of mind, the poem or narration
assumes the shape of a living object, an animal, a plant, or a stream that sings. This
is because in the context, fulfilment of desire is the issue, even as it is steeped in
pain, misery or suffering. Most of the time, however, the expression is of celebration
as if a ritual in which two or more members are participating is being observed with
engagement. The following lines from a Garo song titled “House Warming” bear
testimony to this:
30
 Spirits, away with you, Nature and Celebration in
Tribal Life
I am celebrating.
As the father of Mune made the place his home,
As the Sane cultivated the land,
I have a shield,
I have a shade,
I will also cultivate the land,
I will also dwell in the village.
…
By smearing the blood,
And by sticking the feathers.
I will also dwell in the village;
I will also cultivate the land. (Devy 152)

The title “House Warming” points at the name of the ritual that makes the place
appropriate for staying in. Since humans did not occupy it, or another set of people
lived in it, a ritual is required to make the place new and fresh, so to say. The
assumption in the song is that the goal can be achieved only when the spirits present
at the place are asked to leave. That done, the celebration formally would begin.
Mark that the personal stay is made part of the fundamental truth of work that joins
all with one another. The same is denoted through “I am celebrating” that demands
interaction between two people or among more than two since a larger mission of
cultivation is the issue. The ownership of the house by two fathers (of the two
women, Mune and Sane respectively) is involved and cultivation of land as well as
dwelling at the place is to happen, physical effort will result. The last four lines talk
of smearing of blood, and sticking of feathers that are to precede cultivation. The
celebration in this sense is work-related and social.

In the following lines from a Garhwali song, we come across a change in mood that
has moved away from the serious work-related endeavour to the relatively subjective
participation:
We offer flowers to you,
O doorstep of the house, be kind—
Fill the granary with corn.

It is the festival of flowers—

We offer flowers to you,
O threshold of the house!

May God bless you with an auspicious new year,

May your granary fill till it overflows,
May your crops thrive and wealth grow,
Let these seasons and months come again,
Let the flowers bloom again and again. (Devy 135)

Important words in these lines are “festival of flowers,” “auspicious,” “granary,”

“season,” and “months.” All these refer to either nature or time which in the context
31
Theory, Culture and The is united through the human being at work. Also, note that rather than the forest or
History of Tribals
the wild, it is nature harnessed through labour that is made the subject of celebration.
Not to be missed, however, is the fact that cultivation of crops and granary to be
filled “till it overflows” are a matter of joy ensuing from labour. This is radically
different from what is termed marketable, the mention of “wealth grow” in the
lines notwithstanding. The point to be made is that work leading to the filling of
granary is to reassure oneself that the moment to celebrate has finally arrived. In
relation to other stages of change in the tribal existence in history, we are told in the
lines that quiet change has occurred in the ways life is lived and that forms of living
may be further altered if conditions for that came into existence.

4.7 HARMONY AND PEACE AS THE CORE OF

TRIBAL LIFE
Finally, the harmony that potentially exists between nature and humans may be of
interest to us. It is not difficult to visualize humankind’s distant past when greed
and possessiveness were not defined as the central truth of life. Thought and action,
hunger and food, desire and its fulfilment were within the reach of people inhabiting
different parts of the world. Such a way of existence could easily go on peacefully,
recognizing resolution hidden within its problem and thus giving chance to society
to attain with effort and simple planning a sense of satisfaction within limited means.
The tribal community shows us this simple dream of happiness and fruitful
companionship that may be quietly thought of and appreciated for its desirability.
We learn productive lessons from the tribal communities even as they perform their
tasks with innocence and curiosity. Such a dream is enshrined in the poetry and
fiction that constitutes oral history belonging to these communities in our midst. In
the modern age, literatures are becoming increasingly word-centric that are meant
for writing using a script and for printing so that they can be made available to a
larger audience than before. There may be obstacles in the way of presenting literary
pieces such as poems, dramas and short stories that were originally spoken and
performed in the manner of a stage production. It is pointed out, meanwhile, that
printing might miss out on the quality and vitality of the oral representation. Be that
as it may, it is certain that the tribal imagination has a method to adopt for giving
palpable and somewhat fixed language to their folk forms of expression. An
interesting example of how the dream of mutuality and harmony could be composed,
the following description could offer a glimpse for our help. This has formed part
of a short fiction piece “The Hunter’s Story” written by Monalisa Changkija:

Just before dawn, [hunter] Chuba dozed off for about an hour. When he woke up he
thought that he had a terrible nightmare. And seeing all the dwellers of the forest
still surrounding him, his heart was filled with fear again. Finally, the king of the
forest, the Grand Lion spoke. Chuba was now shivering despite the sun’s rays
embracing the earth with warm arms. The Grand Lion said, “I think you, man, did
not have a pleasant night. Well, we the dwellers of the forest haven’t had a pleasant
night’s rest for the past ten years, except last night. I don’t need to tell how we have
felt and what we have we have suffered for the past ten years because of you, man,
and now you too have gone through our experience last night. It would have been
very easy to take revenge for the death of all our loved ones in the most violent
way—which is through your gun. But we do not believe in violence and revenge.
We too can hurt and kill but we know that we were not created to cause pain and
death. We know that we have been created to maintain the balance of nature and
32
contribute to the well-being of this planet. We cause pain and kill only when we are Nature and Celebration in
Tribal Life
attacked, in self-defence. (Misra. Tilottama Ed, The Oxford Anthology of Writings
from North-East India: Fiction. New Delhi: OUP, 2011. P.253)

This passage shows in clear terms the map of happiness that humans are capable of
creating if they have a positive attitude towards themselves and nature in consonance
with each other. In this passage, the Grand Lion symbolises the grandeur and breadth
of vision of the tribal imagination that works on the principle of attaining
uninterrupted peace for all, described by him as “a pleasant night’s rest.” This has
basis in the concept of equality and respect for all people on the planet earth that
has plenty of resources for the survival and upkeep of humanity. Incontrovertibly,
humans have it in them to dream big about lasting happiness that can lead all to a
celebratory mode.

4.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have discussed the scope of dynamic living within the imaginative
capability of people compelled to live on the margins. These constitute the many
tribal communities living in India. Surrounded by the wide variety of organized
living that is progressive and enlightened, we have generally missed out on the
ways of thought and feeling of the tribals. The proximity of these peaceful
communities living on the edge of forests, rivers, mountains and valleys, with nature
holding an example of harmony for the strife-torn societies of our time. The answer
to our state of deprivation, inequality and large scale violence lies in recognising
the role and function of spontaneity and harmony that we can learn from the tribal
communities in our midst. Such a message is conveyed by the rich and inspiring
literary heritage that the communities possess and seek guidance from.

4.9 QUESTIONS
1) How does the tribal individual relate to nature? Explain.
2) What do celebration and joy mean in the context of the tribal community?
Elaborate.

Notes:
1) The blessing to the traveller on mission is as follows: “May the spirits look
after you and protect you; May good fortune attend to you; May you always be
in good health so that you do not lose perspective and can always remain
directed towards your goal; And you’re your achievements surpass that of
your rivals. May the smoke of your fire be seen as long as anyone else is
making fire; May you be fleet-footed so that you may not stumble and fall
either by stone or stump; And having achieved what you set out to do, may you
return as quickly as the hand of Providence guides you.” (Misra. Poetry and
Essays 263) In this, combination of various myths, cultural figures and nature’s
images works towards a project that members of the tribe undertake in the
social context. See the mention of spirits, the protection theme, goal, the way
of walking to a place, and Providence in the same breath.
2) G.N. Devy has observed, “Songs have a special importance in tribal imaginative
transactions, as they relate to every aspect of life. These songs normally take
the form of a requiem or a conversation, and thus might contain a lover’s
address to his beloved, a daughter’s to her parents or a man’s to his ancestors. 33
Theory, Culture and The … Their complexity lies in their allusive quality and their wonderfully earthy
History of Tribals
metaphors.” The lines from the two songs quoted in the text are important
from the point of view of what Devy has called their “earthiness.”

4.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Devy, G.N. Ed., Painted Words: An Anthology of Tribal Literature. Vadodra: Purva
Prakash, 2002.
Misra, Tilottama. Ed., The Oxford Anthology of Writings from North-East India:
Poetry and Essays. New Delhi: OUP, 2011.
———————, The Oxford Anthology of Writings from North-East India: Fiction.
New Delhi: OUP, 2011.

34
 Nature and Celebration in
UNIT 5 TRIBAL THOUGHT: SOME Tribal Life

VOICES-I
Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 G.N. Devy’s General View About the Tribals
5.2 Concept of the Organically Linked Community
5.3 The Secular is Counter-posed With Sacred
5.4 Two Traditions: The Oral and The Visual
5.5 Thingnam Kishan Singh’s View of Manipur Region in History
5.6 Vibrancy in Manipur in Its Early Existence
5.7 Fall and Subjugation of Manipur Through Violence in Early Eighteenth
Century
5.8 Irony Working Behind a Different Kind of Modernity
5.9 The Problematic Present
5.10 Let Us Sum Up
5.11 Questions
5.12 References

5.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit aims to familiarise the young scholar with new thoughts about the tribal
population in India. These thoughts are given the word voices since they signify a
sympathetic understanding of the way of life of the tribals with special focus on
their attitude, their aesthetic vision enshrined in their folk tales and their overall
history. Particularly, this unit will dwell upon the rationale of living of this community
equipped to interpret the forest, the land, community life, and cultural identity. Two
scholars of repute picked up for covering the community/ communities of India’s
tribal population and for presenting a sympathetic appreciation of this social segment
are G.N. Devy and Thingnam Kishan Singh. Devy’s essay constitutes the Introduction
in his book Painted Words: An Anthology of Tribal Literature, and Kishan Singh’s
essay is titled “Encounters and Literary Engagements: A Critique of History and
Literature in Manipur.”An attempt is made in this unit to emphasise a few important
points made by the two scholars in their respective essays.

5.1 G.N. DEVY’S GENERAL VIEW ABOUT THE

TRIBALS
[Link] distinguishes the tribal section as different from all other categories of
social life. For him, none among scholars and observers has done justice to this
section, seeing it the way it is. Its material existence and the objective ways it
adopts are to be noted. In fact, the tribal defies all divisions and characterizations
that people have forged to describe it. Are people constituting this section are original
inhabitants of the place they live in at present, something that the word “adivasi”
denotes—belonging to a stretch of forest land since time immemorial? Were they
stuck to the place as if made and shaped by it, giving them specific contours of 35
Theory, Culture and The culture? Was their domain exclusive and unconnected with all others we know?
History of Tribals
Giving answer to these questions in the affirmative would be abstract and ill
informed. They are a given, a concrete existence of humanity, like most others
bearing the name of a region, a time, a way of living, a belied system, or exemplifying
a rigid community formation. Thus, one might adopt the method of enquiry at once
sympathetic and appreciative. That would imply a deeply learning engagement,
free from preconceived notions and prejudice.

Indeed, this is not asking for too much in the contemporary circumstance. Today in
many a case, we do look at a phenomenon with sincere curiosity and wonder, and
strive to enrich our mind with yet to be attained wisdom. Also, with such an attitude
we acquire a critical awareness of our own thoughts and ideas that may be invisibly
bound with complacency and smugness. When did we, for instance, look at as a
tribal as if he viewed his world and ours sensibly and seriously? To us he appears so
simple and unevolved! We soon tell ours, if we are sympathetically inclined in the
general sense, that he should be helped to raise his level of education, awareness
and skills. This way he will catch up with us and become our equal finally. We
assume erroneously that his growth as a human being is stunted and if not given a
push in what we consider the new direction, it will dry up and fall on the wayside.
We do not realise that in history, tribal have gone through troubled times at all
places where they lived, and survived many ups and downs. Today, too, they pose
issues before the mighty capitalist interests and even if pressed hard, may have a
resistance strategy built in the marrow of their own logic of existence. Capitalism is
ruthless and deadly. Its violence, we all know, works at a multiplicity of levels. It
can combine ideology, politics, money power and naked repression to see that tribals
are driven away from their forest and absorbed into the market scenario as work
force. Yet, the tribal ethos stands apart and may be an answer to to the ills and evils
of modern-day capitalism. This is precisely what Devy has in mind as he argues for
a positive and an altogether different view of the tribal worldview. His view could
go a long way in mobilizing opinion in support of the tribal [Link] making
his point about the ethos of the tribal section, Devy uses reversal as a strategy in
which influential groups among us are looked at from the eye of a different section
of people. This is a crucial point he has made since it turns tables on the world
driven by profit making and turning human venture into a commodity for purchase
and sale in market conditions. It is one thing to dub the tribal not knowing and left
behind in the process of what is called change and another to look critically into the
existing world and spotting only vacuity there.

5.2 CONCEPT OF THE ORGANICALLY LINKED

COMMUNITY
For Devy, tribal communities scattered over different regions in the world enjoy
similarity and unity. They relate more with nature surrounding them, for instance,
that each other within the community. At the same time, members of the community
do not live separated from one another, but are linked through sharing a common
perspective, something considered odd in the supposedly developed societies. A
thread, living and organic, links one with the other. Separate one person from the
rest and all are affected in the cohesive world they inhabit. Their work that can be
termed labour as well is geared towards fulfilling the immediate needs; once those
are met, the communities begin looking for new ways to realize themselves in a
participatory framework. Here, that which is termed rational or reason-oriented has
36
a limited significance. Instead, intuition as a perception rooted in instinct is the Tribal Thought: Some Voices-I
driving force, the guiding principle in living. Members of the tribal community
connect with a tree, a bird, a water-body, a star as a companion that will suffer with
them, enjoy along with them. For the tribal community, these companions are nature
that also flows in their bodies and has a residence in their minds. Also, a power that
is considered God is inseparable from nature or the community bound by
geographical lines such as rivers or rivulets, mountain ranges and the forest. Thus,
all existing phenomenon with various parts in it is present for worship, for talking
to, for sharing one’s feelings and emotions with. Keeping this in view, the tribal is
seldom lonely, or helpless. The sense of togetherness that enthuses one and all and
binds each within an emotional territory constitutes truth. It creates a mind, a centre
of feeling and thinking that can be named imagination. The question can be raised—
what is tribal imagination? The answer as such would be—it is a faculty with which
the tribal community perceives and is active in, it is a human method to extend
boundaries for the benefit of the community to reach one another and communicate
with. The word denoting interaction is common to both community and conversing.
Is the tribal community concerned about what is termed truth? While attempting an
answer, keep in mind the apparent assumption that truth can be reached through
perception, analysis and examination; it stands at the end of a whole process of
human-made logic and methodology. Yet, the tribal looks at the phenomenon in
front with instinct telling him what is acceptable and what is not. In this sense, truth
is subjective, even as the subjective is thought to be right by the whole community
to which the tribal individual belongs. Incontrovertibly, the truth as it is seen is
instinct-based, a paradigm not fitting in with what we call the rationally available
phenomenon.

5.3 THE SECULAR IS COUNTER-POSED WITH

SACRED
Devy uses the word ‘sacred’ to make the distinction—the secular is counter-posed
with sacred. We may give it the status of imagination at work in a community that
lives with nature as its part that as an entity where humans draw a line between the
two and assume the role of active agents working upon the world of nature, modifying
and improving it so they can put it to human use. The noted Bengali writer
Mahashweta Devi presents the distinct organicist vision that forms itself in the
tribal imagination. This is captured by her in the short story “Makar Savar.” The
following account of a character living in a community is an example of this vision:
At that time Mangal had arranged a marriage between Makar and Revati.
Kisto Babu had laughed and said, “Revati? Pahari Savar’s daughter? I
know her. She will be a good match for our Makar.”
Yes, the first marriage was performed with all the rituals. On the auspicious
day, Makar was first married to a mango tree and Revati to a morwa tree.
“Let your married life last as long as the trees do. As the tree yields fruits
and flowers, you too beget children, as children bring joy and a sense of
fulfilment to life.” After the tree ceremony came the proper marriage, the
rice and mutton, plenty of liquor, and songs and dances. Revati was as
lovely as a flowering morwa tree.
Makar was happy, truly happy. Both of them left for the forest in the morning. They
dug pits and planted saplings. The saplings are tall now. But Revati was not a mother
even after five years. She proclaimed: 37
Theory, Culture and The “What is a marriage without children? I won’t stay with you. One should
History of Tribals
not keep a tree that doesn’t yield fruit, nor a woman who proves to barren.
You marry again.” (Devy, G.N. Ed., Painted Words: An Anthology of Tribal
Literature. Vadodra: Purva Prakash, 2012. P.277-8)

Note the link between nature and the tribal individual in the lines above. The equation
between the two is logical if we recognize the specificity. The marriage is not here
a matter of long negotiations necessary to know the sustainability of the relationship.
Thus, Managal arranges the marriage and with it the matter ends. The rituals, too,
are of serious consideration. The tribal believes them to be true and essential. Also,
no need is felt to look critically at the equation between humans and trees. If a man
can marry a woman, so can a man or a woman marry a tree each. To a supposedly
secular and argumentative individual, the case of the marriage happening here is in
the form of replication—both Makar and Revati first marry the respective tree and
then each other and they or the community to which they belong takes the whole
procedure in earnest.

5.4 TWO TRADITIONS: THE ORAL AND THE

VISUAL
G.N. Devy has talked of two traditions simultaneously, the oral and the visual.
Whereas the oral tradition works on the basis of memory, the visual goes by the
images. In the latter, imagery is the central aspect as in a painting. It is asserted that
the tribal imagination works in a stronger sense when it deals with memory. Thus,
spoken words occupy the foreground. Music, rhythm, tone and the accompanying
telling of the tale by a performer before a live audience play a decisive role in the
tribal imagination. It is notable that in the oral tradition, time is used and worked
upon to relate with the world, since the home of time is the memory. In the absence
of written documentation, memory through repetition of what happened yesterday
and the day before yesterday is repeated to preserve the long tradition bound to
time. When it comes to the visual, says Devy, the tribal mind becomes less dynamic
and mobile, at least apparently. The geographical space, from one region to another,
or from one country to another poses many problems, which are sorted out by
playing out with colours in their creative use. The tribal imagination sticks to colours,
gets committed to visual patterns and becomes a strong adherent to what appeals to
the eye. Thus it is, believes Devy, that words meant to be spoken and used in a
performative act become objects of creativity and therefore carriers of feeling and
emotion. They evoke in the bargain the effect of a sensuous movement. Losing the
dimension of meaning or message, they assume the character of a fixed representation
in the manner of a painting. We may wonder how Devy would justify the expression
“Painted Words” that happens to be the title also of his anthology of tribal literature.
Perhaps, he brings the visual and oral, the space-related and memory-oriented
expression closer to each other. This enables him to suggest that boundaries between
dialect and language as well as memory and imagery get blurred in the act of
expression at the hands of the tribal artist. Yet, these categories project the tribal art
and literature in a manner distinct from what is observed in the supposedly secular
art of the western world that has swept the modern writing in major Indian languages.
Meanwhile, the artist and writer active in a tribal community hides behind a tradition
and puts in the forefront a collective experience than an individual slant of seeing.
In it, the element of a dream-like sequence, a hallucinatory representation takes
shape, not the precise and palpable expression available in the secular art form. In
38
tribal art, things move back and forth, constantly repeat and work only through Tribal Thought: Some Voices-I
mild invisible ways. They also swear by pleasure, relaxation and indulgence than
meeting an artistic challenge as if from contemporary structures of art and culture.

5.5 THINGNAM KISHAN SINGH’S VIEW OF

MANIPUR REGION IN HISTORY
The second essay that we take up is by Thingnam Kishan Singh. It has been written
specifically to describe the socio-cultural features of Manipur region in its history
and the present. Singh’s case is of a different kind. He is an insider unlike G.N.
Devy. He has taken upon himself the task of arguing for the place he belongs to.
The task entails an argument that is intellectual in nature examining life’s real
features. Singh considers himself to be a theorist of the tribal’s existence. He is his
community’s intellectual, his role being that of an elaborator in the Gramscian
sense. His voice is of commitment. We see in his essay, published in the Oxford
Anthology of North-East India: Poetry and Essays, a passionate urge to state the
rationale of a region’s existence. For Singh, the region is rich with folklore, that
expresses spirit of the people of Manipur.

The essay begins with asserting the idea that “History bears testimony to the travails
of civilization running through a course of two thousand years as the people
inhabiting what is presently called Manipur experienced numerous upheavals
subsequent to clashes with different cultures and powers.”It is a simple but extremely
assertive statement telling in clear terms the character of people inhabiting Manipur.
In his opinion, the region had many groups with their separate identities. The groups
clashed with one another sometimes, and many a time they lived in relative harmony.
You may notice the sense of pride when the reference is made to “the people”
experiencing “numerous upheavals” after clashes had occurred between groups in
the community consisting of “different cultures and powers.” Mark here that the
people of the region were dynamic, full of energy and capable of taking their own
decisions as also fighting if that became necessary. In the comment is inherent the
truth that groups within the community made mistakes and took wrong decisions
presumably since at the particular moment when it all took place in their lives, they
felt like taking a stand that led to faulty actions. Singh’s purpose is to let the reader
know about the sense of living with freedom and self-reassurance—they were makers
of their own destiny. Let us keep in mind the fact that decisions taken persistently
by a community only express their bent of mind. That only denotes the character
and nature of the people involved. It is history that we are discussing, not a discourse
from outside of the framework of action. This, says Singh, continued till the region
came later to be called Manipur.

5.6 VIBRANCY IN MANIPUR IN ITS EARLY

EXISTENCE
The question can be raised what the region was called before it became Manipur.
Singh’s answer is: it was known then as “Kathe to the Burmese, Meklee to the
Assamese, Mooglie to the Cacharies, Cassey to Shans.” The variety of names tells
a different story that is heard in the twentieth century. It is aware of not only that
which appears to be the today’s real but also that which was executed in a violent
form at some point in the past. Humankind’s history has numerous episodes to
relate to and make sense of. This is common to all histories of the regions,
39
Theory, Culture and The communities, cultures and literatures. For example, Manipur had its freedom to
History of Tribals
cherish, its problems to solve, and harmony and equanimity to work out. That was
not easy. The place had contending interests to come to terms with. Those would be
the different visions and ideals each section in the community and those ones
surrounding it would emerge at one time or the other. Reflecting on the folk tales of
each section that swore by its own identity and role. As a region and linguistic unit,
Manipur would have a vibrant way of living that involved arranging bread and
butter, peaceful surroundings, legal framework, mutuality in day-to-day dealings
and celebratory activity linked with culture. In the middle of this, Manipur survived
and evolved over centuries. A part of Singh’s essay is devoted to this. It contains an
interesting account of what went on and helped people to live by, in short or long
term. Read the following to see what indeed was the nature of living in Manipur
over centuries:

Prior to its encounter with Hinduism, Manipuri literature till the

seventeenth century has been said to constitute its early period. Ritual
songs and hymns composed before the advent of the Manipuri script form
part of the corpus of the literature of the early period. These songs and
hymns are not treated as folk songs or part of folklore as they were not
widespread amongst the people. Neither were they handed orally through
successive generations. They were confined to a certain erudite section of
performers whose performances were again limited to [specific occasions].
… The manuscript PanthoibiKhongkul gives an account of the religious
and social festival known as the Lai Haraoba where the Khaba community
paid homage to the deity NongpokNingthou and his consort Panthoibi. …
…

Another important aspect of the literature of the early period was the treatment of
heroism. Rivalry and clashes between the clans resulted in the development of
martial skills. Bravery and courage remained central to the numerous conflicts that
created a martial culture. (Misra, Tilottoma. The Oxford Anthology of Writings from
North-East India: Poetry and Essays. New Delhi: 2011.P.144-145)

In this quotation, we come across the point that the way of life of a community
causes evolution of norms and ideas. Those in turn excite the imagination of many
of its members who take pride in their acts of valour. Working hard to realise their
aims, the participants in the heroic endeavour innovate and experiment for bettering
their skills and methods. In due course, yet greater success in the efforts of the
community is ensured. Singh terms the long-standing effort “martial culture” from
which the community draws inspiration for a long time. Also, the effort is witness
to accounts of specific individuals who behaved in a certain manner and planned
their activity by talking, discussing and analysing, as well as executing the plan. In
such a case, it is only natural that narratives are formed consisting of descriptions
of what specific individuals got involved in while active in the said venture. There
is a reference in the passage quoted above to the “religious and social festival” of
the Khaba community. In the obvious sense, the festival is rightly assumed as
celebratory. Through it, the community realizes its hidden desires to make possible
what they imagined as good and desirable.

40
 Tribal Thought: Some Voices-I
5.7 FALL AND SUBJUGATION OF MANIPUR
THROUGH VIOLENCE IN EARLY
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
Thingnam Kishan Singh has explained in this essay titled “Encounters and Literary
Engagements: A Critique of History and Literature in Manipur” a whole process of
subjugation and destruction of a heroic community of fighters. The violent episode
is described as follows:

The close of the seventeenth century and the beginning of the eighteenth century
mark a turning point in the history of Manipur. … Deeply influenced by the teachings
of the Bengali Vaishnavite Shantidas Goswami, a preacher on a proselytizing mission
along with the prevailing socio-political circumstances, Garibnawaz lived to the
true ideals of a tyrannical despot when he issued a diktat pronouncing Hinduism as
the new religion of Manipur. Opposition and resistance to this autocratic move to
obliterate the traditional faith and culture were brutally repressed. The king and
Bengali mentor left no stone unturned to erase traces of the indigenous faith. Places
of worship were destroyed, worship of traditional and local ancestral deities,
traditional rituals and rites, Lai Haraoba festivals, eating of meat, drinking of liquor
and burial of the dead were immediately banned. Burial was replaced by cremation.
Edicts were proclaimed to bring about these changes with severe consequences for
disobedience. Along with the imposition of Hinduism, the manuscripts and texts in
the indigenous script were confiscated and burnt in full public view in officially
sanctioned events known as the Puya Meithaba. Use of the indigenous script was
banned with dire consequences for those attempting to resist. It was to be replaced
by the Bengali script. Shantidas Goswami composed an entirely different chronicle
known as Gijay Panchali, which was a deliberate attempt to efface the history and
culture of the people. It projected the land as the Manipur in the Hindu epic
Mahabharata and traced the lineage and genealogy of the first King of Manipur to
Chandrabhanu whose daughter Chitrangada was married to Arjuna, the great Pandava
archer. Babruvahana was the son born of this wedlock. … Imported art forms like
the Natya Sankirtan actively encouraged by the royal power gained popularity.
Corruption in language became the order of the day as the elite and aristocratic
class got increasing exposure to Indo-Aryan languages like Sanskrit and Bengali.
Manipuri vocabulary witnessed introduction of many new words from these
languages. (Misra, Tilottoma. The Oxford Anthology of Writings from North-East
India: Poetry and Essays. New Delhi: 2011.P.148-9)

Mark here words such as “autocratic move to obliterate the traditional faith and
culture.” Whereas the history of the Manipuri community prior to the seventeenth
century was of group clashes within the indigenous social unit, the developments in
the seventeenth century denote autocracy. The word denotes a wilful act devoid of
internality of the group in question, and points towards the tendency to use cold and
calculated policies meant to impose through means fair or foul to kill the urge to
survive, assert and preserve. In the process of “obliteration,” the script is changed,
the folklore is declared null and void and taken away from circulation so that it is
replaced by a counter folklore. The act of policy is marked by a cruelty that works
on a different plane. The parameters of this policy are not physical, but mental and
spread in its scope to the plane of culture. One culture is removed through force and
another culture replaces it after the agents of the former culture have been rendered
inoperative.
41
Theory, Culture and The Kishan Singh’s account of the process of obliteration of Manipuri culture and folklore
History of Tribals
bears a close resemblance to colonising a whole people through force, physical and
mental. The latter violence is yet more cynical; it is executed through recourse to
systematic suppression. Culture and thought are sought to be changed radically
under it and the target is the mind, creativity and fantasy. The whole community is
denied the right to observe its past in the way it existed and was believed be so over
time. What was carried on for centuries in the name of rituals, observance of norms
and their projection through folklore is snatched from the community, and a new
form of thought and interpretation is brought in for assessing one’s work at the
level of mind and imagination.

5.8 IRONY WORKING BEHIND A DIFFERENT

KIND OF MODERNITY
With heroism denied to the community for close to two centuries, Manipur faced
another phase of onslaught in the closing years of the nineteenth century. This came
in the form of a rationale that enjoyed sanction of science and improved ways of
production and organization. This region of the Northeast was without any cohesive
frame and fights would occur between one sub-group of society and another. The
result was a weakening of the thread that bound the people together. Any alien
power that approached the people in the region for mutual exchange would see in
this an opportunity to pursue its own narrow economic interests. Thus, it became
possible for a more effective method of exploitation to come in and take control of
the resources of the region. Following such a situation, says Kishan Singh, the
closing years of the nineteenth century marked “another significant turning point in
the history of Manipur, as the Anglo-Manipuri War of 1891 altered the political
contours of the land. It is crucial to note that Manipur’s political interaction with
the British had started quite some time back as a result of constant conflicts with
the Burmese along with fratricidal tussles for the throne. … Rapid changes could
be seen in every aspect of life as forces of modernity in the wake of British rule
ruptured the traditional fabric.” (Misra 150)

5.9 THE PROBLEMATIC PRESENT

At this point in the essay, Kishan Singh enters the present phase of life in the
community in Manipur. For him, the place had gone through many an upheaval,
from an indigenous past of dynamism to confronting a violent denial of freedom
and, therefore, following a patterned design of subjugation, and from then on to
bearing the yoke of enslavement imposed by the British. The changes occurring at
regular intervals had made it easy for the new masters to keep the region in check.
This resulted in the 1940s and 50s constituting an era of what Kishan Singh has
called homogenisation. In his words, “The ancient Asiatic kingdom newly
transformed into a democratic political structure in the postcolonial period was
‘merged’ with the newly independent State of India on 15 October 1949 in pursuance
of a treaty of accession. It is this crucial encounter with India that people largely
perceive has produced highly conflicting tendencies in terms of explicit moves to
impose a homogenizing framework which operates at every level of existence—
social, political, cultural, legal, economic, etc.” (Misra 154)

42
 Tribal Thought: Some Voices-I
5.10 LET US SUM UP
We have read in this unit an interpretation of the life of the tribal community from
two viewpoints, those of G.N. Devy and Thingnam Kishan Singh. Whereas Devy
comments on the nature of the tribals as harmonious with nature, Kishan Singh
takes us deep into the past of Manipur region. Devy’s appreciative view of the
tribal community blends well with that of Kishan Singh who has called people of
Manipur heroic with respect to their heritage. Each of the two scholars has a distinct
view of the people under study. The two voices of the tribal thought enable us to see
the tribal community as dignified, honest, and living in harmony with nature. Yet,
they face problems of dealing with social prejudice and homogenisation by a power
centre away from them. It is also observed that thinkers and writers among the
regions in the Northeast are conscious about their own vitality and the urge to live
with dignity.

Notes:
1
G.N. Devy has observed:
“Most tribal communities in India are culturally similar to tribal communities
elsewhere in the world. They live in groups that are cohesive and organically unified.
They show very little interest in accumulating wealth or in using labour as a device
to gather interest and capital. They accept a worldview in which nature, man and
God are intimately linked, and they believe in the human ability to spell and interpret
truth. They live more by intuition that by reason, they consider the space around
them more sacred than secular, and their sense of time is personal rather than
objective. The world of the tribal imagination, therefore, is substantially different
from that of the non-tribal Indian society.” (Int., Painted Words x)
2
This is what Devy has said in the context:
“One of the main characteristics of the tribal arts is their distinct manner of
constructing space and imagery, which might be described as ‘hallucinatory.’ In
both oral and visual forms of representation, tribal artists seem to interpret verbal
or pictorial space as demarcated by an extremely flexible ‘frame.’ The boundaries
between art and non-art become almost invisible. A tribal epic can begin its narration
from a trivial everyday event; tribal paintings merge with living space as if the two
were one and the same. And within the narrative itself, or within the painted imagery,
there is no deliberate attempt to follow a sequence. The episodes retold and the
images created take on the apparently chaotic shapes of dreams. In a tribal Ramayana,
an episode from the Mahabharata makes a sudden and surprising appearance; tribal
paintings contain a curious mixture of traditional and modern imagery. In a way,
the syntax of language and the grammar of a painting are the same, as if literature
were painted words and paintings were a song of images.” (Int. Painted Words xiii)

5.11 QUESTIONS
1) What does G.N. Devy mean when he says that for the tribal, sacred is preferred
to the secular? Explain.

2) How does Thingnam Kishan Singh interpret homogenisation that the Manipur
region faces at present? Elaborate.

43
Theory, Culture and The
History of Tribals 5.12 REFERENCES
Devy, G.N. Ed., Painted Words: An Anthology of Tribal Literature. Vadodra: Purva
Prakash, 2012.

Misra, Tilottoma. The Oxford Anthology of Writings from North-East India: Poetry
and Essays. New Delhi: 2011.

44
 Tribal Thought: Some Voices-I
UNIT 6 TRIBAL THOUGHT: SOME
VOICES-II
Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Key Questions
6.3 How to study this Study Material?
6.4 Verrier Elwin: An Introduction
6.4.1 The Muria and their Ghotul
6.4.2 John MacDoughall: An Introduction
6.5 “Tribal Resistances”
6.6 Let Us Sum Up
6.7 Glossary
6.8 Questions
6.9 Suggested Readings

6.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the unit is to discuss Verrier Elwin’s “The Muria and their Ghotul”
and John MacDougall’s “Tribal Resistance” to understand their perspectives on
tribal way of life as well as their cultural past. These two essays constitute important
material on tribal life and discuss the uniqueness of the tribal social system as well
as history. The unit will help students understand this uniqueness through these
essays. This background knowledge of the tribal communities discussed in these
essays will help them understand other writings as well.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Due to some gap in communication between the tribal people and the non-tribal
communities, there have been hurdles in understanding the tribal people, their history
and culture. Due to this gap, their culture and history have been either ignored or
overlooked. There are also misrepresentations. However, due to efforts made by
some scholars like Verrier Elwin and MacDougall, a good number of aspects of
their life have reached the so-called mainstream society and they are valuable pieces
of information. See, for instance the following:

“The clan system of the Muria is now greatly confused. In the old days it
seems probable that the inhabited territory of north Bastar was divided up
among the different clans of Maria and Muria, and each had its own
particular bhum or clan area. In each bhum there was a spiritual capital
called the pen-rawar or pen-kara. Here lived the clan-god or Anga with
the clan-priest to tend him and mediate between him and his kinsmen.
Here they came for the chief festivals of the Anga; here they brought their
dead and erected their menhirs; here they gathered for the special panchayat
that discussed offences against the clan laws.” (108-9)
45
Theory, Culture and The It shows the way tribals organized their living through specific patterns. The work
History of Tribals
done by Elvin and MacDougall is a product of serious engagement with comments
that the tribal community had in the course of existence. For this reason, the scholars
such as these are also a unique source of knowledge about the tribal people. The
above mentioned essays will give information about tribal customs and history.
These will also provide background knowledge to read other texts.

Elwin’s essay deals with the Muria’s social system called Ghotul. Ghotul is
understood as a dormitory system, but it is more than that. If we read through it, we
will discover that the tribal youth learn to have healthy relationship with the opposite
sex and social traits here. In the same essay, he also talks about many other aspects
of social life such as social organization, clan, totem, family, ghotul discipline, and
so on. The following quotation sheds light on the customs the tribals have developed
in conditions surrounding them.

A boy obviously cannot marry relatives of the inner circle or any of his
classificatory ‘aunts’ or ‘nieces’. He is strictly forbidden to marry his wife’s
elder sister, his mother-in-law, his younger brother’s wife or widow and
any other woman in a parallel relation to them. There is no objection to
his marrying his grandmother or granddaughter even when they are in the
direct line of relationship. A few cases are known of men marrying their
great-aunts or grand-nieces.”(p.121)

MacDougall’s essay in the same manner describes two social movements¯the Sardar
Movement and the Kherwar Movement that took place in Ranchi district and
Santal Parganas respectively during the colonial period. It describes the causes of
these movements and attributes them to the process of partial peasantization as one
of the major causes. A quotation from MacDougall will make clear the role played
by the movements in which tribals took part:

“The Sardars (participants in the movement) thought that as the original

settlers of Ranchi District, the adivasis had an inalienable right to free (or
virtually free) use of all of the land in the district. The Sardars felt that the
dikus had no right to make heavy impositions on them. Thus the Mundas
and Oraons wanted to regain low-rent or rent-free lands that they had lost.
They sometimes demanded in addition the right to govern their villages
by themselves.” Tribal Resistances (9-10)

6.2 KEY QUESTIONS

i) What are your impressions of tribal culture? Do you know how young boys
and girls spend their time? Have you heard of the Muria tribe and their Ghotul
system or tribal dormitory of any other tribe? Offer a brief comment.
ii) What do you know about tribal history? Have you heard about any of their
social or historical movements? What are the causes of the movement?

6.3 HOW TO STUDY THIS STUDY MATERIAL?

This study material will be easier to understand if we attempt a preliminary survey
about the following. We can search the matter on the Internet or look up a book
such as K.S. Singh’s India’s Communities. We can do the same with respect to the
following words:
46
i) The Muria Tribal Thought: Some Voices-II

ii) The Santhals

iii) The Oraons
iv) The Mundas
These are different tribes of India. As said before, Elwin’s essay is about the Muria
and their dormitory system and the MacDougall’s essay is about the Santhal, Oraons
and the Mundas and their social movements. It is also about how these communities
became peasants during the colonial period.

After the survey, you may read the essays. Make a beginning with any one. Make
notes of the striking features you discover about the Muria’s custom and about the
movements of the Mundas, Oraons and the Santhals. One could then go to the essay
by MacDougall. It is about peasantization. Ask yourself what peasantization means.
Also: when can we call a person peasant? Just observe how the writer narrates the
process of peasantization of three tribal communities.

6.4 VERRIER ELWIN: INTRODUCTION

A prior knowledge about the essayist will help us understand ideas contained in the
essay better. The essay “The Muria and their Ghotul” has been written by the famous
anthropologist and writer Verrier Elwin. Let us know a few details about him.

Verrier Elwin (1902-1964) is a well-known anthropologist who worked among the

tribals of India. His name is synonymous with the subject—tribes. He is an
indispensable source for the scholars on tribal matters. Born in England in a religious
family, he studied at Oxford University to become a priest.

He came to India in 1927 and set up an ashram in Poona in 1928 with an aim to
integrate Christianity and Hinduism. Later, he decided to work among the tribal
people.

He went to the central province and set up a Church in Karanjia, a Gond village in
the Maikal hills. Elwin and his friend Shamrao Hivale called it an ashram and
started their work among the adivasis by giving them health care, education and
hygiene.

In 1936, they moved to another village. As he travelled and worked among the
adivasis, he came to know more about their life, culture and society. He was struck
by some of their values and cultural practices. Elwin realized that he should learn
from the adivasis instead of teaching them. He was fascinated by the freedom enjoyed
by adivasi women. They could choose their partners and marry without dowry, and
divorce if they wished to do so. He was also quite impressed by the village dormitory
system which he called ghotul and their joyful attitude towards sex and absence of
sexual repression.

Elwin liked the community life of the tribals and their sharing of natural resources.
He writes in his book Leaves from the Jungle, “One day one family of a village
went to pluck mangoes and at the end of the day half the village was sucking
mangoes”. Elwin was also appreciative of the adivasis respect for nature and
environment. He saw that they lived in harmony with nature and considered it as
part of their sustenance. As he aptly writes, “Their concept of heaven is miles and
47
Theory, Culture and The miles of forest without any forest guard and their concept of hell is miles and miles
History of Tribals
of forest without any mahua tree.”

Elwin’s keenness to learn about the adivasis helped him in acquiring enormous
knowledge about their life, society and culture. His writings bear testimony to his
knowledge. His writing includes anthropological accounts such as
1) The Baiga (Murray, 1939)
2) The Agaria (OUP,1942)
3) Maria Murder and Suicide (OUP, 1942)
4) The Muria and their Ghotul (OUP,1947)
5) Bondo Highlander (OUP, 1947)
6) Leaves from the Jungle: Life in a Gond Village (1936)

6.4.1 The Muria and Their Ghotul

You might have observed that Verrier Elwin has written a book titled The Muria
and their Ghotul where he has given an account of the Muria tribe and their social
system called Ghotul elaborately. This essay is a gist of his ideas on these aspects.
Now, let us know more about the Muria tribe. They are defined in the Wikipedia as
the following:
The Muria are an adivasi tribe (scheduled tribe) of the Bastar district of
Chhattisgarh, India. They are part of the Gondi people. Traditionally they
are economically homogenous and they strive to work as a collective.
They have mixed-sex dormitories where adolescents are sent to practice
premarital sex, sometimes with a single partner and sometimes serially.
They have an omnivorous diet, with liquor playing a key role in their
society.([Link])

A Muria woman and a Muria man

You might observe that the Wikipedia definition of the Ghotul highlights the Muria’s
free mixing up and alliance with partners. Let us read the essay and know more
about the people and their ghotul system. Let us sum up the essay. First, Elwin talks
about the clan system. He says that no marriage is possible within the clan as the
members of the same clan consider themselves as members of the family. For this
reason, such a marriage is not permissible.
Later, Elwin talks about the Ghotul system of the Murias. He narrates how young
boys and girls start arriving at the Ghotul beating drums from 7.30 p.m to 9.00
p.m. He describes the role of the Kotwar and the Sirdar in this context. From his
description of activities we understand ghotul as a place where young boys and
girls learn social traits. Read the following:
48
 In the Chota Dongar Pargana, the girls go to massage the chelik in the Tribal Thought: Some Voices-II
very place where they are going to sleep. Elsewhere they sit in a circle or
grouped round the fire, sometimes scattered about the room. If the boy is
asleep the motiari rouses him and makes him sit up; she sits or kneels
behind him, very close, with her knees round his body. With her comb she
begins to shake out and arrange the boy’s hair. (Elwin 128)

It is a place for singing, dancing, playing and entertaining one another. The girls
comb hair of one another and give a massage to boys. Lovers meet and if they want
to enjoy physical intimacy, they go to smaller room in the ghotul complex. In this
regard, Elvin tells us about conventions the Muria, for instance, observe:

“The Muria have their own system of joking relationships. As a result of

the common cross-cousin marriages, a chelik has special licence to joke
and flirt with his mother’s brother’s daughter or his father’s sister’s
daughter (both mandari in Gondi). A motiari can be equally free with her
father’s sister’s son or her mother’s brother’s son (both manriyo in Gondi).
This freedom, however, only lasts so long as they are not engaged to be
married. Should such an arrangement be made the joking relationship
changes into one of avoidance, for a girl must never have anything to do
with her betrothed.”(p.122)

Elwin also describes the ghotul discipline. The life of chelik and motihari is strictly
regulated. Even the members have to strictly follow the rules. Quarrels in the
dormitory are strongly condemned. Cleanliness is maintained regularly. Read the
following to know how discipline is practiced:

Chelik and motiari are insistent that everyone must take an equal share
(though not always the same share) in the common labour and common
recreations. Failure to attend the ghotul regularly is punished; an absence
of two or three days, unless there is a very good excuse, means a fine. It is
especially bad for the motiari to absent themselves. This is regarded as a
really serious offence, an infringement of the chelik’s rights, a breach of
ghotul fellowship; it raises the suspicion that the girl is having an affair
with a married man or a member of another caste. On the other hand, if a
girl enters the ghotul during her menstrual period she must provide liquor
and perhaps a more substantial sacrifice to appease Lingo Pen whom she
has offended. (pg. 135)
There are forms of penalty for the offenders. Like the Muria, the oraons also have
their dormitory system known as Dhumkuria. It is studied by the sociologist S.C.
Roy in his book The Oraons of Chhotanagpur. In the same manner J.P. Mills talks
about the dormitory system of the Nagas known as Morung in his book The Rengma
Nagas.
The tribals have their own norms of living with one another. Read, for instance the
following:
As elsewhere in India, a woman and her husband’s younger brothers or a
man and his wife’s younger sisters are specially privileged. So are
grandmother and grandson or grandfather and granddaughter. A boy may
say to his grandmother, ‘Once you are dead I will eat beef in your honour;
I will go dancing in front of you with a drum; why don’t you die quickly
so that I can get a good feast?’ And she replies, ‘If I die you will have to
49
Theory, Culture and The spend a lot of money, you will have to get rice, you will have to bring
History of Tribals
several tins of liquor, so what good will it be?’ A grandfather always flirts
and jokes with his granddaughter. Sometimes he says to her husband,
‘How dare you sleep with my wife? You will have to give me the bride-
price for her’, and so on. (p. 122)

I hope you have got some idea about life of the tribals reading Elwin’s writing
about this unique system. Now let us move to the next writing which has been
written by John MacDougall. Before that let us know about the writer.

6.4.2 John MacDougall: An Introduction

Unlike Elwin who had an illustrious career and an eventful life, John MacDougall
has had a quiet career. But he has been a serious scholar who studied tribal resistances
that took place in India particularly in Chotanagpur region. He teaches Sociology at
the University of Lowell, Masachusetts. He is director of the Peace and Conflict
Programme at the university.

6.5 TRIBAL RESISTANCES

The essay “Tribal Resistances” offers a view of the two social movements namely
the Sardar Movement and the Khewar Movement. The Sardar Movement was
organized by the members of the Munda and Oraon tribes in Ranchi district who
sought to restore their land from the outsiders. The Kherwar Movement on the
other hand involved members of the Santal tribe living in Santal Parganas district.
The Santals also pressed for lower land rents but their mode of resistance was
based on religion. The writer talks about the causes of the movement. One of them
is peasantization of the tribes. According to him, peasantization of three tribal
communities namely the Mundas, Oraons and the Santals and their resistance to
the exploitation of the outside forces or diku led the tribals to spearhead the above-
mentioned uprisings.

Peasantization of the adivasis means how the adivasi society became peasant society
in the historical process.
A peasant society broadly has these three features.
i) Settled cultivators with household mode of production.
ii) Other groups extract economic surplus from the peasants.
iii) The state has coercive power and some legitimate authority over peasants and
the state is accorded with some prestige by peasants.
According to MacDougall, before the British rule, these adivasi societies were not
peasants. They had no fixed place where they could cultivate, the surplus of their
production was not extracted by other groups, and the state did not control them
forcibly. In fact they were under a king and had a different kind of relationship with
him.
Under the British rule, the relationship between the state and the adivasi society
changed. The adivasi societies became settled cultivators. Many non-tribal
communities settled in this region. They had come from other regions and they
were non-tribal groups. They extracted and appropriated adivasis economic surplus
in different ways. The dikus made several attempts to Hinduize the adivasis. But
50 they were not successful in interfering with the adivasi social structure. Another
agency that was active was the church. The missionaries tried to christianize the Tribal Thought: Some Voices-II
tribals. The adivasis resisted such intervention. Most of the time, the state constituting
the British administration had direct and coercive power over them through police.

The elaborate way in which issues were handled is shown by MacDougall in the
following description:

“It is true that before British rule, the Maharaja of Chotanagpur and his
dependents extracted some economic surplus from the Mundas and Oraons,
and was given some prestige by them. However, available evidence
suggests that a negligible amount of surplus was actually extracted. Nor
did the Mundas and Oraons participate in any meaningful way in the Hindu
civilization to which the Maharaja’s family was oriented. This stands in
marked contrast to the orientation of low-caste rural Hindus reported by
such observers as Marriott (1955: 173-218; Fallers, 1961: 108-10)). Thus
in crucial respects the Mundas and Oraons were not peasants before 1770.
The same is true, a fortiori, of the Santals, who did not have an equivalent
of the Mahajara of Chotanagpur.” (MacDougall, John. Tribal Resistances.
Delhi: Critical Quest, 2008.P.16)

Two Adivasi Movements took place as Resistant Movements. As a result , two

tribal movements namely Sardar Movement for reclaiming land during 1867-80
happened in Chhotanagpur where Mundas were the main participants and Kherwar
Movement with a religious dimension to it in 1874 in Santal Parganas where Santals
were the main participants.

In this regard, the following is illustrative: Chelik and Motiari are insistent that
everyone must take an equal share (though not always the same share) in the common
labour and common recreations. Failure to attend the ghotul regularly is punished;
an absence of two or three days, unless there is a very good excuse, means a fine. It
is especially bad for the motiari to absent themselves. This is regarded as a really
serious offence, an infringement of the cheilk’s rights, a breach of ghotul fellowship;
it raises the suspicion that the girl is having an affair with a married man or a
member of another caste. On the other hand, if a girl enters the ghotul during her
menstrual period she must provide liquor and perhaps a more substantial sacrifice
to appease Lingo Pen whom she has offended.

6.6 LET US SUM UP

i) a) The essay “The Muria and their Ghotul” by Verrier Elwin is about the
Muria tribe of Middle India and their dormitory system called Ghotul.
b) The extract begins with a description of the organization of the tribe, the
clan system and the family.
c) Elwin also talks about how young boys and girls spend their time in the
evening in the Ghotul.
d) There is also detailed description of the Ghotul rules. After reading the
extract, we understand that Ghotul is not a place for pre-marital mixing
up as informed by popular literature, but is a well organized social
institution which trains young boys and girls in a number of norms and
traits.
51
Theory, Culture and The B) a) The essay, “Tribal Resistances” is about two social movements namely
History of Tribals
the Sardar Movement and the Kherwar Movement organized by the
members of the Munda and Oraon tribes in Ranchi district and members
of the Santal tribe living in Santal Parganas respectively. The processes
of complete peasantization of the three adivasi societies of Chhotanagpur
region under the British rule and tribal resistant movements seems to
make background to this phenomenon.
b) The writer says that the tribal society was not peasantised before the
British rule i.e. 1858.
He enlists three features of peasantization and proves that these societies did not
undergo such processes during British rule. Yet, they were partially peasantized
during the British rule.
i) With peasantisation, the dikus, British administrators including police, court
officials, and missionaries formed the oppressive outer crust which extorted
economic surplus of the tribals.
ii) The British administrators, dikus missionaries played their parts in the tribal
regions. The dikus tried to Hinduize the adivasis, the missionaries christianize
them and the administrators exploited them. MacDougall explains it thus:
“British rule, paradoxically, helped the dikus to establish control over adivasi
society, in several important ways. The British brought peace to the whole of
India, and so enabled the dikus to settle in districts far from their homes and
peopled by hostile and alien adivasis. the British administrative and judicial
system was based on British and Moghul ideas and practices, and used
languages and procedures that adivasis could not understand, but dikus could
understand and manipulate.
iii) There was a strong nexus among all those involved with affairs of the adivasis.
The tribals felt that they were being exploited. There was discontent among
them. As a result, two tribal movements namely Sardar Movement for
reclaiming land during 1867-80 took place in Chhotanagpur where Mundas
were the main participants and Kherwar Movement with a religious dimension
took place in 1874 in Santal Parganas where Santals were the main participants.

6.7 GLOSSARY
Muria : An indigenous tribe that lives in Middle India. They are
believed to be a part of Gond tribe.
Ghotul : a dormitory system of the Muria where they mix up on
terms of equality and learn social traits.
Clan : a group of tribe that claims common origin. The clan
members seem to have blood relation. For this reason,
they do not marry within the tribe.
Peasantization : a process which makes an individual or community
settled cultivator(s) with household mode of production.
They are organized under a state which has legitimate
authority over them. The economic surplus of the
community is extracted by another community.
Santals : A tribal community that mostly inhabits Jharkhand,
52 Odisha and Bihar and Bengal.
Oraon : A tribal community that inhabits Jharkhand, Bihar, Tribal Thought: Some Voices-II
Odisha and Bengal.
Sirdar : head boy of a ghotul.
Kotwar : Warden of a ghotul.
Chelik : young man.
Motihari : Young woman.

6.8 QUESTIONS
1) Who is Verrier Elwin? Why is he famous?
2) What do you know about the Murias?
3) What is Clan system?
4) What do you know about John MacDougall?
5) Describe the two Resistance Movements ¯ The Sardar Movement and the
Kherwar Movement. Describe their Origin and causes.

6.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Elwin, Verrier. The Oxford India Elwin: Selected Writings. Oxford: OUP, 2009.
MacDougall, John. Tribal Resistances. Delhi: Critical Quest, 2008.
Verma, R.C. Tribals through the Ages. Delhi: Ministry of Information and
broadcasting,
Wikipedia.
Sinha, S.C. “Tribe-Caste and Tribe-peasant Continua in Central India.” Man in
India.4:1 (1965)
Wolf, Eric. Peasants. Englewood Cliffs;Pentice-Hall,1966.

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