Cervical Vertebrae (C1 – C7)

These are the smallest vertebrae. The cervical spine is further divided into two
parts; the upper cervical region (C1 and C2), and the lower cervical region (C3 through C7). C1
is termed the Atlas and C2 the Axis. The transverse processes have a foramen which provides a
vertebral artery to pass upwards to the brain

Atlas (C1)
The Atlas is the first cervical vertebra and named as C1. This vertebra supports the skull. The
atlas is a ring of bone made up of two lateral masses joined at the front and back by the anterior
arch and the posterior arch.

Axis (C2)
The Axis is the second cervical vertebra or C2. It is a blunt tooth–like process that projects
upward. It is also referred to as the ‘dens’ (Latin for ‘tooth’) or odontoid process. The dens
provides a type of pivot and collar allowing the head and atlas to rotate around the dens.

Thoracic Vertebrae (T1 – T12)

The thoracic vertebrae increase in size from T1 through T12. They are characterized by small
pedicles, long spinous processes, and relatively large intervertebral foramen (neural
passageways), which result in less incidence of nerve compression. They are larger than the
cervical vertebrae because this section of the vertebral column has to support more body weight.
The bodies and transverse processes have facets for articulation with the ribs.
Lumbar Vertebrae (L1 – L5)

These are the largest of the vertebrae because they have to support the weight of the upper body.
They have substantial spinous processes for attachment of the muscles of the lower back. They
are from L1 to L5. These vertebrae bear much of the body's weight and related biomechanical
stress. The pedicles are longer and wider than those in the thoracic spine. The spinous processes
are horizontal and more squared in shape. The intervertebral foramen (neural passageways) are
relatively large but nerve root compression is more common than in the thoracic spine.

Sacral Spine
The Sacrum is located behind the pelvis. Five bones (abbreviated S1 through S5) fused into a
triangular shape, form the sacrum. The sacrum fits between the two hipbones connecting the
spine to the pelvis. The last lumbar vertebra (L5) articulates (moves) with the sacrum.

Coccyx (tailbone)

This consists of the four terminal vertebrae fused to form a very small triangular bone. They
form broad base to articulate with the tip of the sacrum.

Features of the vertebral column

Intervertebral discs

The bodies of adjacent vertebrae are separated by intervertebral discs, which are made of an
outer rim of fibrocartilage (annulus fibrosus) and a central core of soft gelatinous material
(nucleus pulposus)

They are thinnest in the cervical region and become progressively thicker towards the lumbar
region.

The posterior longitudinal ligament in the vertebral canal helps to keep them in place. They have
a shock-absorbing function.

The cartilaginous joints provides flexibility of the vertebral column as a whole.

Intervertebral foramina
A foramen formed by a gap between the vertebral pedicles. Half of the wall is formed by the
vertebra above, and half by the one below.

Throughout the length of the column there is an intervertebral foramen on each side between
every pair of vertebrae, through which the spinal nerves, blood vessels and lymph vessels pass.

Ligaments of the vertebral column

These ligaments hold the vertebrae together and keep the intervertebral discs in position.

The transverse ligament maintains the odontoid process of the axis in the correct position in

relation to the atlas

The anterior longitudinal ligament extends the whole length of the column and lies in front of

the vertebral bodies.

The posterior longitudinal ligament lies inside the vertebral canal and extends the whole length

of the vertebral column in close contact with the posterior surface of the bodies of the bones.

The ligamenta flava connect the laminae of adjacent vertebrae.

The ligamentum nuchae and the supraspinous ligament connect the spinous processes,

extending from the occiput to the sacrum.

Curves of the vertebral column

The fetus in the uterus lies curled up with head and the knees are more or less touching. It is the
primary curvature.

The secondary cervical curve develops when the child can hold up his head (after about 3
months) and the secondary lumbar curve develops when he stands upright (after 12 to 15
months). The thoracic and sacral primary curves are retained.
Movements of the vertebral column
flexion (bending forward),

extension (bending backward),

lateral flexion (bending to the side) and rotation.

Functions of the vertebral column:

It provides a strong bony protection to the spinal cord .

The pedicles provide access to the spinal cord for spinal nerves, blood vessels and lymph vessels.

It allow movement of the whole column.

It supports the skull.

The intervertebral discs act as shock absorbers, protecting the brain.

It forms the axis of the trunk

It gives attachment to the ribs, shoulder girdle and upper limbs, and the pelvic girdle and lower
limbs.
 Thoracic cage
The thorax (thoracic cage) is formed by the sternum anteriorly, twelve pairs of ribs forming the
lateral bony cages, and the twelve thoracic vertebrae.

Sternum (breast bone)

This flat bone can be felt just under the skin in the middle of the front of the chest.

The manubrium is the uppermost section and articulates with the clavicles at the sternoclavicular
joints and with the first two pairs of ribs.

The body or middle portion gives attachment to the ribs.

The xiphoid process is the tip of the bone. It gives attachment to the diaphragm, muscles of the

anterior abdominal wall and the linea alba.

 The 12 pairs of ribs form the lateral walls of the thoracic cage. They are elongated
curved bones that articulate posteriorly with the vertebral column.
 Anteriorly, the first seven pairs of ribs articulate directly with the sternum and are known
as the true ribs. The next three pairs articulate only indirectly. In both cases, costal
cartilages attach the ribs to the sternum.
 The lowest two pairs of ribs, referred to as floating ribs, do not join the sternum at all,
their anterior tips being free.
 Each rib forms up to three joints with the vertebral column. Two of these joints are
formed between facets on the head of the rib and facets on the bodies of two vertebrae,
the one above the rib and the one below. Ten of the ribs also form joints between the
tubercle of the rib and the transverse process of (usually) the lower vertebra.
 The inferior surface of the rib is deeply grooved, providing a channel along which
intercostals nerves and blood vessels run. Between each rib and the one below are the
intercostal muscles, essential for breathing.
 It is a flexible structure that can change its shape and size during breathing. The first rib
is firmly fixed to the sternum and to the 1st thoracic vertebra, and does not move during
inspiration. Because it is a fixed point, when the intercostal muscles contract, they pull
the entire ribcage upwards towards the first rib.