CHAPTER

COMPLETION
CONTENTS

1. GENERAL.........................................................................................................................3

1.1 Monobore completion.....................................................................................................3

1.2 Bottleneck completion....................................................................................................5

2. PRODUCTION PACKER...............................................................................................7

2.1 Functions.........................................................................................................................7

2.2 Types of packer...............................................................................................................7

3. EXPANSION JOINT......................................................................................................12

3.1 Functions.......................................................................................................................12

3.2 Types of expansion joint...............................................................................................12

4. CIRCULATION EQUIPMENT....................................................................................14

4.1 General..........................................................................................................................14

4.2 Side Pocket Mandrels...................................................................................................14

4.3 Sliding sleeves..............................................................................................................18

4.4 Nipple with port/sleeve.................................................................................................21

5. DOWN HOLE SAFETY VALVES...............................................................................22

5.1 General..........................................................................................................................22

5.2 Wireline retrievable DHSVs.........................................................................................23

5.3 Tubing-installed DHSVs...............................................................................................25

5.4 Annulus safety valve.....................................................................................................27

6. NIPPLE PROFILES.......................................................................................................28

6.1 Functions.......................................................................................................................28

7. TUBING HANGER........................................................................................................30

7.1 Functions.......................................................................................................................30

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7.2 Subsea tubing hanger....................................................................................................31

7.3 Plugs for location in tubing hanger...............................................................................31

8. WELLHEADS.................................................................................................................34

8.1 Functions.......................................................................................................................34

8.2 Compact wellheads.......................................................................................................34

8.3 Conventional wellhead.................................................................................................36

9. XMAS TREE...................................................................................................................38

9.1 General..........................................................................................................................38

9.2 Valves...........................................................................................................................40

9.3 Types of Xmas tree.......................................................................................................41

9.4 Operational preparations...............................................................................................45

10. OTHER MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT IN THE COMPLETION STRING.....47

10.1 Storm choke..................................................................................................................47

10.2 Flow coupling/blast joint..............................................................................................49

10.3 Wireline entry guide.....................................................................................................49

10.4 Plugs..............................................................................................................................51

11. Completion test questions............................................................................................52

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1. GENERAL

1.1 Monobore completion

Completion is the general name for the equipment that is placed in the well after the
drilling phase in order to enable the well to be brought into use as a producer or
injector well. Completion equipment comprises the completion string with its
individual components, and the Xmas tree at the top of the well.

The term “monobore completion” refers to a completion string that has approximately
the same internal diameter throughout the well and the Xmas tree. The monobore
concept was introduced around 1990, with the introduction of new drilling technology
that allowed longer, more horizontal wells to be drilled. Monobore meant the
elimination of all previous restrictions on which cable tools and coiled tubing were
liable to catch (entry profiles, nipple profiles, changes in cross-section).

A special detail is the change in cross-section between the liner (the lowest casing of
the well) and the completion string. To deal with this problem, a “plug and socket”
solution was developed, whereby the lowest part of the completion string - the
sealstem (male part) enters a Polished Bore Receptacle (PBR) (female part) located at
the top of the liner, producing a virtually smooth transition without restrictions.

With monobore completions, the well is virtually free of nipple profiles (normally
such a profile is found in the tubing hanger and one or two metres above the down-
hole safety valve). If components are to be placed temporarily or semi-permanently in
the well, equipment with slips (and packing elements if the equipment is to be
pressure-tight) must be used.

3
Figure 1

4
1.2 Bottleneck completion

Wells with a large-diameter liner and a small-diameter completion string are described
as having bottleneck completions. Such completions were normal 10 or 15 years ago.
The problem with wells of this sort was that of locating plugs in the liner zone (e.g. for
zone isolation) - which required mechanisms that “grow” when they are set. This type
of equipment is permanent and cannot be pulled once it has been set.

An example of a bottleneck completion would be a well with a 7” liner in which the

completion string has a diameter of 5½ “.

5
Figure 2

6
2. PRODUCTION PACKER

2.1 Functions

The production packer is located fairly deep in the well in order to isolate the annulus
from the well fluids. The production packer acts as a barrier, and there must be no
leakages of hydrocarbons/pressure past the packer.

When the production packer is set, the completion string is locked to the casing on the
outside (e.g. 9 5/8”). This connection is normally tested both from above (by pressure
testing the annulus) and below (down the completion string to the liner).

In order to be certain that the connection does not weaken in the course of time, there
is a requirement that cement should be placed behind the casing at the site of the
production packer (as we can imagine, if the casing were to corrode below the packer,
there would be a leakage of hydrocarbons through the casing to an annulus with a
lower pressure classification, which would be fatal).

The tubing from the production packer down to the seal stem or the entry guide sleeve
is called the tailpipe. During re-completion, when the completion string is being
pulled, a plug is place in this tailpipe, so that the plug and tailpipe plus the production
packer make up one barrier (the other is the BOP).

2.2 Types of packer

Production packers are described as either permanent or retrievable. Permanent

packers are the most common - but have to be milled away if they need to be
removed. Retrievable packers can be difficult to retrieve if they have been in position
for a long time. If the pressure and temperature have changed a great deal during the
operating phase, this may also loosen the packer (the weight required to lock the
packer will have been removed).

Retrievable packers

When a retrievable packer is set it is rotated, then weighted, either by stretch or

compression, depending on the design. A J-slot mechanism is normally employed. In
the driving-in phase, the pin is held in the short part of the J-arm and this prevents the
inner part of the packer from moving and setting the slips. When the pin has been
rotated to the long part of the J-arm, the inner part of the packer can be moved enough
to allow the packer to be set.

7
Retrievable packers are equipped with a set of slips, in which the packer element or
sealing element is located either over or under the slips. During setting, the seal
element is squeezed against the casing and the weight continued to be applied to it to
keep the slips and sealing element in contact with the casing.

To retrieve the packer, the added weight is removed and the packer/completion string
will be loosened.

8
Figure 3

9
Permanent packers

Packers of this sort are normally run as part of the completion string, but they can also
be run as part of the tailpipe when the completion string is installed in two phases.
They are normally set hydraulically, but mechanical methods also exist, as well as
methods based on explosives (as for bridge plugs).

Such packers have a double set of slips, each of which works in a different direction.
The packing element is situated between the slips. The packer may be of double
cylinder design, so that both slips move in the direction of the packing element and
squeeze it against the casing wall, or singly cylindrical, in which case one slip moves
towards the other and squeezes the packing element simultaneously.

If we wish to remove the production packer, we must first remove the completion
string as far down as the production packer (the connection between the production
packer and the completion string may consist of coarse ratch-slatch screw threads. The
connection can also be mechanically cut. In order to loosen the production packer, we
need to mill out the upper slips segment, and in some cases the packing element as
well (which may take 2 - 12 hours).

The mill-out extension lies immediately under the production packer. This is a circular
tube with a slightly larger internal diameter than the ID of the production packer.
When milling out is to take place, a “packer picker” is installed inside the mill-out
extension. When the packer has come loose the packer picker will hold on to the
remaining parts of the packer and tailpipe, which can then be retrieved by the milling
assembly.

10
Figure 4

11
3. EXPANSION JOINT

3.1 Functions

The purpose of the expansion joint is to minimise the load on the production packer
and completion string resulting from changes in down-hole pressure and temperature.
The expansion joint will adopt different positions according to current temperature and
pressure conditions in the well.

It can be pointed out here that there exist a number of field solutions that have
eliminated expansion pipes because of the risks of leakage over long periods of time.
These require the adoption of special design measures.

3.2 Types of expansion joint

A number of technical solutions exist, some of which are linked to the production
packer itself, other as independent arrangements.

Two solutions exist in principle:

a) The packer rings sits inside the pipe receptacle (female part). This pipe
receptacle can stand on to the production packer or in an assembly installed one or two
pipe-lengths above the production packer. In such cases, the male part is located at the
bottom of the “upper” part of the completion string.

b) A sealstem can be used, where the packer rings sit on the outside of the pipe
(male part). In this case, the counterpart of the sealstem is in the Polished Bore
Receptacle (PBR) which forms part of the production packer or in an independent
assembly one or two pipe-lengths above the production packer.

In high-temperature applications the packers must be of a special type (Aflas).

When it is being run into the well, the two parts of the expansion pipe are pinned
together. These pins often break when the completion string is being pressure tested
after the production packer has been set.

When the well is being re-completed the completion string is parted in this joint and
half the joint is followed to surface. When a new upper completion string is being run,
the old part of the expansion joint at the bottom of the new string is utilised.

If the expansion joint is of the “independent” type, it is connected to the production

packer by means of an anchor (tubing anchor). This is a ratch-slatch mechanism which

12
locks the upper part of the completion string to the production packer by setting down
a weight. To release the completion string in the same joint, one maintaine a weight of
2 - 3 tonnes over and above the neutral weight and rotating it to the right.

The extent to which the two parts of an expansion joint will move relative to each
other depends of course on the physical conditions to which the well is exposed. VAG
wells in the North Sea are exposed to fairly extreme pressure and temperature
variations. During gas injection the pressure may be as high as 400 - 450 bar and the
temperature 100 - 120 oC. Within a short time the pressure may be 250 bar and the
temperature 10 - 15 oC. In a typical North Sea well the expansion pipe will move by
about 3 m between these two phases.

The transition between the liner and the lower part of the completion string was
mentioned at the beginning of this chapter. Here, a PBR is used at the top of the liner
and a sealstem at the bottom of the completion string. In order to avoid the sealstem
from bottoming out in the PBR when the completion string is being spaced out, a stop
ring is placed on top of the PBR; this is known as the Fluted centralizer. This has a
centering function, but is also designed to permit circulation to take place; hence the
designation “fluted”. During spacing out, normal practice is to pump carefully down
through the completion string; when we see that the pressure is rising (the pump stops)
we know that the lowermost packer on the sealstem has entered the PBR and that there
are still perhaps 2.6 metres to go before the stop ring meets the top of the PBR.

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4. CIRCULATION EQUIPMENT

4.1 General

The term “circulation equipment” refers to the following items:

 Side Pocket Mandrels (SPM)

 Sliding sleeves
 Nipples with port(s)/sleeves

Circulation equipment is employed to:

 Provide gas-lift (SPM with gas-lift valves (GLVs)/nozzle)

 Create an under-balance in the well in advance of perforation (SPM, sliding sleeve
and nipple)
 Kill the well (SPM, sliding sleeve and nipple).

With the exception of gas-lift SPMs, circulation equipment is very seldom used in our
sector of the North Sea.

Sliding sleeves and nipples with movable sleeves have a doubtful reputation. Such
equipment may well be tight before it is used, and can be opened for circulation, but is
seldom tight following circulation.

Our sector of the North Sea usually employs SPMs, which are useful because various
types of equipment can be placed in the pocket: plugs, gas-lift valves, nozzles/non-return
valves.

4.2 Side Pocket Mandrels

SPMs are used either for gas-lift purposes or for temporary communication between
the annulus and the completion string (to create an under-balance in the well, to kill
the well, etc.).

14
Figure 5

15
The SPM is located to the side of the well flow. A special type of cable tool known as
a “Kickover Tool” (KOT) is utilised when plugs or valves in the SPM have to be
replaced. The maximum well angle at which the KOT can be used is around 50 - 60
degrees, and the greater the angle, the more complicated it is to operate the KOT.

An important point to remember before plugs or valves in the SPM can be pulled is to
equalise the pressure across the GLV. This may be difficult when there are
hydrocarbons in the completion string, and it will sometimes be necessary to force
these out of the well with seawater or to set a deep-set plug before this operation can
commence.

16
Figure 6

17
 Equipment that can be located in side pockets:

Shear out valve (communication –one way- through the valve is achieved by shearing
a disk in the valve by absolute pressure)
Circulation or orifice valve
Injection valve (with single or double non-return function)
Pressure and temperature sensors
Plug (dummy valve)
Gas-lift valve (nitrogen pressure-controlled).

4.3 Sliding sleeves

A sliding sleeve can be installed in the completion string. In the North Sea, sliding
sleeves are primarily employed in the reservoir zone (in the liner part of the well) if we
wish to produce the reservoirs individually. In such cases, the individual reservoirs are
separated by means of zone-isolation packers (often filled with cement) which prevent
communication by any other means than via the sliding sleeves within the well.

Both in theory and in the real world, sliding sleeves can also be used for gas-lift
purposes. When the pressure in the well is too low for production - or when the liquid
column has become too heavy because of high water cut, we can open the sliding
sleeve and inject gas into the well via the annulus or lighten the liquid column and
increase production.

A sliding sleeve consists of a movable inner sleeve with slit ports and a fixed outer
part which is installed as part of the liner or completion string. We can move the inner
sleeve up and down with the aid of a shifting tool which is run on a wireline or coiled
tubing.

18
Figure 7

19
Figure 8

20
4.4 Nipple with port/sleeve

This is a nipple that has ports between the inside and the outside. When the port that
provides access to the annulus is not to be used, a sleeve with packers in the nipple
profile is installed. Equipment of this sort is seldom utilised.

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5. DOWN HOLE SAFETY VALVES

5.1 General

Downhole safety valves (DHSVs) are installed in the well in order to prevent
blowouts if:

 the topside Xmas tree becomes damaged (e.g. by collision with a crane lift)
 surface equipment is sabotaged
 a neighbouring well suffers a blow-out (in order to prevent a domino effect)
 drilling collision from nabouring well (the valve must be located so deep that
drilling-in will most probably be above the valve).

Such valves are of the “Fail-safe Closed” type. If hydraulic pressure to the valve is
lost, it will immediately close.

These valves can also be pumped through from the surface even when they are closed.

Such valves exist in two versions:

 Flapper valves
 Ball-valves.

Flapper valves open in a ”down-well” direction, while ball valves rotate so that the
valve opening matches the direction of the well flow.

The Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD) requires downhole safety valves to be

installed at least 50 m below the seabed. There are no specific international
requirements as to location, i.e. the operator determines the minimum installation
depth. In the North Sea, normal practice is to locate the valve sufficiently deep that
hydrates will not interfere with valve operation.

Internationally, the DHSV is not regarded as a well control barrier. This is because the
API permits a certain amount of leakage through the DHSV: 0.4 l/min liquid or 25.5
Sm3/hour gas. Some countries regard the DHSV as a barrier after an approved inflow
test which verifies that the above-mentioned leakage rates are not exceeded.

Some DHSVs can be installed by wireline in a downhole nipple profile, while others
are integrated into the completion string. Each version may be of either the flapper or
ball-valve type.

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5.2 Wireline retrievable DHSVs

Safety valves of this type are installed in a nipple profile in the completion string. The
nipple profile is connected to the surface via a hydraulic control line. When the DHSV
is retrieved there will therefore be an open connection to the surface via this control
line. If the DHSV is going to be out of the well for any length of time, a protective
sleeve will normally be installed in the profile.

Wireline-retrievable DHSVs often produce a restriction in the well which may result
in local erosion as well as choking the well-flow. If intervention in the well is required
below the location of the DHSV, this must be retrieved ahead of the intervention.

If a problem with a DHSV arises, it is a simple matter to retrieve it and install a new
one.

23
Figure 9

24
5.3 Tubing-installed DHSVs

This type of DHSV is installed as an integral part of the completion string. In the case
of problems with such valves the whole completion string must be pulled. Some
valves in use also have a nipple profile for a wireline-retrievable DHSV as a back-up
solution in case problems should occur. Certain operators also use two integral valves
in the same string, so that they always have one valve in reserve.

If a reserve valve is installed the main valve is kept permanently locked open and a
special type of wireline tool is utilised.

The advantage of this type of DHSV is its large internal diameter and the lack of a
control line which can allow a flow of well fluids to reach the surface. On the other
hand, it is important that the valve should remain open throughout a well intervention.
During well intervention it is usual to have a dedicated guard who keeps a continuous
watch on the valve.

In the case of a heavy well intervention, e.g. involving coiled tubing or snubbing, it is
normal to install a protective sleeve in the valve in order to protect it from damage.

Some DHSVs are fitted with an integrated pressure-equalization mechanism. When

hydraulic opening pressure is applied to the valve, a small port through the valve is
opened and remains open until the pressure on both sides of the valve has equalized,
before the valve itself is opened. The point of this mechanism is to minimize damage
to the valve.

The hydraulic pressure required to open a DHSV is the opening pressure (when the
valve is lying on deck, e.g. 200 bar) plus the well maximum shut-in pressure (e.g. 345
bar).

25
Figure 10

26
5.4 Annulus safety valve

Some countries require annulus safety valves to be installed in gas-lift wells on fixed
installations. The idea is the same as for DHSVs, i.e. to prevent an uncontrolled
reverse backflow of gas from the annulus, if any of the wellhead and/or Xmas tree
equipment should be damaged.

Flapper or plug valves are normally used in annulus safety valves (fail-safe closed
type).

27
6. NIPPLE PROFILES

6.1 Functions

Nipple profiles or anchoring profiles are installed as part(s) of the completion string.
These profiles are used to install equipment down-hole, either temporarily or for long
periods of time:

 Plugs (to seal/isolate the completion string at this location)

 Valves
 Monitoring equipment (temperature and pressure).

The nipple profile consists of a locating profile, a no go shoulder and a sealing surface.
The no go shoulder prevents the equipment that is being installed from going any
further down the well, at the same time as it ensures that the locking dogs on the plug
or valve grip the correct part of the profile. The no go shoulder may be located either
above or below the locking profile.

In a well that contains several nipple profiles, the internal diameter of the profiles will
gradually decrease the further down the completion string they are. Typical nipple
profile locations include:

 Tubing hanger (also in monobore wells)

 Above the DHSV (also in monobore wells)
 Above the expansion joint/circulation equipment (e.g. side-pocket, sliding
sleeve - in order to test the completion string above such equipment)
 Below the production packer (in order to set the production packer)
 At the bottom of the completion string (in order to monitor temperature and
pressure).

When equipment is to be retrieved it is extremely important to equalize the pressure

before retrieval, at least as far as possible. Some plugs are fitted with prongs which
can be pulled to open a port through the plug and equalize the pressure. When the
pressure has been equalized the locking dogs holding the nipple profile are released by
means of the retrieval tool.

A problem with nipple profiles is that they are liable to fill up with deposits when the
well is being produced. If this happens the profile must be brushed clean or treated
with chemicals before it is used.

28
Figure 11

29
7. TUBING HANGER

7.1 Functions

The tubing hanger fulfils several different tasks in the completion string:

 It transfers the weight of the completion string to the wellhead

 It seals the top of the production annulus (this is a barrier function, i.e. it
prevents pressure in the annulus from leaking past the tubing hanger to the
Xmas tree or out to the atmosphere or the sea, or vice-versa)
 It allows an internal plug to be installed - by means of either a nipple profile or
screw connection (plugs are utilised in the installation and retrieval of Xmas
trees)
 It provides a seal around hydraulic and electrical control lines which have been
“drawn” through the tubing hanger.

Figure 12

30
7.2 Subsea tubing hanger

Tubing hangers for subsea use have the same range of functions as surface-installed
tubing hangers. Subsea tubing hangers must also be properly oriented and locked
when they are landed. Correct orientation is important because all hydraulic and
electrical functions are connected up to the Xmas tree by an ROV. The tubing hanger
is locked to the wellhead or Xmas tree by remote control from the surface.

7.3 Plugs for location in tubing hanger

The following types of plug are utilised:

 Back Pressure Valve (BPV)

 Tubing Hanger Plug (THP)
 Two-way Check Valve (TWCV).

The BPV maintains pressure from below, but allows pumping through the plug from
above (pumping pressure must be higher than the pressure below the plug). This plug
can be wireline installed or manually installed (by sluicing it through the topside Xmas
tree with the aid of a lubricator).

31
Figure 13

32
The TWCV provides a seal in both directions as long as there is a high pressure
differential across the plug, at the same time as it permits slow pumping through the
plug from above. The TWCV can be installed either by wireline or manually.

Plugs can also be screwed into position in tubing hangers with a screw profile. Plugs
of this sort are installed manually with the aid of the lubricator that controls the well
pressure during installation/retrieval.

Figure 14

33
8. WELLHEADS

8.1 Functions

The wellhead provides the following functions:

 Anchoring/connections for each individual casing

 Pressure isolation of individual casings
 Connections for Xmas tree
 Connections for completion string
 Isolation of production annulus
 Access to annulus for pressure monitoring and/or pumping.

In some wells, the annulus (e.g. 20” x 13 3/8”) is used for slop injection in parallel
with the well’s primary function as a producer or injector.

Two types of wellhead are in use:

 Compact wellheads, as used on subsea installations

 Conventional wellheads, which are made up of modules for each section plus
casings.

8.2 Compact wellheads

A subsea well is started by drilling a hole for the conductor (32”, 30” or 28”) down
through the upper soft layers of the seabed - normally 50 to 150 below the seabed. The
conductor is then suspended from the seabed, for example in a 30” wellhead housing.
The conductor is cemented right up to seabed level.

Drilling continues (without BOP) (e.g. 26” hole) down to the pressure build-up zone
and a 20” casing is suspended from a compact wellhead (e.g. 18 ¾” wellhead
housing). This casing is also cemented up to seabed level.

A subsea BOP is then installed and all the remaining sections are drilled, set with
casings and cemented without the need to bring the BOP up to the surface. Each
casing section is locked to the same wellhead using dedicated locking rings (seal
assemblies) and the weight is also transferred to the same wellhead.

34
Figure 15

35
8.3 Conventional wellhead

Fixed platforms also utilise conductors for which holes are either drilled or pile-
driven.

As new sections continue to be drilled, and casings are installed and cemented, the
wellhead is built up of modules, each of which consists of a different section/casing
dimension. When a new module is installed the BOP must be removed from the
previous module and set aside until the new module is in place. The BOP is then re-
installed and drilling of the next section can commence.

Annulus valves are mounted on each module in order to monitor annulus pressure. The
completion string is suspended from the uppermost module. The tubing hanger is
locked to this module by means of a locking ring and a barrier seal is produced by
means of sealing rings between the tubing hanger and the module. After the
completion string has been landed, wirelines passed through the tubing hanger are
passed through tracks or holes in the module to the outside, where the wirelines are
terminated.

36
Figure 16

37
9. XMAS TREE

9.1 General

The Xmas tree is an item of safety equipment that is placed on top of the wellhead. It
consists of a system of valves which may be either open or closed according to the
state of the well (ordinary operation, well-tool intervention, pumping, testing, repairs).

The purpose of the Xmas tree is to control the flow of hydrocarbons from the well and
to allow access to the well during the operational phase. We call the Xmas tree a
safety barrier.

38
Figure 17

39
 The following valves are normally installed on the Xmas tree:

 Manual operated master valve

 Hydraulic operated master valve
 Hydraulic operated wing valve
 Manual operated Swab valve
 Manual operated Kill valve.

Manual operated master valve

This is located closest to the wellhead and is the back up valve for the Hydraulic
master valve.

Hydraulic operated master valve

This is located above the Manual master valve. It is hydraulically actuated (from the
platform control room) and is “fail-safe closed”. In the case of a hydraulic leak, the
valve will revert to its closed condition.

Hydraulic operated wing valve

This is the “last” valve in the Xmas tree before the well-flow enters the flow line to the
choke valve/process system. This valve is normally “fail-safe closed”.

Swab valve
This is a manual valve that stands at the top of the Xmas tree under the “tree cap” (also
known as the “lubricator adaptor”). This valve must be opened in the case of well
intervention (by wireline, coiled tubing or snubbing). On the outside of the swab valve
we often find a socket or cup that acts as “barrier element no. 2” if the valve leaks. It is
important that this cup should be fitted with a “check valve” so that any pressure on
the other side can be checked using a pressure gauge and bled off trapped
pressurebefore the swab valve is opened.

Kill valve
This valve is located next to the wing valve and is used during pumping (scale squeeze
injection, washing, killing, bleeding) and production or injection via neighbouring
wells. This valve is normally also fitted with a cup and “check valve”.

9.2 Valves

Two types of valve are in use:

 Split gate
 Slab gate.

The split gate valve is equipped with paired gates with springs between them that
tension the gates against the valve seats. Only one of the gates forms a seal when there

40
 is a pressure differential across the valve, i.e. the pressure differential counterbalances
the tensioning power of the one gate, but adds to that of the other.

Split gate valves may suffer from a phenomenon known as “double block”, whereby
locked-in pressure between the gates makes it impossible to open the valve. The swab
valve is particularly liable to this condition when rigging up on the Xmas tree (e.g.
wireline, coiled tubing or pressure tubing) is being tested against this valve. The
problem can be solved by bleeding off the pressure via the valve’s test port.

Slab gate valves have only one gate.

Valves can leak in the direction of flow, but also via the valve body/stem. In normal
valve design an extra metal-to-metal seal is incorporated between the valve body and
the stem. If the valve leaks via the valve body/actuator side such leaks can be stopped
by screwing the valve to the “backseat” position.

Some valves are designed in such a way that in the case of fire the valve will
automatically put itself into backseat position (e.g. lower master valve, upper master
valve and swab valve).

Hydraulically actuated master valves often incorporate a functional requirement that

they should be able to cut wirelines. In such cases it is important to know the type and
dimension of the wireline on which the valve has been tested. A hydraulically actuated
master valve that can be used as a “shear/seal” valve improves safety during wireline
operations.

It is normally impossible to cut wirelines with manually operated valves. The torque
required would be so high that parts of the valve would be destroyed before the
wireline was cut.

Flanged components with R and RX sealing rings will “set” and will need to be post-
tightened during the operational phase (as these rings are not connected “face to
face”). This does not happen to the same extent with BX rings.

9.3 Types of Xmas tree

Most field operators have their own philosophy regarding the way that Xmas trees are
built up. For example, some operators have chosen to eliminate the manual master
valve and the kill valve.

We can distinguish between the following types of Xmas tree:

 Solid block/split block Xmas tree
 Horizontal Xmas tree
 Dual Xmas tree
 Subsea Xmas tree.

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Solid block/split block Xmas tree

In split block Xmas trees the master valves (manual and hydraulic) are located
together in a separate “lower” block. The lower block is joined to the upper block via
an API flange or clamped coupling. Split block trees are simpler and cheaper to
maintain.

Solid block (monoblock) Xmas trees contain fewer components and thus fewer
potential leakage routes. Subsea Xmas trees are often designed as monoblock trees.

When wells are being constructed this type of Xmas tree is installed after the
completion string is in position and has been pressure tested.

Figure 18

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Horizontal Xmas tree

A relatively new Xmas tree concept which is used on subsea wells is the “horizontal
Xmas tree”, in which the valves are located to the side of the well bore so that the
completion can be run in and out of the well without having to retrieve the Xmas tree.
The valves located at the side of the wells are:

 Two master valves (or wing valves)

 Kill valve and chemical injection valve (these are mounted on the pipework
between the master valves).

On top of the well stands the “tree cap”, and in the tubing hanger under the tree cap
one or two mechanical plugs are installed.

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Figure 19

44
 Certain wells are completed with double completion strings, where each string has a
separate set of functions; injection/production, gas/water, oil/water or gas/oil.

In such cases the Xmas tree is equipped with a double set of valves (see valves listed
in section 1.1).

Subsea Xmas tree

Trees of this type are often designed as dual trees with two bores; one for production
and a smaller one for annulus functions.

The production bore is equipped with the same set of valves as on a standard surface
Xmas tree, while the annulus bore has hydraulically actuated wing and master valves.
Some Xmas trees also have a mechanically operated master valve on the same bore
(for use in ROV/diver interventions).

Some Xmas trees also have X-over valves between the production bore and the
annulus bore. This allows the line to the annulus to be used to pump fluids or
chemicals downhole or into the well-flow passing through the Xmas tree, or simply to
bleed off pressure, if a hydrate plug has built up in the flow tubing between the Xmas
tree and the topside installations.

9.4 Operational preparations

A standard requirement is that the valves in a Xmas tree should be pressure

tested/inflow tested before operation of the well commences. This is done in order to
ensure that the valves are tight; i.e. that they function as barrier elements.

Using leakage rate as a criterion is difficult, as suitable measurement equipment does

not exist. Leakage rate normally has to be converted to pressure rise via theoretical
calculations. Such calculations involve volume, where the real volume may differ
from the theoretical volume.

Consider for example a suspect hydraulic master valve into which we pump 5 - 10
litres of grease in order to clean its sealing surfaces. If we perform an inflow test and
measure the pressure rise in the “cross” the volume of grease that has been pumped in
(including in the cross) will reduce the volume into which the valve is leaking, for
example from 20 to 15 litres, and this in turn will affect the results/acceptable pressure
rise. The volume in the cross will also be uncertain if the cross has split gate valves,
which have an “extra” volume between the gates.

Valves are normally regarded as tight if their leakage rate is less than 0.4 l/min liquid
or 25.5 Sm3 /gas.

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It is good operational practice always to have several valves available as barrier
elements, particularly on workovers of older wells, where valves may be suspect
because of deposits.

When rigging up well operation equipment on top of Xmas tree, the operational team
takes over control of the hydraulic master valve and the down-hole safety valve in
order to avoid the possibility, for example, of the control-room operator closing the
hydraulic master valve while a wireline or other piece of equipment is being run
through the Xmas tree. Some hydraulic master valves can also be mechanically locked
in the open position. The hydraulic master valve and the DHSV are controlled from
the Local Control Panel.

When the downhole equipment is out of the well one or more valves in the Xmas tree
are usually shut in order to be sure that we have full control of the well when we bleed
off the pressure in the intervention equipment.

It is important to be aware of the number of turns needed to open and close manually
operated valves, and of which items of equipment the hydraulically actuated master
valve has been tested to cut.

Opening valves under differential pressure conditions (including valves in a double

block situation) can damage their sealing mechanisms as a result of flushing and high
mechanical loads. Differential pressure can result in pressure damage to intervention
equipment such as tool strings that are hanging in a lubricator.

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10. OTHER MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT IN THE COMPLETION STRING

10.1 Storm choke

Storm chokes, or directly controlled safety valves, are placed in the well but are not
controlled from the surface via a control line. These valves are often located in the
lowermost nipple profile in the completion string with the aid of wireline equipment.
There are two types of such valves:

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Figure 20

48
 Excess flow

If the flow through the valve increases greatly (e.g. in a blowout) the pressure
differential across the valve rises and a spring closes the choke.

Pressure-activated
The downhole hydrostatic pressure holds the valve open. If the flow should suddenly
increase the pressure will fall and and the valve will close with the aid of a spring and
a pre-loaded nitrogen charge.

10.2 Flow coupling/blast joint

This is a thick-walled pipe section that is placed in areas of turbulent flow; e.g. after
the DHSV, nipple, circulation equipment, pipe sections that pass perforations. Its ID is
identical to that of the other pipe sections in the completion string, while its OD may
be the same as the OD of the connections.

10.3 Wireline entry guide

This is equipment that is located at the bottom of the tail-pipe (particularly if it is not a
monobore well) in order to enable intervention tools to enter the completion string
without catching. Entry guides can have a ½ muleshoe or a full muleshoe.

Sealstems often have entry guides at their ends to make it easier to enter the liner PBR.
Muleshoes are now available that rotate a certain number of degrees if the completion
string takes a weight, i.e. if it is impossible to enter the PBR, on the next attempt we
have the muleshoe/entry guide which has automatically rotated a certain number of
degrees (so that we avoid having to rotate the whole completion string, which could
damage the control lines).

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Figure 21

50
10.4 Plugs

Blanking plug
This is wireline installed in a nipple profile. Such plugs are called “positive” if they
can take pressure from both sides. Due to their large diameter, it takes some time to
run these plugs, while they may be difficult to release if the pressure is not completely
balanced across them.

Bypass blanking plug

This plug has a pressure-equalisation function. Two trips are normally needed to set
such plugs; one with the plug itself, and another with a prong, and two trips to pull
them; pick up the prong = equalise pressure over and under the plug and pick it up.

Check valve
This valve is installed as part of a plug. It is also known as a “standing valve”. The
valve seals the well from above and is used in pressure testing the completion string
and setting the production packer. Some designs allow wirelines to remain connected
during the pressure-testing process, so that the plug or valve can be pulled
immediately after a successful test.

Pump-through plug
This is a check-valve which maintains pressure only from below. It can be installed
ahead of a well-killing operation.

Pump-open plug
This plug is completely tight until an internal plate is ruptured by pressure applied
from the surface, producing full two-way communication through the plug.

Pressure cycle plugs

These are often used in monobore wells to set wells and wells with open-hole
reservoirs. The production packer is set by applying pressure to the plug. The plug is
then cycled by pressuring up or bleeding down until it opens. Certain designs of these
valves do not restrict the ID of the completion string (Ocre valves).

Pump-out plugs
These plugs are installed in a nipple profile. Pressuring up above the plug causes it to
split in two and the lower part falls down into the well. This type of plug offers a
larger area of flow, but still restricts the well flow (through the part of the plug that
remains in the nipple profile).

Retrievable bridge plugs

These are the most frequently used plugs, not least in monobore wells, which do not
have nipple profiles. They can be set by wireline or coiled tubing, and are pulled using
the same types of intervention equipment. The plugs are fitted with packing elements
and slips which operate in both directions.

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11. Completion

test questions

1. What is the primary function of the production packer in a producing well?

a) To carry the weight of the production string.

b) To keep the completion fluid inside the annulus.
c) To isolate the production annulus.
d) To anchor the base of the production string.

2. How do we isolate a production packer between the inner annulus and the production
string?

a) By isolating the inner annulus from the product flow and from the casing below the
production packer.
b) By isolating the production string in the packer bore.
c) By installing it in a tie-back packer receptacle.
d) By hydraulic control from the surface.

3. What types of production packer are available for well completions?

a) Permanent.
b) Retrievable.
c) Bridge Plug.
d) Pump-through.
e) Check valve.

4. What is the definition of a retrievable production packer?

a) It can be removed by milling.

b) It is fixed and can only be removed together with the production string.
c) It is fixed on the production string.
d) It can be set and retrieved by wireline.
e) It can only be retrieved by means of special retrieval tools.

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5. What is the primary function of a sliding sleeve?

a) To open communication between the production string and the inner annulus.
b) To block the product flow
c) To block the inner annulus

6. How is temporary communication established between the production string and the
inner annulus in order to permit well circulation?

a) By opening a sliding sleeve.

b) By installing a circulation valve in a side pocket mandrel.
c) By perforating the production string.
d) By connecting the production string to the inner annulus at the surface.

7. Where is a sliding sleeve usually located when it is being utilised for well circulation?

a) Between two production packers in order to allow production from a single zone.
b) Below the production packer in a normal completion.
c) Immediately above the production packer in a normal completion.

8. Which statements can be correctly applied to circulation equipment that is to be used

to kill a well? (Select two answers)

a) Check that the pressure classification is adequate for the work to be done.
b) Check that the pressure has been equalised before opening.
c) Check that the equipment is completely open.
d) Check that the tail-pipe plug has been installed before the sliding sleeve is opened.
e) Check that the catcher has been installed below the sliding sleeve.

9. How is circulation established in a completion if a sliding sleeve cannot be opened?

a) By perforating the production string.

b) By releasing the production packer
c) By connecting the production string to the inner annulus at the surface.
d) By retrieving the downhole safety valve (DHSV/SCSSV).

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10. What is the purpose of the side pocket mandrel?

a) To allow communication between the production string and the production annulus.
b) To enable the production string to be plugged.
c) To enable the wireline retrievable safety valve to be set.
d) To establish a profile for setting flow control devices.

11. How are well fluids prevented from flowing into the production annulus ?? when a
side pocket mandrel is being used for gas-lift or chemical injection?

a) By means of a pressure differential across the side pocket mandrel.

b) By means of a check valve in the gas lift valve.
c) By means of a venturi effect across the side pocket mandrel.

12. What type of valve is installed in a side pocket mandrel to block flow in both
directions when it is not in use?

a) A “dummy” valve.
b) A gas-lift valve.
c) A gate valve.
d) A chemical injection valve.
e) A circulation valve.

13. Why do we install downhole safety valves (DHSV/SCSSV)?

a) To close in the well to allow maintenance of topside equipment to take place.

b) To close in the well when production is to be shut down.
c) To control the rate of flow from the well.
d) To stop production if a topside valve is opened accidentally.
e) To close in the well in an emergency.

14. Why down we install annulus safety valves?

a) They are used instead of downhole safety valves in the production string.
b) To shut off flow to the annulus.
c) To prevent back-flow of gas from an annulus with gas-lift.

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15. What is the main reason for using nipple profiles in a completion?

a) To allow flow control devices to be set.

b) To reduce flow from the well.
c) For depth control during wireline operations.

16. How is equipment locked into nipple profiles?

a) By means of slips.
b) By means of No-Go shoulders on the equipment.
c) By means of locking dogs in suitable milled profiles in the nipple profile.
d) By means of expanding rubber elements in the nipple profile.
e) By means of elastomer packing elements in the polished bore of the nipple profile.
f) By means of metal-to-metal seals.

17. What is the primary function of the No-Go shoulder on the equipment stopper?

a) To guide the locking dogs on a wireline tools to a suitable nipple profile.

b) To prevent equipment falling out of the production string when the Shoulder is
installed on the bottom nipple profile.
c) To relieve forces when there is a pressure differential across the equipment.
d) To lock a wireline tool into the nipple profile.

18. Which statement determines the best setting depth for the downhole safety valve
(DHSV/SCSSV)?

a) It should be set at a depth at which sabotage of the valve would be impossible.

b) It should be set such that the volume of hydrocarbons that can leak past a closed
valve will be minimal.
c) It should be set at such a depth that a topside collision or explosion would not be
capable of damaging the valve itself.
d)It should be set below the “cratering depth” in case of a blowout round the casing.
e)It should be set just
above the production packer in order to keep the well pressure as low as possible.
f) It should be set below the depth at which drilling equipment from adjacent wells
could impact it.

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19. Which two types of downhole safety valve are normally used in well completions?

a) Coiled-tubing Retrievable DHSVs.

b) Tubing-retrievable DHSVs.
c) Wireline-retrievable DHSVs.
d) Permanent DHSVs.
e) Temporary DHSVs.

20. Which of the following downhole safety valves are sub-surface controlled? (Select
two answers)

a) Differential pressure valve.

b) Ambient pressure valve.
c) Wireline-retrievable valve.
d) Tubing-retrievable valve.
e) Ball valve.
f) Flapper valve.
g) Automatic valve.

21. Which type of downhole safety valve (DHSV) has the largest internal diameter in a
given size of production tubing?

a) Wireline-retrievable valve.
b) Tubing-retrievable valve.
c) Ambient pressure valve.
d) Pressure differential valve.

22. What types of closing mechanisms are normally used on a wireline-retrievable

DHSV? (Select two answers)

a) Poppet valve.
b) Flapper valve.
c) Plug.
d) Ball valve.
e) Sleeve.
f) Gate valve.

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23. What is the principal advantage of using a wireline-retrieval DHSV?

a) Its simple design and construction.

b) It can be installed after the production string has been run into the well.
c) It can be removed when well interventions are to be performed.
d) It can be retrieved and replaced with a new valve.

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Key to correct answers to test questions: Completion

1C 9A 18 C

2A 10 A 11 B 19 B-C

3 A-B 12 A 20 A-B

4B 13 E 21 B

5A 14 C 22 B-D

6 A-B 15 A 23 D

7C 16 C

8 B-C 17 A

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