Theory: 1. Basic terms used in Translation Theory.

Translation – conveying the

sense/content of a language unit in writing. Interpretation – conveying the sense/content of
a language unit orally. Source language (SL) – the language one translates from. Target
language (TL) – the language one translates to. Consecutive interpretation is a mode of
interpreting in which the speaker makes a speech (or says a few sentences) whilst the
interpreter takes notes. The interpreter then reproduces what the speaker has said for the
audience. Simultaneous interpretation is when an interpreter translates the message from
the source language to the target language in real-time. Faithful translation – адекватний
(вірний) переклад. It attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original
within the constraints of the target language’s grammatical structures. It transfers cultural
words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical deviation from the source
language norms. It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text-
realization of the SL writer. Free translation. Free translation as a meaning-based
translation (also sensefor-sense) means that more emphasis is given to overall meaning
than to exact wording. Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original. Free
translation, according to I. Korunets, is resorted to in the following cases: While dealing
with national realias that have not become internationalisms: борщ –
borsch/borshch/borscht; beet soup served usually with sour cream (Webster) or beet soup
served cold or hot (The American School Dictionary); вареники – meat, fruit or curd
dumplings; галушки – small dough dumpling. While dealing with some idioms having no
idiomatic analogue in the TL: to carry coals to Newcastle – носити дрова до лісу/у
криницю воду лити. While rendering nationally specific idiomatic expressions: Hobson’s
choice is not Гобсонів вибір but жодного вибору; рубати з плеча – to act (speak) rashly,
товчеться, як Марко в пеклі – someone is restless (to be restless). Free translation on the
level of text is used when it is necessary to give the general content of a story, some event
or a legislation act, regulation etc. In free translation the style of the text in a TL is different
from that of the original as syntactic and stylistic peculiarities of the ST, modality, the
author’s individual style are not preserved. Adaptation. This is the freest form of translation
mainly used for plays and poetry: themes, characters, plots preserved, SL converted to the
TL culture and text is rewritten. Screen translation. Translation of films and television
programmes, including subtitling (where the translation is typed along the bottom of the
screen) and dubbing (where the voices of native speakers of the target language are heard
in place of the original actors). Descriptive translation is a complex transformation which is
used to explain the meaning of SL units, often with the help of hierarchically different TL
units. For example, a word may be translated as a word-combination or vice versa:
Верховна Рада – The Ukrainian Parliament (Descriptive), Verkhovna Rada (Literal),
Supreme Council (word-for-word), Supreme Rada (mixed); вареники – a traditional
Ukrainian dish, meat or fruit dumplings (Descriptive), varenyky (literal). Antonymic
translation is a complex transformation in which an affirmative in sense or structure SL
unit is rendered as a negative in sense or structure but identical in meaning TL unit or vice
versa: Немає лиха без добра. – Every dark cloud has a silver lining. I mean it! – Я не
жартую! Machine translation is a procedure in which a computer program analyzes a SLT
and produces a TLT without further human intervention. 2. Ways of translating (by I.
Korunets). Translating is unseparable from understanding and it goes along with conveying
content and sometimes even the form of language units. As a result, the process of
translation, provided it is not performed at the level of separate simple words, involves
simultaneously some aspects of the source language and those of the target language.
These are morphology (wordbuilding and word forms), the lexicon (words, phraseologisms,
mots), syntax (the means of connection and the structure of syntaxemes), stylistics
(peculiarities of speech styles, tropes, etc.). The level or the degree of faithfulness of
translation is mostly predetermined by some factors, which may be both of objective and
of subjective nature. The main of them are the purpose of the translation to be performed,
the skill of the translator/interpreter, the type of the matter selected for translation, etc.
Depending on these and some other factors, the following methods of translating are
traditionally recognized in the theory and practice of translation: 1. Literal translating,
which is to be employed when dealing with separate words whose surface form and
structure, as well as their lexical meaning in the source language and in the target
language, fully coincide. These are predominantly international by origin morphemes,
lexemes/words, rarer word-groups having in English and Ukrainian (and often in some
other languages too) a literally identical or very similar presentation and identical lexical
meaning: administrator – адміністратор, director – директор, region – регіон, hotel/motel
– готель/мотель, hydrometer – гідрометр, Tот – Том, etc. It is easy to notice that in some
words thus translated not only the morphemic but also the syllabic structure can
sometimes be fully conveyed (an-ti – ан-ти, escort – ес-корт, direct-or – директ-ор, ex-
presid-ent – eкс-прези-дент). In many cases, however, the lingual form of the source
language words is only partly conveyed in the target language: anti-alcoholic –
протиалкогольний, music – музика, constitution – конституція, zoology – зоологія,
atomic weight – атомна вага, chemical process – хімічний процес, national opera theatre
– національний оперний театр. Close to the literal method of translating or rather
reproduction is the socalled way of translator’s transcription by means of which partly the
orthographic and partly the sounding form of the source language lexemes/words is
conveyed: archbishop – архієпископ, card – картка/карта, European – європейський,
organized – організований, stylized – стилізований, therapeutic – терапевтичний. Literal
translating, however, can pervert the sense of the source language lexemes or sentences
when their lingual form accidentally coincides with some other target language lexemes
having quite different meanings: artist – митець, художник (rarer артист); decoration –
відзнака, нагорода (and not декорація); matrass – колба (and not матрац – mattress);
replica – точна копія (and not репліка), etc. 2. Verbal translating is also employed at
lexeme/word level. But unlike literal translating it never conveys the orthographic or the
sounding form of the source language units, but their denotative meaning only: fearful –
страшний, fearless – безстрашний, helpless – безпорадний, incorrect – неправильний,
mistrust – недовір’я (недовіра), superprofit – надприбуток, non-interference –
невтручання, weightlessness – невагомість etc. All the words above are practically
translated at the lexicomorphological level, as their lexical meanings and morphological
stems are identical to those of the English words (help-less – без-порадний, mis-trust –
не-довір’я, super-profit – над-прибуток, etc.). The overwhelming majority of other words,
when translated verbally do not preserve their structure in the target language. That is
explained by the differences in the morphological systems of the English and Ukrainian
languages: abundantly – рясно, bank – берег (береговий), cliff – бескид (скеля, круча),
myself – я, я сам/сама; автомат – automatic machine/rifle, заввишки – high/tall,
письменник – writer (author), червоніти – to get/grow red, etc. Verbal translating of
polysemantic words permits a choice among some variants which is practically impossible
in literal translating, which aims only at maintaining the literal form. Thus, the Ukrainian
word автомат can have the following equivalent variants in English: 1. automatic machine;
2. slot-machine; 3. automatic telephone; 4. submachine gun (tommy gun). Similarly, the
English word bank when out of a definite context may have the following equivalent
variants in Ukrainian: 1. берег (річки); 2. банк; 3. вал/насип; 4. мілина; 5. замет; 6. крен,
віраж (авіац.) 7. поклади (корисних копалин). The literal variant/equivalent of the noun
bank in Ukrainian can be, naturally, «банк» only. Verbal translation is widely employed first
of all at language level, i.e., when the lexical meaning of separate words is to be identified.
A graphic example of verbal translation is presented in dictionaries which list the lexical
meanings of thousands of separate words. 3. Word-for-word translation is another method
of rendering sense. It presents a consecutive verbal translation though at the level of word-
groups and sentences. This way of translation is often employed both consciously and
subconsciously by students in the process of translating alien grammatical
constructions/word forms. Sometimes students at the initial stage of learning a foreign
language may employ this way of translation even when dealing with seemingly common
phrases or sentences, which are structurally different from their equivalents in the native
tongue. Usually the students employ word-for-word translation to convey the sense of
word-groups or sentences which have a structural form, the order of words, and the means
of connection quite different from those in the target language. To achieve faithfulness in
translation, word-for-word variants are to be corrected to avoid various grammatical
violations made by the inexperienced students: You are right to begin with – Ви маєте
рацію, щоб почати (wrong ) You are right to begin with – Почнімо з того/припустимо, що
ви маєте рацію/що ви праві (right ). 4. The interlinear way/method of translating is a
conventional term for a strictly faithful rendering of sense expressed by word-groups and
sentences at the level of some text. The latter may be a passage, a stanza, an excerpt of a
work or the work itself. The method of interlinear translation may be practically applied to
all speech units (sentences, supersyntactic units, passages). Interlinear translation always
provides a completely faithful conveying only of content, which is often achieved through
various transformations of structure of many sense units. For example, the sentence Who
took my book? admits only one word-for-word variant, namely: Хто взяв мою книжку? In
interlinear translation, however, the full content of this sentence can be faithfully rendered
with the help of two and sometimes even three equivalent variants: У кого моя книжка?
Хто брав/узяв мою книжку? The choice of any of the transformed variants is
predetermined by the aim of the translation, by the circumstances under which the
translating/interpreting is performed or by the requirements of style (for example, in order
to avoid the unnecessary repetition of the same form of expression/structure close to each
other). Interlinear translating is neither bound to nor in any way restricted by the
particularities of word forms, by the word order or by the structural form of the source
language units, which are usually word-combinations or sentences in the passage/work
under translation. Various transformations in interlinear translations, like in literary
translations, are inevitable and they are called forth by grammatical/structural, stylistic
and other divergences in the source language and in the target language. 5. Literary
Translating represents the highest level of a translator’s activity. Any type of matter skilfully
turned into the target language, especially by a regular master of the pen may acquire the
faithfulness and the literary (or artistic) standard equal to that of the source language.
Depending on the type of the matter under translation, this method of performance may be
either literary proper or literary artistic. Literary artistic translation presents a faithful
conveying of content and of the artistic merits only of a fiction/belles-lettres passage or
work. The latter may be either of a prose or a poetic genre (verse). Literary proper
translation is performed on any other than fiction/belleslettres passages/works. These
may include scientific or technical matter, didactic matter (different text-books), business
correspondence, the language of documents, epistolary texts, etc. In short, any printed or
recorded matter devoid of artistic merits (epithets, metaphors, etc.). But whether literary
proper or literary artistic, this translation provides an equivalent rendering not only of
complete content but also of the stylistic peculiarities o of the passage/work and its
artistic merits/beauty, as in belles-lettres style texts.
I. Rules and methods of Romanization of Ukrainian proper nouns in English. Ukrainian
proper names of people and family names are mostly conveyed on the basis of their
phonemic/ orthographic structure, i.e. are transcribed/ transliterated in English: Віра –
Vira; Петро – Petro; Іван – Ivan. Far from all Ukrainian proper names can be conveyed by
way of literal translating, however. This is because some of our vowels and consonants
have no equivalent sounds/ phonemes in English and must be substituted for
approximately similar sounds. Among these Ukrainian sounds and sound combinations
are first of all those ones, which are rendered with the help of the letters or letter
combinations и, й, ий, ій, я, ю, є, ї or partly through the letters ж, щ, х, ч, ч and palatalized
consonants. The adoption by the Verkhovna Rada of the Romanization System enables the
conveying of our personal names, family names (onomastics) and also all Ukrainian
geographical names (toponymy) in accordance with some rules. This system practically
does not contain diacritics, i.e., different signs over or under the letters, like in German,
Turkish, Chech or French. The only sign of the kind being the sign ’ for palatalization (Львів
– L‟viv) which is not difficult to add after a letter. The adopted Romanization system is
internally consistent and based on sound linguistic principles. It is to be strictly observed
by the students of foreign languages and the people responsible for its absolute
implementation in this country and abroad. This is how it is presented; Ukrainian English
Ukrainian English 1. А, а A, a 18. Н, н N, n 2. Б, б B, b 19. О, о O, o 3. В, в V, v / W, w 20. П,п
P, p 4. Г, г H, h 21. Р, р R, r 5. Ґ, ґ G, g 22. С, с S, s 6. Д, д D, d 23. Т, т T, t 7. Е, е E, e 24. У, у
U, u 8. Є, є Ye, ye 25. Ф, ф F, f 9. Ж, ж Zh, zh 26. Х, х Kh, kh 10. З, з Z, z 27. Ц, ц Ts, ts 11. И,
и Y, y 28. Ч, ч Ch, ch/ Tch, tch 12. І, і I, i 29. Ш, ш Sh, sh 13. Ї, ї Yi, yi/ Ii, ii 30. Щ, щ Shch,
shch 14. Й, й Y, y 31. Ю, ю Yu, yu 15. К, к K, k 32. Я. Я Ya, ya 16. Л, л L, l 33. Ь 17. М, м M, m
A practical realization of this system can be illustrated on many Ukrainian names with the
substitution of Ukrainian letters (and sounds) for the completely, approximately or
similarly corresponding English letters or letter combinations; /и/ as y: Кирило – Kyrylo;
Суми – Sumy; /ї/ as ii, i or yi: (depending on the position and environment): When preceded
by a vowel, it is conveyed by the letter i: Заїка – Zaika; Зінаїда – Zinaida: but: Турбаї –
Turbayi/ Turbaii; When it initiates the proper name, the sound expressed by the Ukrainian
letter ї has to be conveyed through the yi letter combination: Ївга – Yivha; Їжакевич –
Yizhakevych; /й/ is to be conveyed through the letter y: Йовенко – Yovenko; Йосип –
Yosyp. When preceded by the /і/ sound it is conveyed in English as ii or iy: Андрій – Andrii/
Andriy; Гафійка – Hafiika/ Hafiyka; Матвійчук – Matviichuk/ Matviychuk; When it is
preceded by /и/ it is to be conveyed as yi: Сірий – Siryi. /я/ as ya or ia: Яким – Yakym;
Ярема – Yarema; but: Забіяка – Zabiyaka/ Zabiaka; The sound expressed through the
Ukrainian letter я in the final position of a word or traditional proper name can sometimes
be conveyed in English by the ia rarely ya letter combinations. It is mostly observed in
traditional proper names like Марія, Софія, Юлія, Югославія – Maria; Sofia; Yulia;
Yugoslavia; but: Кенія – Kenya. /ю/ as yu/ iu /є/ as ye/ ie It is common knowledge that
present-day English is practically devoid of palatalization. As a result, all Ukrainian
palatalized consonants usually obtain a hard pronunciation in English: Альбіна – Albina;
Гринь – Hryn; Кость – Kost. In lingustic papers these and the like proper names, however,
may have a sign for palatalzation (’): Al’bina, Hryn’, Kost’, Bened’, Luts’k, Mel’nyk, etc. As
to the Ukrainian consonant phonemes, which have no direct equivalents in the English
language, they can mostly be conveyed through analogous English sounds, sometimes
formed by different letter combinations. Thus, the Ukrainian /г/ sound is to be conveyed
through the similar though not identical voiceless English /h/ phoneme: Гаврило – Havrylo;
Григір – Hryhir; Гмиря – Hmyrya; Гайдай – Haidai. The Ukrainian /ж/ phoneme is conveyed
with the help of the zh letter combination: Жук – Zhuk; Жанна – Zhanna; Божій – Bozhiy;
Неїжмак – Neyizhmak. The Ukrainian /х/ sound is conveyed in English through the kh letter
combination: Лахно – Lakhno; Харків – Kharkiv; Охрімчук – Okhrimchuk. As to the similar
in the Ukrainian and English languages /ч/ sound it may be conveyed in two ways:
traditionally the letter combination ch or tch always were and are still used for the
purpose: Клочко – Klochko/ Klotchko; Кочур – Kochur/ Kotchur; Чорний – Chornyi/
Tchornyi. !!! The letter combination tch is less and less often used at present. Recently,
however, in accordance with the internationally agreed upon the rules (UNESCO) our /ч/
sound in proper nouns is often conveyed via the č sign and the /ш/ sound via the š sign:
Частій – Chastii/ Častiy; Богач – Bohach/ Bohač; Черниш – Chernysh/ Černyš. Similarly
with the Ukrainian /шч/ sound which has no equivalent in English. Traditionally it was
conveyed in English through the letter combination shch (sh+ch). Nowadays the sign šč is
sometimes used for the purpose too. Hence, the Ukrainian proper nouns especially
geographical names and names of public bodies containing щ can be conveyed as follows:
Щаденко – Shchadenko/ Ščadenko; Ющук – Yushchuk/ Yuščuk. For all other Ukrainian
consonant phonemes there are corresponding letters and letter combinations in English
which convey more or less similar sounds, though they may belong in both the languages
to the same articulatory zones (labial, dental, alveolar, etc.). For example, the Ukrainian /б/
and /п/ phonemes are substituted for the English plosives /b/ and /p/: Борис – Borys;
Петро – Petro. The Ukrainian consonant phonemes /д/, /т/, /н/, /л/, /с/, /ц/ and their
palatalized variants /д’/, /т’/, /н’/, /л’/, /с’/, /ц’/ are substituted respectively for the English
alveolar /d/, /t/, /n/, /l/, /s/, /ts/ though the latter differ greatly by their articulatory
characteristics from the Ukrainian phonemes. Only approximate similarity can also be
observed in most cases between the Ukrainian /в/ phoneme which is much closer when
used in the initial position to the English /w/ than to its traditional substitute (in
translations from the Ukrainian) /v/ phoneme: Володимир – Volodymyr; Убийвовк –
Ubyivovk; Вовченко, Вареник – Vovchenko, Varenyk; but: Віль must be only Will.
Consequently Вовченко, Вареник may also be Wowchenko, Warenyk. When in the
position between two vowels or between a vowel and a palatalized consonant, the
Ukrainian /в/ sound somewhat resembles the English /v/ phoneme, however: Сиваченко –
Syvachenko; Швидюк – Svydiuk/ Shvydyuk. Undoubtedly the closest to the English
consonant phonemes are the Ukrainian /к/, /ґ/ /з/ phonemes: Кавун – Kavun; Зінаїда –
Zinaida; Ґудзій – Gudziy/ Gudzii. But there are no similar substitutes in English for our
palatalized /дз’/ sound which will be read by the English native speakers as /dz/ only as in
Ґедзь – Gedz; Ґудзь – Gudz and others. There is very little similarity, however, between the
Ukrainian vibrant /р/ and the English /r/ phoneme belonging in both these languages to
different articulatory zones. Nevertheless the English /r/ is always used in translations of
proper names to substitute the Ukrainian /р/ and vice versa: Барбара – Barbara; Роберт –
Robert. II. Nicknames of people in English and Ukrainian. English proper names are either
transcribed or transliterated (or partly transcribed and partly transliterated) in Ukrainian.
Irrespective of the considerable divergences existing between the phonemic systems of
the two languages, a number of English proper names are rendered into Ukrainian by way
of transliteration only: Barbara – Барбара; Rita – Ріта. A few English proper names are
transliterated with the omission or addition of a letter or two in Ukrainian: McDonald –
Макдональд; Jupiter – Юпітер This kind of rendering becomes necessary when dealing
with specifically English spelling forms of proper names and to avoid the violation of the
traditionally established spelling rules of the Ukrainian language. Some other English
proper names of people and geographical names are rendered into Ukrainian partly
through transcription. Mostly transcribed are names/ surnames containing specific English
vowel phonemes which are usually formed by different sound/ letter combinations: Abe –
Ейб; Queenie – Квіні. Jackson – Джексон; Newton – Ньютон. The exactitude of conveying
English proper names in Ukrainian may be predetermined by some lingual and extralingual
factors. The main of them are: – absence of in Ukrainian of corresponding phonemes and
orthographic means to substitute some particular English sounds/ letter combinations
(lingual) or – the established tradition according to which some names are translated
(extralingual): Thorne – Торн; Galsworthy – Ґолсуорсі. Care should be taken in order to
avoid the influence of both the lingual and extralingual factors. For example, the well-
known names as Adam and David can be translated into Ukrainian as Адам and Давид
(Biblical or historical) or as Едем and Девід (common people‟s names). Mostly translated
are the names of kings, queens, princes, princesses, tsars and tsarinas. These exceptions
to the general rule are observed in the following names: E.g: King Charles/ George/ Henry –
Король Карл/ Георг/ Генріх; Queen Elizabeth/ Mary Stewart – королева Єлизавета/
Марія Стюарт. !!! Contrary to this rule is the wrong translation in our mass media of Prince
Charles of Wales as принц Чарльз, instead of принц Карл (according to the historically
established tradition). Among the names of kings, queens, tsars, etc. are also some which
are transliterated in the TL. These are mostly peculiar national names with no
corresponding equivalents in other languages: King Horn – Король Горн; Prince Robert –
принц Роберт; цар Борис – Tsar Boris. Nicknames of people (especially of kings, queens,
princes, princesses, tsars and tsarinas) are almost always translated irrespective of the
language they come from. E.g.: King Charles the Great – король Карл Великий; King
Edward the Confessor – король Едуард Сповідник; King Richard the Lionheart – король
Річард Левине серце; Prince William of Orange – принц Вільгельм Оранський; Князь
Ярослав Мудрий – Prince Yaroslav the Wise; Цар Василь Темний – Tsar Basil the Blind;
Цар Іван Грозний – Tsar Ivan the Terrible. Indian chief’s names and family names of
American Indians which became known mainly from [Link]‟s novels are translated, as
a rule, too: (the) Arrowhead – Гостряк Стріли; Dew of June – Червнева Роса;
Chingachgook the Big Serpent – Чінґачґук Великий Змій; The Deerslayer (the Pathfinder) –
Звіробій (Знайдислід, “Слідопит”) Hawk’s Eye – Соколине Око. But: Князь Осмомисл –
Prince Osmomysl; Олександр Невський – Alexander Nevsky. The so-called generalizing
or characterizing names used by many authors in their belleslettres works to point out
some determinant (usually negative) feature of their characters are mostly not translated
but only transliterated or transcribed. Such are the characters, for example, from
[Link]‟ works: Mrs. Porkenham (cf. pork and ham – ласа/ любителька добре поїсти,
гурманка пані Поркенгем); Doctor Slammer – (cf. to slam the door – грюкати дверима –
Лікар Слеммер). It is not always possible to give the verbal translation of such names in
the TL as it may turn the characters into the foreigners (making the names sound too
English or too Ukrainian or Russian). For example, by translating the names of Chekhov‟s
characters Чубуков and Ломов as correspondently Piper and Gouter (from „gout‟ –
подагра) we would turn them into Englishmen. However, these names may say a lot about
their bearers. For example, in Ostrovsky‟s comedy „Волки и овцы‟ the surname Беркутов
is rather symbolic but the translator has to render it as Berkutov, limiting himself to the
footnote explaining the meaning of this talking name. Another example: the characters
from [Link]‟s “A School of Scandal” are given the names Lady Sneerwell, Mr. Snake
and are usually transliterated in translation. One translator though tried to render Mr.
Snake as Мистер Гад. It is very witty because it sounds English resembling the sounding of
an English word but inadmissible. Some nicknames of this kind may naturally be translated
or even replaced by similar but more expressive analogues, especially when used in
humorous stories. For example: nicknames of the guardsmen from [Link]‟s
comedy “Much ado about nothing” – Dogberry and Verges – were translated into Russian
very expressively as Клюква and Кисель (dogberry – is a variety of cornel (кизил); verges =
verjuice – sour juice of unripe fruit). The verbal translation of the names as Кизил and
Кисляй is much less expressive than Клюква and Кисель. III. Companies, corporations,
firms. Traditionally most names of companies (corporations, firms etc.) are transcribed or
transliterated and shortly explicated at the same time. This method is also employed when
rendering the names of publishing houses, titles of most newspapers and magazines or
journals, and of some public bodies. The translation may be performed either with the
employment of a shorter (when the name of the company (corporation, firm) is well-known
or when translating at language level) or more extended explication (when translating at
speech/ text level): Associated Biscuit Manufacturers – англійська компанія з випуску
хрустких коржиків “Ессошіейтід біскіт менюфекчерерз”; But: General Motors –
“Дженерал Моторз”. It is much easier to translate the names of companies/ corporations
when their product is indicated: British-American Tobacco Co. – об‟єднана англо-
американська компанія тютюнових виробів “Брітіш-амерікан тобеко компані”; Coca-
Cola Co. Inc. – об‟єднана компанія з виробництва безалкогольних напоїв “Кокакола
компані інкорпорейтід”. Ukrainian companies, firms and other state and private bodies
performing the same or similar functions are translated according to the same rule: they
are transliterated or transcribed and explicated at the same time: Київська фірма
“Світанок” – Kyiv Svitanok civil services firm; Укргазпром – Ukrainian Ukrhazprom natural
gas importing and extracting body; Львівська взуттєва фірма “Прогрес” – Lviv Prohress
footwear firm. IV. Names of institutions bearing honorary names. Special attention should
be paid to the translation of the names of institutions, enterprises, geographical objects,
etc., bearing honorary names. !!! In English the honorary name precedes the enterprise/
body which bears it, whereas in Ukrainian/ Russian it always follows the name of the
enterprise/ body: Humboldt State College – Державний коледж ім. Гумбольдта; George
Washington Library – Бібліотека ім. Джорджа Вашингтона; Lafayette/ Longfellow College
– Коледж ім. Лафаєтта/ Лонгфелло; But: Бібліотека ім. Котляревського – the
Kotlyarevskyi library; Національна бібліотека України ім. академіка Вернадського –
Ukrainian Academician Vernadskyi National Library. Names of literary and scientific/
peace prizes are translated into Ukrainian in two ways: with the preservation of the name
which the prize bears or with the transformation of the noun into a corresponding relative
adjective. E.g.: Nobel Prize – Нобелівська премія – премія імені Нобеля; Pulitzer Prize –
Пулітцерівська премія (премія імені Пулітцера); Taras Shevchenko Prize –
Шевченківська премія (премія імені Тараса Шевченка); Rylsky Translation Prize –
перекладацька премія імені Рильського. !! English honorary names, therefore, are
mostly transformed into relative adjectives in Ukrainian, whereas Ukrainian relative
adjectives must be translated, where possible, as corresponding English nouns. This rule
should also be observed when translating the names which contain the often used
adjective державний. The latter, however, may sometimes be omitted in English, which
should not be treated as a translator‟s mistake. The thing is that belonging of important
institutions to state property in all countries is considered self-evident. As a result, two
faithful translations of this kind of names are possible: Київська державна кіностудія ім.
О.Довженка – Kyiv State Dovzhenko Film Studio; Kyiv Dovzhenko Film Studio; Львівський
державний університет ім. Івана Франка – Lviv [Link] State University; Lviv [Link]
University. ******************************************************************** The
honorary names originating from common nouns or from those denoting historical/
revolutionary events may be conveyed in two ways: translated only or transliterated/
transcribed and explicated in brackets at the same time. Especially often this kind of
names were used in Soviet times: Дзвонковецький колгосп “Тихе життя” – the
Dzvonkove Tykhe Zhyttia (Quiet Life) collective farm; Львівська фірма кондитерських
виробів “Світоч” – Lviv Svitoch (Torchlight) Confectionary Firm. Some names of our
institutions which have recently changed their official status may be used with the definite
article in the English translated variant: Горлівський державний педагогічний інститут
іноземних мов – The Horlivka Foreign Languages Teachers‟ Training Institute (now
University); Музична школа імені М.Лисенка – The [Link] Musical School. It should
be emphasized that the NNN or NNNN, etc. asyndetic word-groups are preferred in
newspaper style (the former Kyiv Svyatoshyn Shlyakhom Peremoh (On the Road to
Victories) state farm) whereas in spoken language or in belles-lettres works prepositional
phrases are used to convey such and the like names of institutions ((the) Shlyakhom
Peremoh (On the Road to Victories) state farm in Kyiv Svyatoshyn district). !!! When
translating such and the like often used today complicated names of different institutions,
one should strictly stick to the rule: in English the honorary name, functioning as a relative
adjective, follows the place name which is expressed in Ukrainian by possessive and
relative adjective formed from the place name: Київський державний педагогічний
університет імені М.Драгоманова – Kyiv (State) [Link] Teachers Training
University. It must be repeatedly emphasized that the placement of the honorary name in
English translations is strictly predetermined and cannot be changed deliberately unless
required by the speech situation (style) and content. !!! Care should be taken to avoid the
stylistically unjustified expression “the named after” which is to be used only in
explanatory versions, as in the sentence “After Ukraine’s gaining independence many state
institutions were named after our most prominent patriots Hryshevsky, Vynnychenko and
many others”. Hence the Lviv [Link] library is never the named after [Link] Lviv
Library. V. Hotels, guest houses, hostels: Names of hotels are mostly reproduced through
transcription or transliteration and explication at the same time: The Royal Court Hotel –
готель “Роял корт”: Готель “Київ”/ “Русь”/ “Україна” – the Kyiv/ Rus‟/ Ukraina Hotel;
Лисянський готель “Колос” – the Lysyanka Kolos Hotel. When the names originate from
common nouns or word-combinations they may be translated: Готель “Колос”/
“Берізка”/ “Затишок” – the Kolos/ Birch Tree/ Cosy Nook Hotel; The Mitre Hotel –
лондонський готель “Майтер” (Митра); VI. Translating the names of streets, squares and
residential areas. Translation of the names of streets, avenues and squares is
predetermined by several factors. Alongside the established tradition, the most important
of these factors is the meaning of the component parts making up the name. The name of
streets with an appositional “street/ avenue” nouns. – When used in the text, the names of
streets, avenues, roads, and squares may often be simply transcribed or transliterated,
since the nouns “street”, “avenue”, “road” or “square” are familiar to many Ukrainians:
Dean Street – Дін-Стріт; Milton Street/ Oxford Street – Мільтон Стріт/ Оксфорд Стріт;
Farrington Road – Фаррінґтон-Роуд. – When used out of context, the names of streets,
avenues and squares require in Ukrainian an additional explanatory noun вулиця
(бульвар, провулок): Narrow Lane – вул. (пров.) Нерроу-лейн; Midland Park Road – вул.
Мідланд-парк роуд. The streets (avenues) with numbers instead of the proper names
always have the number translated and given in figures: Sixth/ Seventh Street – Шоста/
Сьома вулиця; First (Third, Ninth) Avenue – Перша (Третя/ Дев‟ята) авеню. The name of
streets with no appositional “street/ avenue” nouns in English must be added вулиця in
Ukrainian translation: Cheyne Walk – вул. Чейні-вок; The Pall Mall – вул. Пел Мел; Unwin
Place – вул. Анвін-Плейс; Portland Place – вул. Портленд-плейс. Ukrainian names of
streets (roads, avenues) are translated according to the common rule, the proper name
being transliterated (rarely transcribed) and the explaining common noun вулиця,
бульвар, провулок is translated: Андріївська/ Польова вулиця – Andriivska/ Polyova
Street; Бульвар Лесі Українки/ Шевченка – Lesya Ukrainka/ Shevchenko Avenue. ! In
recent years, however, especially in the local English press more and more often our
вулиця, бульвар etc. are transliterated in English: Vulyts’a/ vulytsia Kostel’na/ Bohdana
Khmelnyts’koho; Ploshcha Peremohy/ Tolstoho. When the noun вулиця, бульвар,
провулок is not used in Ukrainian, it should naturally be added in the English translation:
Андріївський Узвіз – Andriivskyi Uzviz Road (Vulytsia); Лиса Гора/ Ярославів Вал – Lysa
Hora/ Yaroslaviv Val Street (Vulytsia). The names of Ukrainian streets and squares given in
honour of social, political or historical events/ personalities, along with the names formed
from regular common nouns, qualitative or relative adjectives, are mostly translated. This
way of translating is especially common: –in written language when it is not connected
directly with oral communication and –when the name originates from a common noun or
is a stable word-combination denoting some historical or revolutionary event whose
meaning may be not clear to the receptor if transliterated only: Ukrainian: Бульвар Дружби
народів – The Friendship of Nations (People‟s Friendship) Avenue /Bulvar; Вулиця
Верховної Ради – Verkhovna Rada Street/ Vulytsia; Площа Богдана Хмельницького –
Bohdan Khmel‟nytskyi Square (Ploshcha) also Bohdana Khmel‟nytskoho Square
(Ploshcha); Контрактова площа – Kontraktova Square (Ploshcha). Площа Перемоги –
Peremoha (Victory) Square (Ploshcha); The names of English squares: are also mostly
transcribed and explicated (by adding площа) whether the noun “square” is mentioned or
not: Percy Circus – площа Персі-серкус; Elephant and Castle – площа Елефант енд
Касл; Hanover Square – площа Геновер-Сквер. Some names of squares may be either
transcribed/ transliterated or translated from the English language as well: Trafalgar
Square – площаТрафальґар-Сквер/ Трафальґарська площа. Parliament Square – площа
Парламент-Сквер/ Парламентська площа.
******************************************************************************
******* Sometimes in oral and written practice both transliteration or transcription as well
as regular translation may be employed. This becomes inevitable when the name of the
square/ street originates from a common noun or when it is necessary to avoid some
misundestanding. Besides, there may arise a need to clarify the lexical meaning of a proper
name (or a component part of it) in the TL: Площа Перемоги – Peremoha (Victory) Square
(Ploshcha); Площа Возз’єднання – Vozyednannya (Reunification) Square (Ploshcha). The
rule of translating such peculiar notions as житловий масив and адміністративний
район in a city. Thus: Васильківський/ Яготинський район is Vasyl‟kivs‟kyi/ Yahotyns‟kyi
district (rayon); Шевченківський район м.Києва – Shevchenkivs‟kyi district of Kyiv. Any
житловий район in any city is always a residential area: – (the) Syrets/ Nyvky residential
area (in Kyiv Shevchenkivs’kyi district); – the Oleksiyivka residential area (in Kharkiv); – the
Kharkivs‟kyi Masyv residential area (in Kyiv). VII. Publishing houses and news agencies.
Translation of the names of British/ American publishing houses is performed according to
the following rule: they are transliterated or transcribed and explicated at the same time:
Associated Book Publishers – лондонська книжково-видавнича фірма “Ассошіетід бук
паблішерз”; Cambridge University Press – англійське видавництво наукової та
довідкової літератури при Кембріджському університеті “Кембрідж юніверсіті прес”;
Edward Arnolds (Publishers) Ltd. – лондонське видавництво навчально-педагогічної та
наукової літератури “Едвард Арнольдз (паблішерз) лімітед”. Not infrequently, however,
the word “publishing house” is not mentioned at all. Nevertheless in Ukrainian translation
the identifying noun видавництво should necessarily be added: Penguin Books –
лондонське видавництво “Пенґвін букс”; Random House (USA) – видавництво
художньої літератури “Рендом Гаус” (США); Beacon Press (USA) – американське
видавництво підручників “Бікон Прес”.
************************************************************************ Names of
Ukrainian publishing houses are rendered into English similarly: with the corresponding
identifying noun Publishers or Publishing House added to it: Видавництво “Український
письменник”/ “Дніпро” – Kyiv Ukrains‟kyi Pysmennyk/ Dnipro Publishers (Publishing
House); Видавництво “Либідь” – Kyiv Shevchenko University Lybid‟ Publishers (scientific
literature and higher school manuals).
************************************************************************ The names of
news agencies are also transcribed or transliterated and shortly explicated in the TL: (the
British) Reuters (news Agency) – англійське інформаційне аґентство “Рейтер”;
Інформаційне агентство Дінау Укрінформ – Ukrainian Dinau Ukrinform News Agency;
But: Китайське інформаційне аґентство Сінь-Хуа – Chinese Communist New China
News Agency. VIII. Names of Public Bodies. Names of public bodies are mostly translated.
These include: political parties; trade unions; national and international bodies of
different rank and functions. – the British Conservative Party – консервативна партія
Великої Британії; – Українська селянська партія – the Ukrainian Farmer‟s Party; –
Спортивне товариство “Динамо” – Dynamo sports society. Similarly treated are also
various names of English/ American trade unions which may sometimes go under the
names “association”, “society”, “organization”, “brotherhood” or simply “union”, which
should always be translated as профспілка: – British Transport and General Workers
Union – профспілка робітників транспорту і некваліфікованих працівників Великої
Британії. Some trade unions of the USA are amalgamated with those of Canada. This is
always indicated by the word “international” which should not erroneously be taken for
міжнародний/ міжнародна and consequently has to be translated as об’єднана
профспілка США і Канада: – International Ladies Garment Workers – Об‟єднана
профспілка робітників по пошиттю жіночого верхнього одягу США і Канади; Names of
Ukrainian trade unions are translated in the same way as the English (or American) ones.
They may also be rendered in their full official wording or somewhat shortened (without
using the words “trade union”): – Профспілка працівників освіти, вищої школи і
наукових установ – Ukrainian Public Education,Higher School and Scientific Institutions
Workers (Trade) Unions. Similarly translated are also names of international organizations
as: – International Monetary Fund (IMF) – Міжнародний Валютний Фонд; – Economic
European Council – Економічна Рада Європи (Рада Європи); – Дніпровський Центр
українсько-польських культурних, наукових і ділових зв‟язків The Dnieper area Center
for Ukrainian and Polish Cultural, Scientific and Business Relations. IX. Geographical
names. It must be emphasized that in recent decades there has been !!! a general
tendency in translation practice to transcribe or transliterate foreign proper names and not
to translate them. In conformity with the tendency some proper names of people and place
names which had hitherto been translated are now transcribed or transliterated. So
Michael Faraday is no more Михайло Фарадей but Майкл Фарадей; Gerge Washington is
Джордж (and not Георг) Вашінгтон; This tendency should also be observed when dealing
with some other proper names, including geographical ones (the general tendency up to
recently being transcription or transliteration). Thus a considerable number of English
geographical names are rendered into Ukrainian by way of transcription only: So Salt Lake
City is no more місто Солоного Озера but місто Солт Лейк-Сіті. Buckinghamshire –
Бакінгемшир; Freetown – Фрітаун; Greenfield – Ґрінфілд; Newfoundland –
Ньюфаундленд. Many English place names, along with other geographical and proper
names, are conveyed in Ukrainian partly with the help of transcription and partly via
transliteration: This can be observed in the two-syllable names in the examples below.
The first (1) group of the geographical names has the initial syllables transliterated and the
closing syllables transcribed, whereas the second group (2) contains geographical
names with the initial syllables transcribed and the closing syllables transliterated: (1) (2)
Birmingham – Бірмінгем Brighton – Брайтон Sheffield – Шеффілд Houston – Ґюстон A few
geographical names and some proper names of people have a traditionally established
orthographical form which does not reflect in any way their pronunciation or their real
orthograhic form in the English language: Maine – Мен (штат США); Ulster – Ольстер;
Texas – Техас; The Arctic Ocean – Північний Льодовитий Океан; Names of seas, oceans,
bays, archipelagos, isthmuses (перешийок), straits, channels, administrative territories
and compound names of countries having the structure of wordcombinations are always
translated: The Atlantic/ Pacific/ Indian Ocean – Атлантичний/ Тихий/ Індійський Океан;
The Gulf of Mexico/ Salonica – Мексиканська/ Салонікська затока; Закарпаття –
Transcarpathia/ Transcarpathian Region of Ukraine; Краснодарський/ Ставропольський
край – Krasnodar/ Stavropol Territory. The geographical names formed on the basis of
common nouns which acquired the status of proper names are generally translated from
English into Ukrainian and vice versa: Cape of Good Hope – мис Доброї Надії; Golden
Gate – Золоті Ворота; Great Slave Lake – Велике Невільниче озеро. Geographical names
having single word and word-combination structures require some identifying element in
the target language (an apposition noun, an adjective, etc.). These elements explain the
nature and the real meaning of the geographical name in the TL: Idaho Falls – місто
Айдаго-Фолз; The Azores/ the Seychelles – Азорські/ Сейшельські о-ви; Connecticut –
штат Коннектік(а)ут; Буг/ Десна/ Рось – the Buh/ the Desna/ the Ros‟ (rivers in Ukraine)
Полтавщина/ Львівщина – Poltava/ L‟viv region (oblast). !!! Foreign geographical names
as well as many proper names of people are often reproduced in English not in the spelling
form of the SL but in the traditionally established spelling form of the TL: Варшава (Pol.:
Warszawa) – Warsaw Кельн (Germ: Köln) – Cologne. Венеція (Ital.:Venezia) – Venice;
Мюнхен (Germ: München) – Munich; Гаага (Dutch: den Haag) – the Hague; Неаполь (It:
Napoli) – Naples. Ukrainian geographical names should be translated into English as close
to their source language form as possible unless other of their forms are historically or
traditionally established: Моринці – Moryntsi; Запоріжжя – Zaporizhia/ Zaporizhya; Київ –
Kyiv; Одеса – Odesa. !!! Some geographical names have in English their historically
established forms/ variants too: Ладозьке озеро – Ladoga; Кольський півострів – Kola
Peninsula; Мала Азія – Asia Minor.
1. The notion of internationalism. Each language in the process of its historical
development borrows many notions hitherto unknown in this language. Kozaks have
become known in all languages, also lord, lady, gentleman, parliament, stadium, church.
Internationalisms are words, word-groups and even sentences which have been borrowed
in the same or similar lingual form and in the same meaning: вальс – waltz, долар – dollar,
атом – atom, інтерес – interest, директор – director. Internationalisms are acknowledged
as such when they are used in, at least, three languages belonging to different language
families (groups). Most of internationalisms in all European languages come from Greek
and Latin: стадіон, церква, піп, всі науки (крім алгебри), демократія – Greek; but
social-political sciences, jurisdiction, all plants, names of illnesses (pneumonia, angina),
appendix – Latin. All internationalisms are regional: the European region has its own
internationalisms; the Eastern Asian region and the Turkish region have their own ones.
Many new words and notions have also come from modern languages: піцца, макарони,
спагетті, опера, соло, дует, піаніно – Italian; garage, cul-de-sac – French; бокс,
баскетбол – English; вальс, дізель – German; balalaika, sputnik, Soviet, kommissar,
samovar – Russian; Hopak, duma, borshch – Ukrainian . Some word-groups are also
international, though they may be translated maintaining the same components: to take
part –teilnehmen – брати участь; finita la comedia – фініта ля комедіа; veni, vidi, vici –
прийшов, побачив, переміг; tet-a-tet–віч-на-віч; time is money – час – гроші. The
number of internationalisms in every language is very large, most of different scientific
terms are internationalisms. 2. Identification of internationalisms. Genuine
internationalisms are words and word-groups (rarely sentences) maintaining in several
languages the same or similar lingual form (sounding) and the same or almost the same
lingual structure: student – студент – Student, rector – ректор – Rektorre, парламент –
parliament, мотор – motor, аеропорт – airport. But many words may be both genuine
international and non-international, or pseudointernational: Student – студент (gen.),
вчений (ps. int.), учень (ps. int.) Industry – індустрія (gen.), промисловість (ps. int.),
старанність (ps. int.) Artist – митець (ps. int.), артист (gen.), художник (ps. int.)
Dramatic – драматичний (gen.) раптовий, непередбачений (ps. int.) Revolution –
революція (gen.), переворот оберт (ps. int.) Genuine internationalisms may also be
idioms: The Trojan Horse – троянський кінь, The Heal of Achilles – ахіллесова п’ята, The
Sword of Damocles – дамоклів меч, The Ten Commandments – десять заповідей, Wise
Solomon – мудрий Соломон. Some internationalisms may acquire different language
forms in different languages, e.g. archbishopic – архієпископський, therapeutic –
терапевтичний, to cross the Rubicon – перейти Рубікон, the game is worth the candles –
гра варта свічок. Some idioms were created by authors: e.g. The Almighty dollar –
всемогутній долар (W. Irving), The Vanity Fair – ярмарок марнославства (Thackeray), The
fifth column – п’ята колона (E. M. Hemingway). Therefore not only separate words but also
idioms and set expressions (to throw light) are internationalisms when they are used in, at
least, 3 different language families (groups). 3. Ways of translating internationalisms. There
are 5 ways of translating internationalisms: 1) Literal translating of genuine
internationalisms: enigma, concerto, mister. 2) Internationalisms are translated by way of
transcribing: track – трек, knockout – нокаут, box – бокс, leader – лідер. 3) Practical
transcribing (or translator’s transcription) – this is a way of conveying internationalisms in
the corrupted form (у спотвореній формі) which comes from the difficulty in the
pronunciation of spelling or on the basis of similarity with some other languages: e.g. devil
– диявол, pound – фунт, hierarchy – ієрархія, lecture – лектор, vegetarian –
вегетаріанець. Compound words are those, in which both parts may be genuine
internationalisms: Gasometer – газометр Radioactive elements – радіоактивні елементи
But: police station – поліцейське відділення Tear gas – сльозоточивий газ; (mace –
газовий балончик) Washing machine – пральна машина River basin – басейн річки
Turning point – поворотний пункт 4) Translating in the descriptive way. Some
internationalisms have a condensed meaning which can be conveyed only with help of
more words. E.g. classifiable – той, що піддається класифікації civilizable – – той, що
піддається цивілізації to energize – викликати, створювати енергію golf club – клуб для
гри в гольф to deputize – посилати когось у депутати barony – звання або володіння
барона parking – стоянка, паркування машин 5) Translating of internationalisms through
substituting by other internationalisms: diagram – схема; garage – 1) гараж; 2) ангар;
avenue – 1) авеню; 2) бульвар; committee – 1) комітет; 2) комісія; athletics – гімнастика.
All these internationalisms which preserved the lingual form (or sounding form) are called
genuine internationalisms. 4. Ways of translating loan internationalisms. Many social and
political terms used in the several languages belonging to different genealogical families
are translated in all languages or in some languages only. e.g. loud speaker –
гучномовець; steam engine – парова машина; short radiowaves – короткі хвилі; standard
of living – життєвий рівень; the simple sentence – просте речення. But: case of nouns –
відмінок; structure of matter – будова матерії. Loan Internationalisms have a generally
common structural form of a word or word combination, but really a similarity in their
orthographic form or sounding. Loan Internationalisms preserve in each language the unity
of their componential parts i.e., their structural peculiarity, an absolutely identical national
meaning and the common sphere of functioning: Loud-speaker: German – Lautsprecher,
Ital. – altoparlante, Ukr. – гучномовець, Russ. – громкоговоритель. They are usually
translated: 1) by direct translation of the componental parts without changing their
structural form: coefficient of efficiency – коефіцієнт корисної дії, personal/possessive
pronouns – особові/присвійні займенники… 2)with the help of componental translation
and some replacements, omissions or substitutions arising from the national peculiarities
of the TL, i.e. depending on its stylistic mode of usage. Thus, the equivalent of the English
set-expression “foreign trade” is not “іноземна торгівля” but “зовнішня торгівля”,
“national anthem” is not “національний гімн” but “державний гімн”. 3)with the help of
descriptive translation: digital computer – цифрова обчислювана машина, pluralia
tantum – іменники, що вживаються тільки в множині, singuralia tantum – іменники, що
вживаються тільки в однині. 5. Ways of translating specific notions of national lexicon
(SNoNL). In the course of their development all languages of the world acquire some
notions, objects, customs, traditions, monetary systems etc. characteristic of the given
nation only: e.g. English – lady, lord, shilling, box, football, boston, mackintosh, etc.
Ukrainian – Cossack, step, hryvnia. These and the like words may become
internationalisms: lady, mackintosh, shilling and in the lexicon of different languages such
notions are easy to translate when they are internationalisms (transcribed or
transliterated). Many other specific notions of national lexicon must be explained in the
text or orally: e.g. Eton – a privileged school in Great Britain; Harrow – the same; The East,
West End – частина (район) Лондона; Bloomsbury – the central part of London. Here also
belong: bingo (азартна гра), gin, coca-cola; different national occasions (baptizing,
marriage, funeral); moonlighter – підробітник. Some metaphorical expressions are also
used as specific national notions elements: Athens of the North – Північні Афіни
(Едінбург); kobzar – minstrel; scouts; pupils record card – табель успішності; students
record card – залікова книжка (credit book); a term examination – залік (credit); a term
paper – курсова робота; graduation paper – дипломна робота; class instructor/tutor –
класний керівник; tutorial – консультація. Great Britain has no Ministry of Education but
only Department of Education (міністерство освіти), junior minister – зам. міністра. The
USA has no government but administration, and no ministers but secretaries: e.g. The
secretary of State – міністр закордонних справ, Secretary of the Interior – міністр
внутрішніх справ. He is responsible for a forestation, building roads, canals. The FBI –
Federal Bureau of Investigation – відповідає нашому міністерству внутрішніх справ. All
countries of the world have Deputy Minister I, II – But in the US there are undersecretaries.
Different orders belong to specific notions of national lexicon as well: e.g. The Order of the
Bath – орден Бані; the Order of the Garter – орден підв’язки; St. Andrew, George order;
The Bohdаn Khmelnytskyi Order; the Yaroslav the Wise Order; the Order for Valour – орден
за відвагу; the order for Distinguished Services – “за заслуги”. Very often specific notions
are connected with the names of animals: pincher, bulldog, shepherd hound. Depending
on the meaning, nature and origin of (inter)nationalisms they may be translated in one of
the following ways: 1. By means of transliteration only (when the specific notion of national
lexicon has become an internationalism): e.g. hryvnia, Cossack, steppe, gentleman, snob,
sandwich, hooligan. 2. By means of transcribing only: e.g. football – футбол; haggis – хегіс;
foot – фут. [Link] transcribing or transliteration and explicating: e.g. The Tower of London –
лондонська фортеця Тауер; Treadneedle Street – вулиця Тренідл, де розташовані
банки; №10 Downing Street – резиденція прем’єр-міністра Великої Британії; №11
Downing Street – резиденція міністрa фінансів Великої Британії; куліш – koolish, thick
meal stew; вареники з вишнями – varenyky, middle-sized dumplings stuffed/filled with
cherries or sweet cherries, boiled, served hot with sour-cream or fresh honey; вареники з
капустою – varenyky, middlesized dumplings with stewed cabbage, boiled, served hot with
fried pickled pork and onions. 4. By descriptive explaining only: e.g. Pilgrim fathers – перші
колоністипротестанти з Англії, що прибули в 1620 році з Англії на вітрильнику
«Мейфлауер» до Нового Світу (до Північної Америки) і висадилися в Масачусетсі; the
Union Jack – прапор Великої Британії; Stars and Stripes – прапор США; shepherd’s pie –
картопляна запіканка з м'ясом та цибулею; Tommies (Tommy Atkins) – солдати
Великобританії; Yankees – солдати США, американці; Kiwis – австралійські солдати;
пампушки – high fresh buns, usually smeared with fat and ground garlic; стати на рушник
– to be (to get) married; лежанка – a clay stove of a country cottage. 5. By translating the
componental parts and additional explication: e.g. The battle of Britain – “Битва за
Англію” (повітряні бої на території Великобританії, особливо в районі Лондона та
Південної Англії в 1940–1941рр.); collective (party) membership – колективне членство
заводів, фабрик, організацій на підтримку лейбористської партії; Inner Cabinet –
“внутрішній кабінет” (кабінет у вузькому складі, на чолі з прем’єрміністром,
найважливіші міністри); bull’s eye – круглий різноколірний м'ятний льодяник
(леденець); Labour day (in USA) – “день праці” (у перший понеділок вересня); “Blue
Book” – стенографічні звіти про засідання парламенту “Синя книга”; toast melba –
грінки “мельба” (на честь австралійської співачки Н. Мельби) to keep fingers crossed –
бажати вдачі; the Ladies Gallery (in British Parliament) – місця для гостей у парламенті;
the West Ender – мешканець Вест-Енду(аристократ); the East Ender – житель Іст-Енду
(робітник); весільний батько – dead bride's (bridegroom's) father, may be substituted by
godfather or another person. 6. By loan and word for word translating. Strange as it may
seem, some specific notions of national lexicon may be translated only almost word for
word: e.g. Salvation Army – Армія порятунку (1930-і) – напіввійськова з офіцерами, яка
знаходила кошти і піклувалася про одяг та страви для бездомних безробітних;
Permissive Society – суспільство, де дітям усе дозволено; The Order of St. Michael and
St. George – орден Св. Михайла та Георгія. fan club – фан-клуб; орден Б.
Хмельницького ІІ ступеня – B. Khmelnytskyi order (II degree); Заслужений вчитель
України – merited teacher of Ukraine; Герой Соціалістичної Праці – Hero of Socialist
Labour. 7. Translating by means of analogies. Sometimes specific notions of national
lexicon have similar analogous notions in the language of translating (= target language).
They are few: кукурудзяні баранці – pop-corn; повидло – jam; Пані та панове! – Ladies
and Gentlemen! панна – miss; пан – mister, sir; Грай, кобзарю! Лий шинкарю! (Т.
Шевченко) – Innkeeper pour! Play, minstrel, play!
1. Phraseological units – are structurally (не можна міняти місцями, бо втрачається
сенс), lexically (якщо брати синонім, значення не зберігається) and semantically
(утворюється значення в цілому як загальна одиниця, єдине ціле) stable language units
(word-combinations or sentences), the meaning of which is not made up by the sum of
meanings of their component parts. Phraseological units can’t be freely made up in
speech but they are reproduced as ready-made units: the tables are turned – ситуація
змінилася play with the fire – гратися з вогнем 2. Translation of idiomatic/phraseological
units. Taking into account various peculiarities of meaning and form of phraseological
units, several ways of rendering their meaning can be distinguished: 1. By choosing
absolute or complete equivalents This is the method of translating when every
componential part of the SL idiom is retained unchanged in the TL. This method works
when an idiom originates from Greek or other mythology (Augean stables – авгієві стайні,
Pandora’s box – скринька пандори), ancient history or literature (to cross the Rubicon –
перейти Рубікон), the Holy Scripture (a lost sheep – заблудла вівця), literary or historical
sources (the fifth column – п’ята колона) or any other language (Eng. time is money – час-
гроші, Fr. after us the deluge – після нас хоч потоп), also some expressions belonging to
English and American writers and politicians (the cold war – холодна війна, iron curtain –
залізна завіса) 2. Translation of idioms by choosing near equivalents A considerable
number of phraseological units originating in the SL and the TL from a common source may
have one or more of their components different. Ex. baker’s dozen – чортова дюжина as
pale as paper – блідий як стіна love is the mother of love – любов породжує любов
measure twice, cut once – сім раз одміряй, один раз одріж 3. Translation by choosing
(genuine idiomatic) analogies A number of SL phraseological units have idiomatic
analogies in the TL. As a rule these phraseological units are based on different images and
may have quite different structures. Nevertheless such units are very close in their
meaning and may be used interchangeably in the process of translation. Usually these are
proverbs and sayings. A number of such phraseological units may have several/ two or
more analogies in the TL. Ex. like mistress, like maid – яблуко від яблуні недалеко падає
don’t teach your grandmother to suck eggs – не вчи вченого, не вчи рибу плавати, яйця
курку не вчать 4. Translating idioms by choosing approximate analogies Some idioms may
have a peculiar nature of their componential parts and there is no genuine phraseological
analogies for the units in the TL. Therefore the lexical meaning can be expressed by means
of approximate analogies or in a descriptive way. These analogies are slightly similar to the
SL but no less picturesque (to waste one’s breath – кидати слова на вітер, to get off scot-
free – вийти сухим з води). Some SL phraseological units are only partially similar in their
meaning to certain TL idioms. So they can be used interchangeable as translation
equivalents only in certain contexts. Ex. to be born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth
(means to be born lucky) – народитися в сорочці, під щасливою зіркою (=поталанило)
(тобто значення частково співпадають) a jack of all trades (but master of none) (negative
meaning) – майстер на всі руки (positive meaning) 5. Descriptive translation of
phraseological units The meaning of a considerable number of phraseological units can be
rendered only in descriptive way. Depending on the complexity of meaning of the SL idiom,
it can be expressed in the TL in following ways: by single word (to go aloft – померти)
with the help of word-combination or sentence (to shoot Niagara – вдаватися до
ризикованих дій, well-day – час між приступами хвороби) Ex. a kid-glove policy –
поміркована, обережна політика scorched-earth policy – політика випаленої землі
(коли відходять) wait-and-see policy – політика очікування to play politics – вести
політичну гру (нечесну) dollar diplomacy – дипломатія долара carrot and stick
diplomacy – дипломатія батога та пряника the common touch – вміння спілкування з
народом to strike the middle ground – погоджуватись, іти на компроміс
1. The notion of neologism in a language and the origin of neologisms. Neologisms are new
words, word-combinations or fixed phrases that appear in the language due to the
development of social life, culture, science and engineering. New meanings of existing
words are also accepted as neologisms. A problem of translation of new words ranks high
on the list of challenges facing translators because such words are not readily found in
ordinary dictionaries and even in the newest specialized dictionaries. How can our finite
vocabulary be expanded and altered to deal with our potentially infinite world? First, new
words can be added, and the meaning of already existing words can be changed. Second,
new words can enter a language through the operation of word formation rules.
Neologisms pass through three stages: creation, trial and establishment. First, the
unstable neologism is still new, being proposed or being limited only by an audience. Then,
it is diffused, but it is not widely accepted yet. Finally, it is stabilized and identifiable,
having gained wide-spread approval; such “stability” is indicated by its appearance in
glossaries, dictionaries and large corpora. Creation of Neologisms: 1. Blends. New words
can also be formed from existing ones by various blending processes. For example: motel
(from motor and hotel), infomercial (from information and commercial), edutainment (from
education and entertainment), brunch (from breakfast and lunch), cafetorium (from
cafeteria and auditorium), netiquette (from network etiquette), trashware (from trash and
software), and bit (from binary and digit). 2. Generified Words. The words Kleenex and
Xerox illustrate another technique for creating new words, namely, using specific brand
names of products as names for the products in general (generification). Hence Kleenex, a
brand name for facial tissue, has come to denote facial tissue in general. Xerox is the name
of the corporation that produces a well-known photocopying machine, and much to the
dismay of the company, the term Xerox has lost its specific brand-name connotation and
has come to be used to describe the process of photocopying in general. 3. Borrowing:
Direct and Indirect. Direct: Yet another way to expand our vocabulary is to “borrow” words
from other languages. English speakers aggressively borrow words from other languages.
We have kindergarten (German), and sushi (Japanese) among many others. Indirect: An
interesting type of borrowing occurs when an expression in one language is translated
literally into another language. For example, the borrowed terms firewater and iron horse
are literal translations of Native American words meaning “alcohol” and “railroad train”. 4.
Compounds and Compounding. In English (as in many other languages) new words can be
formed from already existing words by a process known as compounding, in which
individual words are “joined together” to form a compound word. For example, the noun
ape can be joined with the noun man to form the compound noun ape-man; the adjective
red can be joined with the adjective hot to form the compound adjective red-hot.
Compounds are not limited to two words, as shown by examples such as bathroom towel-
rack and community center finance committee. Indeed, the process of compounding
seems unlimited in English: starting with a word like sailboat, we can easily construct the
compound sailboat rigging, from which we can in turn create sailboat rigging design,
sailboat rigging design training, sailboat rigging design training institute, and so on. 2. Types
of neologisms. Peter Newmark (an English professor of translation at the University of
Surrey, England) proposed 12 types of neologisms: A) Existing lexical items with new
senses: 1. Words 2. Collocations B) New forms: 1. New coinages 2. Derived words 3.
Abbreviations 4. Collocations 5. Eponyms 6. Phrasal words 7. Transferred words (new and
old referents) 8. Acronyms (new and old referents) 9. Pseudo-neologisms 10.
Internationalisms Old words with new senses. Existing words with new senses don’t
normally refer to new objects or processes and therefore are rarely technological. To sum
up old words with new senses tend to be non-cultural and non-technical. They are usually
translated either by a word that already exists in the TL, or by a brief functional or
descriptive term. Existing collocations with new senses are a translator’s trap: usually
these are “normal” descriptive terms which suddenly become technical terms, their
meaning sometimes hides innocently behind a more general or figurative meaning (“token
woman” – single woman representative on committee of men). If the concept does not
exist (“tug-of-love”) or the TL speakers are not yet aware of it, an economical descriptive
equivalent has to be given. Creating New Words and Changing the Meaning of Words. New
Coinages. It is well known hypothesis that there is no such thing as a brand new word; if a
word does not derive from various morphemes then it is more or less phonaesthetic or
synaesthetic. All sounds or phonemes are phonaesthetic and have some kind of meaning.
The computer term “byte”, sometimes spelt “bite”, is also an internationalism, the origin
of the “y” being obscure. Derived words. The great majority of neologisms are words
derived by analogy from ancient Greek (increasingly) and Latin morphemes usually with
suffixes such as -ismo, -ismus, -ja, etc., naturalized in the appropriate language. In all
derived words, you have to distinguish between terms like ecosysteme and ecotone which
have a solid referential basis, and fulfill the conditions of internationalisms and those like
“ecofreak” and ecotage (sabotage of ecology). Abbreviations. Abbreviations have always
been a common type of pseudoneologism. Characteristic of these alphabetic
abbreviations (or initialisms) is that each of their letters is individually pronounced (they
contrast with acronyms in this respect). For example: PV – photovoltaic
(фотоелектричний); ER – emergency room; PC – politically correct. Abbreviations such as
prof for professor, fax for facsimile are known in common use. There are also orthographic
abbreviations such as Dr. (doctor), Mr. (mister), Az (Arizona), and MB (megabyte), where
the spelling of a word has been shortened but its pronunciation is not (necessarily) altered.
Collocations. New collocations (noun compounds) or (adjective plus noun) are particularly
common in the social sciences and in computer language. Thus “lead time” a term for the
time between design and production or between ordering and delivery of a product, has to
be translated in context; “acid rain” unfortunately a universal phenomenon, is likely to be
literally translated everywhere, since it is “transparent”; “sunrise industries” refers to
electronics and other “high-tech” industries, and is likely to be ephemeral. Eponyms. Any
word from a proper name (therefore including toponyms) when they refer directly to the
person, they are translated without difficulty but if they refer to the referent’s ideas or
qualities, the translator may have to add necessary explanations. When derived from
objects, eponyms are usually brand names, and can be transferred only when they are
equally well known and accepted in the TL (“nylon” but “durex” is an adhesive tape in
Australian English). New eponyms deriving from geographical names appear to be rare –
most commonly they originate from the products (wines, cheeses, sausages etc). Phrasal
words. New “phrasal words” are restricted to English facility in converting verbs to nouns
(e.g. work-out, trade-off, check-out, thermal cut-out, knock-on (domino) effect, laid-back,
sit-in). Note that phrasal words: (a) are often more economical than their translation; (b)
usually occupy the peculiarly English register between “informal” and “colloquial”, whilst
their translations are more formal. Transferred words. Newly transferred words keep only
one sense of their foreign nationality; they are the words which meanings are least
dependent on their contexts. They are likely to refer to everyday, rather than technological
concepts or products. Newly imported foodstuffs, clothes (Cagoule, Adidas, Sari), cultural
manifestations (Kungfu) are translated like any other culture-bound words, and are
therefore usually transferred together with a generic term and the requisite specific detail
depending on readership and setting. Acronyms. Acronyms are an increasingly common
feature of all non-literary texts, for reasons of brevity or euphony, and often to give the
referent an artificial prestige to rouse people to find out what the letters stand for. In
science the letters are occasionally joined up and become internationalisms (laser,
maser), requiring analysis only for a less educated TL readership. The words radar and
laser are acronyms: each of the letters that spell the word is the first letter (or letters) of
some other complete word. For example, radar derives from radio detecting and ranging
and laser derives from light amplification (by) stimulated emission (of) radiation. It is
important to note that even though such words are originally created as acronyms,
speakers quickly forget such origins and the acronyms become new independent words.
The world of computers offers a wealth of acronyms. Here are just a few: URL (pronounced
“earl”) – uniform resource locator GUI (pronounced “gooey”) – graphical user interface
DOS (pronounced “doss”) – disc operating system SCSI (pronounced “skuzzy”) – small
computer system interface LAN (pronounced “lan”) – local area network GIF (pronounced
“jiff”) – graphics interchange format. Acronyms formation is just one of the abbreviation, or
shortening, processes that are increasingly common in American society as means of
word formation. Pseudo Neologisms. Lastly, the translator has to beware of pseudo-
neologisms where, for instance, a generic word stands in for a specific word. And the only
generalization Newmark can make so that the translator should be neither favorable nor
unfavorable in his view of new words. 3. Ways of translating neologisms. 1. Selection of an
appropriate analogue in a target language: For example: Digital media – цифрові носії. 2.
Transcription and transliteration: For example: Informediaries – інфомедіарії, telemedia –
телемедія; Web-site – веб-сайт, walkman – уокмен, 3. Loan translation and calque: For
example: Electronic cash – електронна готівка, digital video – цифрове відео. 4.
Explanatory translation or descriptive translation: For example: Landslide – перемога на
виборах з великою перевагою голосів; a stringer (ам.) – частково зайнятий
кореспондент, праця котрого оплачується з розрахунку від кількості слів; digitocrat –
підприємець/керівник фірми чи корпорації, що випускає комп’ютерну техніку.
Differences in cultural background frequently require detailed additions which are
explanatory. What is familiar to the native reader may be unfamiliar to the reader of the
translation. Additions in this case make up for the implicit information, contained in the
text. For example: the presidential campaign of 1976 produced the neologism “oralist”.
This college professor is what campaign sides describe as an “oralist” – someone who isn’t
asked to hammer out position papers, but can drop by or call up with some words of
advice. – Організатори виборчої кампанії називали цього професора “усним
порадником” – він не повинен був писати програмні документи; він лише забігав, щоб
дати коротенькі поради або консультував по телефону.
1. The notion of abbreviation in a language. Types of abbreviations. The use of
abbreviations is a relatively new linguistics phenomenon. The art of reducing a sequence of
words to their initial letters became well developed in the late 50s and 60s. This
phenomenon portrays the characteristics of the modern era, in which technical and
scientific discoveries are developing fast along with all manner of organizations and
institutions. Abbreviations often occur as names of professions, art groups and especially
as organizations and associations – UNO, USAID, IMF, AU, etc. They also appear as names
of appliances, such as TV, Fridge, VCD, DVD, etc., vehicles and on vehicle license plates.
There are a series of recently created abbreviations especially with the advent of
telecommunication companies in the field of mobile telephony such as MTN, Vmobile,
Glo, MTS. All these have become household names without anyone caring to know what
they stand for; they are simply brand names of telephone companies. Abbreviations are
also found in literary works; e.g., viz, AD, i.e., DV, pm, am, PTO, PS, etc. In strict analysis,
abbreviations should not be confused with contractions or acronyms (including
initialisms), with which they share some semantic and phonetic functions, though all three
are connoted by the term “abbreviation”. An abbreviation is a shortening of a word by any
method. There are four main kinds of abbreviations: shortenings, contractions, initialisms,
and acronyms. Shortenings of words usually consist of the first few letters of the full form
and are usually spelled with a final period when they are still regarded as abbreviations.
For example: cont. continued, in. inch. In the cases when they form words in their own
right, the period is omitted. For example: hippo hippopotamus, limo limousine. Such
shortenings are often but not always informal. Some become the standard forms, and the
full forms are then regarded as formal or technical. For example: bus omnibus, taxi
taxicab, deli delicatessen, zoo zoological garden. Sometimes shortenings are altered to
facilitate their pronunciation or spelling. For example: bike bicycle. Contractions are
abbreviated forms in which letters from the middle of the full form have been omitted. For
example: Dr. doctor, St. saint or street. Such forms are invariably followed by a period.
Another kind of contraction is the type with an apostrophe marking the omission of letters.
For example: can’t cannot, didn’t did not, you’ve you have. Acronyms are initial letter
abbreviations that are pronounced as one word. These components may be individual
letters (as in CEO) or parts of words (as in Benelux and Ameslan). NATO is an acronym
because it is pronounced as a word. The term acronym is the name for a word from the first
letters of each word in a series of words (such as sonar, created from Sound Navigation
and Ranging). Initialisms are made up of the initial letters of words and are pronounced as
separate letters. For example: CIA (or C.I.A.), NYC, pm (or p.m.), U.S. (or US). Abbreviations
are often classified into three types: 1) letter-based: E (east) – схід; N (north) Північ; AA
(automatic answer) Автоматична відповідь; BD (Business Data) Комерційна
інформація 2) syllable-based: Maxcap (maximum capacity) – максимальна потужність;
Radsta (radio station) радіостанція; Intercom (intercommunication) – двосторонній
зв’язок; Modem (modulating demodulating) модем 3) abbreviated words: Sub
(submarine) підводний човен; Chute (parachute) парашут; Ammo (ammunition)
боєприпаси; Memo (memorandun) меморандум. Acronyms, initialisms or simply
abbreviations may seem insignificant in the field of lexicography, yet they are a problem for
translators, and could easily derail a smooth translation or interpretation. In spite of the
cultural issues, to deal with problems of abbreviations a good translator must have the
latest information worldwide at his disposal, through reading of newspapers, journals,
international magazines, the consulting of which has been facilitated by the Internet. And
of course while on the job, there are also popular online dictionaries to get around the
complex task of translating acronyms. Another useful tool for the translator to have at his
disposal is a glossary of abbreviations of the subject field he is working on. In some cases,
the translator may also have to consult his client or the author or the source text for more
clarification of the terms. 2. Ways of translating abbreviations. The following are the main
techniques to render abbreviations in translation. 1) Full form translation For example: L-
driver (Learner-driver) водій-учень; BrStd (British Standard) Британський
Стандарт; Etc. (etcetera) тощо. 2) Using equivalent shortening For example: Sec.
(second) сек.; PC (personal computer) ПК (персональний комп’ютер); Mhz
(megahertz) – Мгц (мегагерц). 3) Transcoding For example: NATO – (North Atlantic Treaty
Organization) – НАТО (Організація Північноатлантичного договору); IUPAC –
(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) – ІЮПАК (Міжнародний союз
теоретичної і прикладної хімії); RADAR – (Radio detection and ranging) – радар
(радіолокаційна установка). 4) Descriptive translation For example: INAD – особа, якій
відповідними органами відмовлено у праві на в’їзд до держави; DEPU (deportee
unaccompanied) – депортований без супроводження; DEPA (deportee accompanied) –
депортований з супроводженням. 5) Transcoding full form of the ST abbreviation For
example: AP (агентство) Асошіейтед прес; BOAC (British Overseas Airways Company) –
Брітіш оверсіс еруейз компані; CAT – Катерпіллар (американська компанія, що
виробляє шляхобудівні машини та дизельні двигуни). (based on: Теорія і практика
перекладу: навчальний посібник / К. М. Скиба, Є. В. Долинський, Л. Д. Бурковська, В.
Б. Крамар, О. В. Ємець. – Хмельницький: ХНУ, 2014. – 225 с.)
The definite article when endowed with the lexical meaning in a sentence or passage can
have various realizations in Ukrainian. It may refer not only to nouns but to other parts of
speech. Thus, it can be translated as: 1) the demonstrative pronoun цей (ця, це, ці):
What his sister has seen in man was beyond him. - Що його сестра знайшла у цьому
чоловікові, він не міг збагнути. 2) the demonstrative pronouns такий (той, та, те, ті), той
самий, (саме той, та сама), такий самий: Prime Minister's dismissal had been rumored
from the date of his appointment. - Чутки про зняття прем'єр-міністра поширювалися
від самого початку його призначення. The fellow behind us in the crowd was talking
again. - Той самий хлопець із натовпу позад нас тепер озвався знову. Realization of
contextual meanings of the definite article 3) the possessive pronoun його, її, їхні, свій
(своя, своє, свої) The room was situated over the laundry... - Його кімната була/
знаходилась над пральнею... 4) the identifying pronoun весь, вся, все/цілий: Не
looked up, and it seemed that the room was lifting... - Він підвів голову, і йому здалося,
що вся кімната ходить ходором... The romance and beauty, and high vigour of the books
were coming true. - Вся романтика і краса, всі високі поривання, про які він читав у
книжках, виявились правдою. Realization of contextual meanings of the definite article
5) the relative pronoun який (яка, яке, які): She did not know the actual fire of love. -
Вона не знала, яке то справжнє полум'я кохання. 6) the indefinite pronoun якийсь
(якась, якесь), певний: For the moment the great gulf that separated them then was
bridged. - На якусь мить через велику безодню, що розділяла їх, був наведений міст.
7) the identifying attributive pronoun сам, сам собою, інший But the man did not seem
to know of the content of the great mind. - Та, очевидно, сам чоловік нічого не знав про
творчість цієї великої голови. Realization of contextual meanings of the definite article
8) an adjective or adjectivized participle (according to the сontextual meaning): Martin
Eden did not go out to hunt for a job in the morning. - Мартін Іден не пішов наступного
ранку шукати роботи. He had worked the day before in the basement and the money
had been kept all the time. - Напередодні він також працював у підвалі фабрики і ще не
витратив зароблені гроші. 9) a particle emphasizing the attributive pronoun, numeral or
some other part of speech: But the story was grand just the same, perfectly grand. - А так
це оповідання - чудове, ну просто чудове. The next afternoon, accompanied by Arthur,
she came to visit us. - На другий же день в супроводі Артура вона приїхала до нас.
Realization of contextual meanings of the definite article 10) very often when the noun in
the sentence has another attribute the clearly explicit lexical meaning of the definite article
remains superfluous |suːˈpɜːflʊəs| (надлишковий): He lay where he had fallen, and from
there he watched the man in the red sweater. - Він лежав, де впав, і звідти спостерігав за
чоловіком у червоному светрі. 2. Realization of contextual meanings of the indefinite
article The most frequent and common of the meanings of the indefinite article can be
expressed in one of the following ways: 1) by the cardinal numeral один (одна, одне):
He said something about а ship that's getting ready to go off. - Він тут розповідав щось
про один корабель, який готується відпливати. 2) In some contexts, however, the
indefinite article may acquire a lexical meaning which corresponds either to the Ukrainian
cardinal numeral один, to the ordinal numeral перший or to the indefinite pronoun якийсь
(якась, якесь). Only for an instant he hesitated, then his head went up. - Він був у
нерішучості (вагався) тільки якусь мить... / Він був у нерішучості (вагався) тільки першу
мить... / Він був у нерішучості (вагався) тільки одну мить... Realization of contextual
meanings of the indefinite article 3) By the indefinite pronoun якийсь only, without the
attendant meanings of the cardinal or ordinal numerals: Sometimes, when with her, she
noted an unusual bright- ness in his eyes, and she liked it. Часом, коли він бував з нею,
вона помічала якийсь особливий блиск в його очах, що подобався їй. 4) when the
lexically meaningful indefinite article precedes the noun under logical stress, it functions
as the demonstrative pronoun, which is translated into Ukrainian as цей, ця, це: How
can a man write so badly?.. - Як може ця людина (цей чоловік) писати так погано?.. 5)
As one of the possessive pronouns (according to their contextual meaning): When she
returned with the grammar, she drew a chair near his. - Коли вона повернулася з
граматикою, вона присунула свій стілець до його стільця. Realization of contextual
meanings of the indefinite article 6) As the negative pronoun жоден or the negative
particle ані (when the determined noun is preceded by the negative particle not): You
were not following а word. - Ви не чули жодного слова/ ані слова. 7) as the relative
adjective цілий which is lexically equivalent to the Ukrainian identifying pronoun весь (вся,
все): His day's work was the equivalent to a week's work of the average successful writer.
- Його доробок за день дорівнював доробкові якого-небудь модного письменника за
цілий тиждень. 8) More common in Ukrainian contextual substitutes for the lexically
meaningful indefinite article are, however, different relative adjectives, the most often
used being справжній: This small sum seemed a fortune - Ця маленька сума здавалася
справжнім (цілим) скарбом. Realization of contextual meanings of the indefinite article
9) The contextual meaning of the indefinite article may sometimes be expressed in
Ukrainian through different adverbs: There is a great difference. - Це зовсім різні
речі/зовсім інша річ. 10) The broader context often predetermines the employment of
lexically equivalent variants which could scarcely ever be offered for a narrow context. The
kind of contextual substitutes can be seen in the examples below, where Ukrainian
demonstrative and other pronouns, adjectives, numerals, etc., are
contextually/semantically enforced by emphatic or modal particles. Thus, the contextual
meaning of the indefinite article below is expressed through an adjective enforced by an
emphatic or some other particle or group of particles: He was not to remain a sailor. - Бо
ж він не буде простим собі матросом. Не seemed to think it a distinction. - Він вважав
це чи не за особливу відзнаку. Realization of contextual meanings of the indefinite article
11) The contextual meaning of the indefinite article may be expressed through the
interrogative or indefinite pronoun also enforced by some emphatic particles: a penniless
young fellow - молодик без копійки за душею; What a lovely day! - Який же гарний
день!
Translation transformations are numerous and varied in their quality interlingual changes
which are made to achieve adequacy in translation in spite of discrepancies in the formal
and semantic systems of a SL and a TL. 1. Grammatical Transformations in Translation.
The English and Ukrainian languages belong to different branches of the Indo-European
family of languages and to different structural types of languages. That is why there are
differences in their structure, sets of their grammatical categories, forms and
constructions that make up a large group of difficulties in translation. Difficulties in
translation arise when the grammatical phenomena of the source text language (STL) and
the corresponding grammatical phenomena of the target text language (TTL) have different
functional characteristics, or when one of the languages lacks some grammar category
and, therefore, has no corresponding form. For example, English possesses the
morphological categories of the article or the gerund lacking in the Ukrainian language;
whereas in Ukrainian there is a category of adverbial participle missing in the English
language. Unique categories in one of the languages can occur at the syntactic level as
well. For example, English absolute constructions, complex object and complex subject
(with the infinitive and participle), are alien to the Ukrainian language. Therefore, they
require special attention from translator. To get a faithful translation a set of grammatical
transformations should be used. Grammatical transformations are changes in the
grammatical structures and categories in the process of translation. They are often the
matter of translator’s individual choice and, in general, strongly depend on stylistic
peculiarities and communication intent of the source text (ST). There are a lot of
approaches to classification of translation transformations, but in general the grammatical
transformations may be classified into six types: transposition; replacement; addition;
omission; partitioning (inner and outer); integration. Let’s consider all the transformations
in details. Transposition is a change in the order of the target sentence syntactic elements
(Subject, Predicate, Object etc.) as compared with that of the source sentence dictated
either by peculiarities of the target language syntax or by the communication intent. For
example: “The flight will be boarding at Gate 17 in about fifteen minutes”, the girl added
with a smile. – “Приблизно за 15 хвилин на цей рейс оголосять посадку біля виходу
номер 17”, – посміхаючись, додала дівчина. Grammatical replacement is substitution of
the word belonging to one part of speech by a word belonging to another part of speech
(morphological replacement) or substitution of one syntactical construction by another
one (syntactical replacement). For example: He is a good runner. – Biн гарно бігає. I saw
her standing there. – Я бачив, що вона там стояла. The Times wrote editorially (...) – У
передовій статті газети Таймс написано (...) Addition is used to compensate for
semantic or grammatical losses and often accompanies transposition and grammatical
replacement. For example: His wife had been beautiful. – Його дружина колись (або у
молодості) була красунею. Workers of all industries – робітники уcix галузей
npомисловocmi. Candidates will purchase a logbook listing all the modules. – Усі, хто
бажає взяти участь у програмі, купують облікову книжку учасника курсів, яка містить
перелік уcix навчальних модулів. Omission is a transformation opposite to addition and
is used with the aim to avoid redundant information. For example: the right to rest and
leisure – право на відпочинок; equality in trade and commerce – piвнi права у галузі
mopгiвлi; (...) regardless of age, education, experience or background – незалежно від
віку, освіти та досвіду роботи. Partitioning is either replacing in translation of a source
sentence by two or more target ones or converting a simple source sentence into a
compound or complex target one. We are to distinguish between inner partitioning
(conversion of а simple sentence into а compound or complex one) and outer partitioning
(division of а sentence into two or more). For example, inner partitioning is used when
translating English verbal complexes into Ukrainian: Come along and see me play one
evening. – Прuходь якось увечері – побачиш, як я граю. When translating from English
into Ukrainian outer partitioning is more а matter of personal translator's choice based, of
course, on the proper account of stylistic and genre peculiarities and communication
intent of both the source text and its translation. Integration is the opposite of partitioning,
it implies combining two or (seldom) more source sentences into one target sentence. Its
use depends on stylistic peculiarities and communication intent of the text being
translated. In oral translation, however, integration may be а text compression tool, when
an interpreter (consecutive or simultaneous) is to reduce the exuberant elements of the
source text to keep in pace with the speaker. 2. Lexical and Semantic Transformations in
Translation. The transformations listed below have been labelled as lexical and semantic
because lexical changes often are caused by the need to adapt the meaning to the
semantic peculiarities of the target culture. Most of the writers on the subject single out
the following transformations of this kind: Generalization of meanings, which is
substitution of the source language words (phrases) of a narrow meaning by the target
language words (phrases) of a general (broader) meaning. For example: My baby is 18
months. – Mоїй дитині півтора року. This car costs seventeen hundred pounds. – Ця
машина коштує тисячу cімсот фунтів. The soldiers walked in the ankle-deep dust. –
Солдати йшли по коліно у пилюці. Wrist watch – наручний годинник. Differentiation of
meanings is caused by the fact that many English words with broad semantics do not have
direct equivalents in Ukrainian. In such cases dictionaries give a number of meanings that
only partially cover the meaning of the source language word and translators have to
choose one of the variants, which suits the context best of all. Thus, affection may be
rendered as щиросердя but not obligatory as любов, прихильність, cимпатія; challenge –
as проблема, нагальне завдання (питання) but not only as виклик; sustainable – as
безперервний, непохитний, придатный, обгрунтований, остаточно визначений but
not only as сталий, усталений, стійкий, etc. Concretization (substantiation) of meaning is
substitution of the source language words (phrases) with a generic meaning by the target
language words (phrases) with a more specific (narrow) meaning. Concretization is always
combined with differentiation. For example: Run for the presidency. – Змагання за посаду
президента; Have you had your meal? – Ви вже поснідали? Networking – спілкування.
Student – not only студент but also учень, слухач (depending upon the context). Logical
(or sense) development is the substitution in translation of the dictionary equivalent by the
contextual one, which is logically connected with the first. Here belong various metaphoric
and metonymic changes performed on the basis of the notion of intersection, i.e. when a
part of the content of one notion is included into the content of another notion and vice
versa. To convey the same sense by means of another language there is often no difference
what forms of the word express this content. Thus the object may be replaced by its
feature, the process – by the object, the feature – by the object or a process, etc. Ya. I.
Retsker gives the following example of logical development: The Liverpool by-election was
an acid test for the Labour candidate which can be hardly translated as Дострокові
вибори у Лiверпулi були випробуванням на кислотність для кандидата вiд
лейбористів. Evidently it is necessary to substitute the process by its attribute – були
лакмусовим папірцем. This logical development – substitution of the process by the
object occurs within the framework of intersection because лакмусовй папірець is only a
part of випробування на кислотність. When logical development is applied to translation
of verb combinations there can be established clear interrelationships between processes
(actions or states), causes and effects (consequences). "I don't think she's living here at
the moment. Her bed wasn't slept in". It is quite appropriate in translation to substitute the
process by its effect: instead of вона не спала у своему лiжку to use її лiжкo не зім'яте.
Antonymous translation is the substitution of the source language notion by its opposite in
translation with the relevant restructuring of the utterance aimed at faithful rendering of its
content. Here belong such techniques as the use of an affirmative construction instead of
a negative one or the use of semantic antonyms. For example: Let a sleeping dog lie. – He
чіпай лиха, коли воно спить тихо; The woman on the other end asked him to hang on. –
Жінка на іншому кінці лінії сказала, щоб він не клав слухавку. Keep foreign goods out. –
He допускати імпорту іноземних тoвapiв or підтримувати вітчизняного виробника. Full
rearrangement of the text segment. This transformation rearranges the inner form of any
segment of text: starting with a word, a phrase and ending up with a complete sentence.
Such reorganization is of an integral nature so that visible structural relationships between
the inner form of the source and target languages segments cannot be traced any more.
However, full rearrangement does not mean that logical and semantic relationships
between the two segments disappear. If it were so, translation would not be faithful. On
the contrary – full rearrangement presumes that equivalence of the content is retained in
translation, though it is achieved by different means. Full rearrangement is very often used
in rendering colloquial set expressions and idioms. Examples are: be my guest – ласкаво
прошу; bottle-neck – вузьке (слабке) місце; don't move! freeze! – ані руш!; I'll be
damned! – провалитися мені на цьому місці, хай йому грець!; out of the blue –
несподівано, раптом, як грім серед ясного неба, як сніг на голову; shut up! – заткни
рота!; to sort things out – ставити на свої місця. Compensation for losses in the course of
translation. There are instances when a word or another element of the source text is not
rendered at all or is substituted by a formally different one. However this omission does
not contradict the principle of translatability because such elements belong to the text as a
whole linguistic unit. These elements are essential for understanding of the text as parts of
a system, which is formed by their interrelationships and links thus ensuring cohesion of
the text. Within this coherent system there is a room for replacements and
compensations. Therefore, if a separate element, which doesn't play a key role in text
organization, is lost in translation, it may be of no importance for the text as a whole
because this element is dissolved in the general context or substituted by other elements,
which sometimes do not exist in the source text. Therefore compensation for losses in
translation should be understood as substitution of the "untranslatable" source element
by a different target language element in compliance with the general idea of the source
text and in the place, which is in line with the rules of the target text. Compensation is often
applied to rendering of such "untranslatable" elements as non-equivalent units of the
source language culture and specific national idioms, etc. If it is necessary to sacrifice
either stylistic colouring or expressiveness of the text element in translation, it is
worthwhile to retain at least its expressive trend. However, if stylistic colouring is essential
for the style of the source text, it should be by all means rendered in translation at least at
some other point in the target text, which the technique of compensation is aimed at. The
following example illustrates an attempt to compensate for certain losses in translation:
The education of Mr. Jonas had been conducted on the strictest principles of the main
chance. The very first word he learned to spell was gain, and the second (when he got into
two syllables), money [[Link]. Life and adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit]. Виховання
пана Джонаса було найсуворіше, та із народження мало на yвaзі передуciм користь.
Перше слово, яке він навчився складати, було "гроші", а друге (коли він дійшов до
трискладових cлів) "нажива". In the original Ch. Dickens writes not about the strictness
of education as such but about "the strictest principles of the main chance", i.e. about
"чіткі принципи не втратити свій шанс" or "чіткі принципи отримати наживу".
Unfortunately this hypocritical idiomaticity has not been rendered in translation. However,
the translator tries to compensate for this loss by increasing the level of irony further on in
translation. Translation of the words gain and money also illustrates the technique of
compensation: in the source text the first word Jonas learned to spell is gain and the
second – money. In the Ukrainian translation гроші appears to be the first and нажива –
the second due to the different number of syllables in the target language. Correspondingly
the translator substitutes the phrase when he got into two syllables by коли він дійшов до
трискладових слів.
English passive constructions are far from always transplanted to Ukrainian language.
Some ways of expressing the passive voice in both languages may coincide in form and
structure: She was faintly disturbed by what mother had said. – Вона була дещо
стурбована тим, що сказала її мати. Others should be transformed, in order to achieve
faithfulness in translation: If the U.N. peace plan is implemented, frozen Serb assets in the
USA would be released. – Якщо план мирного врегулювання ООН буде здійснений,
заморожені рахунки Сербії у США будуть відпущені. English passive forms referring to
present tense have mostly no structural equivalents in Ukrainian where the auxiliary verb
to be (є) is usually omitted and the past participle acquires other morphological (e.g. finite
form) and semantic expression: Rescue efforts are being hampered dozens of aftershocks,
below-freezing temperatures. – Рятувальним роботам перешкоджають повторні
поштовхи і температура, що падає нижче нуля. One more faithful Ukrainian
transformation of this passive sentence construction may be achieved by way of conveying
it through the so-called middle voice form or -ся/-сь verb: Рятувальні роботи
ускладнюються повторними підземними поштовхами і температурою, що падає
нижче нуля. Depending on the form of the passive construction and still more on the
lexical verbal meaning, this voice form may have in Ukrainian some still other
transformations, which express the same meaning of the passive construction; they may
acquire the following outer forms of expression in Ukrainian: a) that of an indefinite
personal sentence/clause: I am told that pork-packing is the most lucrative profession
after politics in America. – Кажуть, що в Америці пакування свинини – найбільш
прибуткова праця після політики. b) that of single predicative word/simple nominal
predicate: They’re prepared to sacrifice everything to satisfy their yearning. – Вони ладні
пожертвувати всім, аби задовольнити/здійснити своє прагнення. c) a finite form of the
verb/simple verbal predicate: He has never been answered. – Його ще ніхто і ніколи не
спростовував. d) an indefinite personal past participle ending in -но/-то: The room had
certainly been transformed. – У кімнаті безперечно зроблено перестановку. e) any other
contextual and structural substitution of the English passive voice predicate verb: I must
be left to myself for a while. – Мені треба якийсь час побути самому/самим із собою.
Not infrequently the Ukrainian past participle in its predicative function may be one, if not
the only possible passive form equivalent of the English passive construction in Ukrainian:
Their children slept, their gate was shut for the night. – Їхні діти спали, і (їхня) брама була
зачинена на ніч. The common English passive voice constructions with the prepositional
object as their subject have generally no equivalent passive constructions in Ukrainian.
They are rendered then with the of the indefinite personal forms of the verb (sometimes
through reflexive verbs) : Why do you not answer when you are spoken to? – Чому ви не
відповідаєте, коли до вас звертаються? Consequently, some English passive voice
constructions often change their outer and inner form and become active voice forms in
Ukrainian.
1. The category of modality in English and Ukrainian. Phonological means of expressing
modality. Modality as an extra-lingual category expressing the relation of content to reality
has in English and Ukrainian common means of realization. These include: a) phonological
means (stress and intonation); b) lexico-grammatical means (modal verbs); c) lexical
means (modal words and modal expressions) conveying subjective modality; d)
grammatical means (mood forms of the verb) conveying grammatical modality. The
expression of modal meanings by phonological means has often an identical realization in
both languages, though in Ukrainian the lexical means such as modal particles and modal
adverbs are mostly preferred here. These means may also express the most subtle
meanings of suggestion, admonition, supposition, doubt, assuredness, etc. Among the
most frequently used particles, which create such and other meanings, are аж, ж, хоч, б,
би, і, й, -но, -то, саме, таки, etc., and also adverbs авжеж, адже, надто, певне, напевне,
все ж, все ж таки, мов, немов, ніби and some others. The choice of the particle or modal
adverb is predetermined by the content, though sometimes it rests only with the translator,
who may employ stronger or weaker means to convey the modal meaning in the sentence.
Thus, the modal meaning in the proverb sentence below may have two expressions – a
weaker and a stronger one (more emphatic) in Ukrainian: After us the deluge. 1. Після нас
хоч потоп. or: 2. Після нас хоч і потоп. Since the phonologically expressed modality is
always conveyed by translators as they themselves subjectively perceive the relation of
content to reality, there may naturally be various ways of its individual realization in the
target language. This can be seen from some possible interpretations of the modal
meaning in the sentence where modality is expressed via the emphatic and logical stress
laid on the predicate centres and on the pronoun you. Hence, there may be at least five
different ways of expressing the modal meaning of the sentence in Ukrainian: «I do really
wish it hadn't been you.» (Greene) «Мені й справді хотілося, щоб це був не 'ти.» «Мені аж
ніяк не хотілося, щоб це був 'ти.» «Мені таки жаль, що це був 'ти.» «Як жаль, що це був
'ти.» «Я й справді жалкую, що це був 'ти.» When under the emphatic or logical stress
happens to be the English modal word, the expression of modality may coincide in both
languages: Jane is sure to be at her birthday party to-night. (Hailey) Джейн
неодмінно/обов'язково буде в неї на іменинах сьогодні ввечері. This same modal
meaning of certainty (assuredness) may equally be expressed in Ukrainian by means of the
modal adverb певне/напевне and the particles ж, таки: Джейн напевне ж буде в неї
сьогодні ввечері на іменинах. Джейн напевно-таки буде в неї сьогодні ввечері на
іменинах. The meaning of uncertainty or doubt expressed in English through prosodic
means finds its full realization in Ukrainian with the help of particles and the corresponding
intonation and stress as well: «What if I don't pass the examinations» said Charlie. (D.
Lessing) «Що ж воно буде, якщо я не складу іспитів», – промовив Чарлі. As will be seen
below, Ukrainian particles and adverbs may also be used to render modality which is
expressed in English by some other lingual means. 2. The lexico-grammatical expression of
modality through modal verbs. The lexico-grammatical modality is realized in both
languages via modal verbs/their lexical equivalents plus the infinitive of the notional verb.
These constructions perform the function of the compound modal verbal predicate and
express different meanings predetermined by the modal verb. 1. Thus, the modal verb
can/could expressing physical or mental ability is usually translated into Ukrainian with the
help of the modal verbs могти, вміти or by means of their equivalents мати змогу/
можливість, бути в змозі/мати силу: а)І saw that he could hardly take his eys off her.
(Maugham) Я бачив, що він не може/не має сили очей відірвати від неї. «Now, you pray,
Harold,» she said. «I can't», said. Krebs. (Hemingway) «А тепер ти молись, Гарольде,» -
сказала вона. «Я не вмію.» відповів Кребс. «I haven't been able to do what I meant.» (E.
Warton) «Я не мав змоги зробити те, що надумав зробити ...» b) When expressing doubt,
distrust, uncertainty, etc. (mainly in interrogative and negative sentences) the meaning of
can/could is mostly enforced in Ukrainian with the help of the particles невже, хіба or the
adverb навряд: «Can't you believe me, mother?» (Hemingway) «Невже (хіба) ви мені не
вірите, мамо?» «It can't be the same man» (Christie) «Навряд чи це той самий чоловік.»
«It can't possibly be Walter.» (Maugham) «Та невже/хіба то Волтер?»/ Навряд чи то
Волтер. с) When expressing the meaning of reproach, surprise or permission the lexical
equivalent of the modal verb can in Ukrainian is mostly the stative можна: Як можна таке
обіцяти/ такого наобіцяти? «How can one promise that?» (Greene) «Можна прийти й
подивитись ваші картини?» «Can I come up and see your pictures?» (Hemingway)
«Маючи все це, не можна залишати жінку без шеляга.» «Having it all, one can't leave a
woman without a bob.» (Maugham) d) When the modal verb can expresses irrefutability of
action or assuredness of statement, it may be conveyed in Ukrainian, where this kind of
modal meaning is usually expressed implicitly, through a definite word-order and sentence
stress (prosodic means): «You can't teach an old dog new tricks.» (D. Lessing) «Старого
вчити – тільки час марнувати.» There was nothing, the boy could do but run. (J.K. Jerome)
Хлопцеві нічого не залишалось, як тікати. Can the leopard change his spots? (Saying)
Горбатого могила виправить. e) Some modal meanings of can/could are expressed in
Ukrainian either lexico-grammatically or through phonological means. The choice of the
means rests then exclusively with the translator. Thus, in the sentence below the meaning
of the modal verb could is under logical (or emphatic) stress which may be marked
(pointed out) accordingly in Ukrainian: I could know it without your telling me. (B. Shaw) Я
міг довідатись про це і без тебе. The same could in the isolated sentence may also be
treated as a form of the subjunctive mood, marked by the participle б/би: Я довідався
б/міг би довідатись про це і без твоєї допомоги. «І can't recollect him.» (Greene) «Я щось
не пригадую/не можу його пригадати.» « Why can't he go to a hospital?» (Christie) « Чому
він не може лягти в шпиталь?/Чому він не лягає до шпиталю?» Note. Some English
modal meanings of can have no corresponding equivalents in Ukrainian: I can see in this
picture. Я бачу на цій картині... І can hear you well. Я добре тебе чую. Сап you see me?
Ти мене бачиш ? f) In some contextual environment the modal meaning of can may be
expressed in Ukrainian through other modal verbs: «How can you talk to me like that.»
(Fitzgerald) «Як ти смієш зі мною так розмовляти.» «We had an awful time getting back, I
can tell you.» «Повинен тобі сказати, дорога назад була страшенно важка.» The modal
verb can/could followed by the perfect infinitive and expressing a probable, doubtful,
uncertain, incredible, etc. action is usually translated into Ukrainian depending on its
contextual meaning. The latter may be expressed: 1) through the past form of the
corresponding verb (indicative mood) or 2) through its subjunctive mood form (умовний
спосіб). For example: 1) «She can't have neglected all that.» ([Link]) «Невже вона всім
цим знехтувала?» «Вона не могла всім цим знехтувати.» 2) «How could she have been
like that?» (Fitzgerald) «Як вона могла так поводитись/бути такою?» Nobody could have
saved him. (W. Trevor) Ніхто його не врятував би/ Навряд чи хто врятував би його. But
he could have lived, this boy. (Hailey) Проте хлопчина той міг би й жити/міг би й вижити.
1. The notion of Grammatical Modality. Grammatical or syntactic modality is of common
nature in English and Ukrainian as well. It expresses actions viewed upon as real, unreal,
optative, hypothetic, conditional, incentive, interrogative, etc. The principal means of
expressing such actions are mood forms of the verb (indicative, imperative and
subjunctive). These mood forms are realized respectively in declarative, interrogative and
negative sentences of wishful, hypothetical or conditional modality. The English
grammatical modality can be expressed in three mood forms: Suppositional (Subjunctive I)
mood, Subjunctive II mood, Conditional mood. 2. Ways of Translating the Suppositional
Mood (Subjunctive I). Subjunctive I formed with the help of the auxiliary verb should (for all
the persons singular/plural) and infinitive (without particle to) is used in the following
cases: a) in subject clauses after a principal clause the type: it is (was) necessary; it is
(was) important; it is (was) right; it is (was) requested; it is (was) recommended; it is (was)
obligatory; it is (was) better (best); it is (was) desirable; it is (was) of vital importance; it is
(was) suggested; it is (was) demanded; it is (was) ordered. E.g.: It is important that the real
situation should be examined because anything that promotes irrational differences
between earnings in the industry is bound to cause trouble – Важливо (=слід) вивчити
реальний стан справ у промисловості, оскільки все, що сприяє нелогічній
розбіжності у заробітках, пов’язане з виникненням проблем. It was necessary that the
child’s history should be known to none (A. Trollope). – Треба було, щоб про історію цієї
дитини ніхто не дізнався. It was desirable that she … should marry this earnest, well-to-
do and respectable man (Th. Hardy). – Було бажано, щоб вона … вийшла заміж за цю
серйозну, спроможну і солідну людину; b) in object clauses after the principal clauses
with verbs and word-groups denoting order, suggestion, advice, desire, etc.: he orders
(ordered); he suggests (suggested); he proposes (proposed); he demands (demanded); he
desires (desired); he insists (insisted); he is anxious (was anxious); he will see (he saw) to
it… E.g.: We propose that all children should be transferred, at the age of eleven or twelve,
from the junior or primary school. – Ми пропонуємо, щоб дітей переводили з початкової
школи у віці 11-12 років; Western and Arab diplomats and other specialists on Gulf affairs
have suggested that the American Administration should clearly outline its policy towards
the Gulf countries. – Дипломати західних і арабських країн та спеціалісти з питань
Перської затоки запропонували американській адміністрації чітко визначити свою
позицію стосовно країн цього регіону; c) in object clauses introduced by the conjunction
lest (щоб не / як би не) if in the principal clause the predicate is expressed by a verb
denoting „fear‟, e.g.: She fears lest she should be blamed. – Вона боїться, щоб її не
засудили. The anxiety was felt lest someone else should arrive(J. Galsworthy). – Ми
турбувалися, щоб не / як би не прийшов ще хто-небудь; d) in conditional subordinate
clauses and can be translated by means of the words у випадку, якщо, якби. Such
sentences may have an inverted word-order without the conjunction if in the original. E.g.:
Should our plant succeed (= if our plant should succeed) in saling its production we may
increase our income. – Якби наше підприємство змогло успішно збути свою
продукцію, то ми могли б збільшити свій прибуток. I’ll be at the Haywain if you should
change your mind (Eden).– Я буду в готелі Хейван, якщо ти раптом передумаєш. 3. Ways
of Translating the Subjunctive Mood (Subjunctive II). Subjunctive II is used in conditional
subordinate sentences to express an unreal condition referring to the present or future.
The verb to be has the form were (for all the persons singular/plural) in such sentences
introduced by the conjunctions if, unless, in case; with other verbs the same meaning is
expressed by the Past Indefinite Tense of the Indicative mood. E.g.: The world would be
healthier if every chemist’s shop in England were demolished (B. Shaw). – Людство було б
здоровіше, якби всі аптеки в Англії були знищені. “If he had any sense, he’d shut his
eyes” (S. Maugham). – «Коли б він був розумнішим, він би заплющив на це очі». An
unreal condition referring to the future can also be expressed by the Past Subjunctive of
the verb to be + to-Infinitive of the notional verb. Such sentences are often translated by
means of the phrase Якби трапилось так. E.g.: If inflation were to continue on the scale
experiences in the past ten years, the last threads sustaining sterling as a world currency
would be severed. – Якби трапилось так, що темпи зростання інфляції залишилися
такими ж, як протягом останніх десяти років, то впали б останні опори, що
підтримували фунт стерлінгів як світову валюту. In the subordinate clause of unreal
condition referring to the past time the Past Perfect of the Indicative mood is used. E.g.: If
only she had explained seriously to James last night the true position he would have
believed her (Eden). – Якби тільки вона серйозно пояснила Джеймсу вчора увечері, як
все йде насправді, він би повірив їй. Subjunctive II is also used in attributive clauses
modifying the noun time in the principal clause It is time. The construction it’s time +
subject + past tense expresses the meaning in the present or future to complain about and
criticize people and things and also to talk about doing something one has been putting off.
The words high or about can be added to the principal clause It is time and used before the
noun time (it is high/about time) to make the complaint or criticism stronger. E.g.: It’s time I
thought it out from the beginning. – Мені пора обдумати все із самого початку. Now,
children, it’s high time you were washed and dressed. – Ну, діти, вам давно пора вмитися
і одягнутися. The Subjunctive II forms used in object clauses with the predicate verb in the
Indicative mood in order to express wish with implied regret or unreal wish can be rendered
in two ways: a) by the subjunctive forms Я б хотів, Мені б хотілося, e.g.: I wish I deserved
your compliment. – Я дуже б хотів бути гідним вашого компліменту; b) with the help of
the stative жаль or шкода. Constructions with the „wish‟- clauses often require
antonymous translation, e.g.: I wish I deserved your compliment. – Який жаль(= шкода),
що я не гідний вашого компліменту. “I wish I had met him when he was younger” (G.
Greene). – «Шкода, що я не зустріла його, коли він був молодшим». The Subjunctive II
forms expressing unreality are found in adverbial clauses of comparison introduced by the
conjunction as if / as though (=Ukr.: як/ніби/неначе). It is not infrequent that English and
Ukrainian sentences differ in degree of certainty or uncertainty expressed by the mood
construction. An English sentence shows more vividly the speaker‟s attitude to the
situation, whether she/he considers the situation real or unreal. E.g. It looks as if he were
sick. (I am not sure). – It looks as if he is sick. (He really is but I wouldn‟t like to sound
categorical). In Ukrainian this subtle difference in meaning is lost: Здається, він хворий.
The Past Subjunctive is used to show that the action of the subordinate clause is
simultaneous with that of the main clause. E.g.: I am not angry with them. I was rather
afraid of them, as if I were castaway among creatures with whom I had no community of
nature. – Я не сердився на них. Швидше, я їх боявся так, ніби мене лишили наодинці з
істотами, з якими у мене не було нічого спільного. She treated academic persons with
reverence, as though they were sacred cows; but though they might be sacred cows, they
did not seem to her quite serious. – Вона ставилась до науковців з благоговінням, як до
святих, але навіть якби вони могли бути такими, вони не здавалися їй достатньо
серйозними. The Past Perfect Subjunctive is used to show that the action of the
subordinate clause is prior to that of the main clause. E.g.: She shook hands with him as
though they had known each other all their lives. – Вони потиснули один одному руки,
неначе були знайомі все життя. 4. Ways of Translating the Conditional Mood. The
Conditional mood formed with the help of the auxiliary verb would (for all the persons
singular/plural) and infinitive (without particle to) is translated by means of the Ukrainian
particle б/би referring to present, past or future as in the following cases: a) in the principle
clause of the complex sentence, e.g.: It would be madness to start in management unless
one had at least three plays (S. Maugham). – Було б просто божевіллям братись за
організацію трупи, доки нема/не маєш хоча б трьох п’єс; b) in the compound or simple
sentences, e.g.: I have no time or I would go for a walk with you. – У мене немає часу, а то
я пішла б з тобою гуляти. I said, and would have said more about this, only Lefty cut me
short. – Я сказала, і сказала б більше про це, але Лефті перервав мене.
The compound verbal predicate with the component present participle is usually
transformed in Ukrainian into the simple verbal predicate expressed by a perfective verb:
He stopped, and took me up, and the light came tumbling down the steps on me too. – Він
зупинився й підхопив мене, а світло поповзло по східцях і впало також на мене. A.
Ways of Translating the Objective with the Participle Constructions/ Complexes The
secondary predication constructions with the present or past participle are used with the
verbs of physical and mental perception, as well as with the verb to have. The objective
with the present participle constructions may be faithfully translated into Ukrainian in one
of the following ways: 1) With the help of the object subordinate clause introduced by the
conjunction що or by the adverbial connectors як, коли: ...he heard her moving about the
room. – ... він чув, як вона ходила по кімнаті. 2) With the help of the adverbial subordinate
clauses of time, purpose, manner, etc., which testifies to the existence of functional
discrepancies in the two languages at the level of syntactic structure, function, and
content: I had seen him last September coming across the square towards the bar of the
Continental... – Я бачив його минулого року у вересні, коли він переходив майдан до
бару в ресторані Континенталь... 3) On rarer occasions a faithful translation of the
objective with the present participle construction may be achieved either with the help of
an object subordinate clause or with the help of a semantically equivalent substantival
word-group: I heard someone weeping. – Я чув, як хтось плакав/чийсь плач. 4) With the
help of the finite form of the verb, i.e., with the help of the simple verbal predicate: I can
see you marrying after a drink too many. – Ти, бачу, як підіп’єш, то ще станеш
женихатися тут. The main ways of translating the objective with the past participle
constructions are the following: 1) with the help of an object subordinate clause: Lecture
11 I heard his name mentioned in the crowd. – Я чув, що/як його ім’я називали у натовпі.
2) with the help of a noun in the metaphorical paraphrase: Я чув його ім’я на вустах
натовпу. 3) by translating the participial complex to Ukrainian sentences having here
identical predicative constructions: When I returned I found the fence broken and the
house door opened. – Прийшовши додому, я застав паркан проламаним, а хатні двері
відчиненими. B. Ways of Translating the Subjective with the Participle Constructions The
subjective with the participle are translated into Ukrainian much like the subjective with
the infinitive secondary predication constructions. There is, however, some difference
between the action expressed by the NVinf pattern constructions and the action expressed
by the subjective with the participle N/I/Ving pattern construction. The latter also in
Ukrainian expresses an action in process: He was heard to sing. Чули, що він співав. Не
was heard singing. Чули, як/коли він співав. English simple sentences with the subjective
present participle constructions/complexes are mostly transformed in Ukrainian into a
complex sentence introduced by the one-member indefinite-personal principal clause or
by the infinitive performing the same syntactic function. The introductory indefinite
personal/principal clauses and infinitives are Кажуть/Як кажуть; Повідомляють;
Повідомляється, що; Очікується, що/Очікують, що: He had been seen… pressing his
warm lips to the marble brow of an antique statue. – Бачили, ... як він притулявся своїми
теплими вустами до мармурового чола античної статуї. The most confusing for
translators are participial constructions with the grammaticalized past participles given,
taken, granted etc. which are translated into Ukrainian with the help of diyepryslivnyks,
diyepryslivnyk constructions or even via prepositional noun phrases: Taken together, the
results of the reaction proved the existence of some touch in the solution. –
Підсумовуючи/У підсумку наслідки реакції підтвердили існування домішок у розчині.
C. Ways of Translating the Nominative Absolute Participial Constructions/Complexes
These English secondary predication word-groups are presented in the three main
structurally different types: 1) The nominative absolute participial constructions consisting
of a synthetic or analytical paradigm of the present participle. The number of
components/elements in the paradigm of the participle has actually no influence on the
expression of meaning and translation of this predicative construction: This duty done, we
unfilled our glasses, lit our pipes, and resumed the discussion upon our state of health. –
Оскільки з цим було вирішено, ми осушили келихи, запалили люльки й знову стали
бідкатись про своє здоров’я. 2) The second structural type constitute the nominative
absolute participial constructions that contain no participle component at all. The relation
of the predication in complexes of this type is implicitly inherent in and is realized through
a prepositional or a substantival word-group: He sat down, his face serious and intent, and
his fingers began to race across the keyboard. – Він сів серйозний і зосереджений за
рояль, і його пальці швидко забігали по клавішах. 3) The third structural type form
subjectless nominative absolute participial complexes: Though being left out all night in
the rain, the metal had not rusted. – Метал хоч і пролежав цілу ніч під дощем, не
поіржавів. 4) The fourth structural type constitute nominative absolute participial
constructions whose semantic reference to a part of the introductory clause is quite vague
and scarcely traced. Such nominative absolute participial constructions function together
with their secondary subjects as regular classes of a semi-composite sentence: She
reached the lake and stood there staring at it, the wind whipping the thin night-gown
around her body. – Коли вона підійшла до озера й стала, вдивляючись у нього, вітер
затріпотів тонесенькою нічною сорочкою, що тісно облягала її тіло. D. Ways of
Identification of Implicit Meanings in the Nominative Absolute Participial Constructions
Among the most frequent adverbial meanings are temporal and causal, which are
rendered into Ukrainian with the help of the corresponding subordinate clauses: I can’t
write with you standing there, Margery. – Я не можу, Марджері, писати, коли ти стоїш
там. A temporal meaning may also be indicated by an adverb/adverbial expression in the
nominative absolute participial construction or by the corresponding tense forms in the
introductory clause: Mr. Quest, once again interrupted, turned his darky-irritable eyes on
him. – Квест, коли його знову обірвали, глянув на нього своїми чорними сердитими
очима. The nominative absolute participial constructions of causative meaning may also
occupy a postpositive position in the sentence, i.e., after the introductory clause: We were
walking by ourselves for an hour, George having remained in the hotel to write a letter to his
aunt. – Ми десь із годину ходили вдвох, бо Джордж зостався в готелі писати тітці
листа. The nominative absolute participial constructions can also express other meanings
and relations in the sentence. Then they are translated into Ukrainian respectively as
corresponding nominal (or adverbial) subordinate clauses: It was [Link], his
hands inevitably busy with his pipe. – Це був лікар Дорнберґен, руки якого постійно
крутять люльку.
Do the task from the discipline “theory and practise of translation” according to the theory:
1. Яка лексична трансформація застосована при перекладі англійського речення:
Well, shall we finish the wine? – Може, все-таки, доп’ємо вино? a) генералізація b)
смисловий розвиток c) конкретизація d) вилучення e) інше 2. Яка лексична
трансформація застосована при перекладі англійського речення: Would she have the
courage to say it to Oliver? – Чи вистачить їй сміливості сказати це Оліверу? a) цілісне
перетворення b) смисловий розвиток c) конкретизація d) генералізація e) інше 3. Яка
лексична трансформація застосована при перекладі англійського речення: Go and do
your exams. – Іди і здавай свої екзамени. a) конкретизація b) смисловий розвиток c)
цілісне перетворення d) вилучення e) інше 4. Яка лексична трансформація
застосована при перекладі англійського речення: Warms and lassitude went through
her veins. – Тепло і втома пройшли по всьому її тілі. a) конкретизація b) смисловий
розвиток c) генералізація d) цілісне перетворення e) інше 5. Яка лексична
трансформація застосована при перекладі англійського речення: Even here,in Venice
with Darcy’s telegram in her fingers, she could see Oliver’s face and hear his laughter. –
Навіть тут, у Венеції, тримаючи в руках телеграму Дарсі, вона виразно бачила обличчя
Олівера і чула його сміх. a) генералізація b) конкретизація c) смисловий розвиток d)
цілісне перетворення e) інше 6. Яка лексична трансформація застосована при
перекладі англійського речення: Men were in their forties and fifties – Чоловіки були
зрілого віку. a) цілісне перетворення b) смисловий розвиток c) вилучення d)
генералізація e) інше 7. Яка лексична трансформація застосована при перекладі
англійського речення: Megan had no word to say. – Меган було нічого сказати. a)
генералізація b) антонімічний переклад c) смисловий розвиток d) цілісне
перетворення e) інше 8. Яка лексична трансформація застосована при перекладі
англійського речення: Teresa and Father Berrendo met every week-end. – Тереза і Отець
Беррендо зустрічались кожного тижня. a) конкретизація b) диференціація значення c)
смисловий розвиток d) генералізація e) інше 9. Яка лексична трансформація
застосована при перекладі англійського речення: He had little doubt. – Він майже не
сумнівався. a) антонімічний переклад b) конкретизація c) генералізація d) цілісне
перетворення e) інше 10. Яка лексична трансформація застосована при перекладі
англійського речення: Amparo had no patience with Megan. – Міган виводила Ампаро з
себе. a) цілісне перетворення b) смисловий розвиток c) генералізація d)
конкретизація e) інше 11. Який прийом використано для перекладу неологізму:
climate refugees – кліматичні біженці. a) описовий переклад b) калькування c)
транскодування d) функціональна заміна 12. Який прийом використано для
перекладу неологізму: guerrilla gardening – підпільне садівництво. a) описовий
переклад b) калькування c) функціональна заміна d) транскодування 13. Який прийом
використано для перекладу неологізму: Enronomics – енрономіка, шахрайська
бухгалтерська техніка. a) транскодування з поясненням b) калькування c)
функціональна заміна d) описовий переклад 14. Який прийом використано для
перекладу неологізму: reality checker – незалежний експерт. a) описовий переклад b)
калькування c) функціональна заміна d) транскодування з поясненням 15. Який
прийом використано для перекладу неологізму: eco-bling – неефективні зелені
технології. a) описовий переклад b) калькування c) функціональна заміна d)
транскодування з поясненням 16. Який прийом використано для перекладу
неологізму: skimming – скімінг. a) описовий переклад b) калькування c) функціональна
заміна d) транслітерація 17. Який прийом використано для перекладу неологізму:
extreme gardening – екстремальне садівництво. a) описовий переклад b) калькування
c) функціональна заміна d) транскодування 18. Який прийом використано для
перекладу неологізму: homicide bomber – терористсмертник. a) описовий переклад b)
калькування c) функціональна заміна d) транскодування з поясненням 19. Який
прийом використано для перекладу неологізму: antiblackism – расизм. a)
функціональна заміна b) калькування c) описовий переклад d) транскодування з
поясненням 20. Який прийом використано для перекладу неологізму: chargeback –
компенсація за фальшиву покупку через Інтернет. a) описовий переклад b)
калькування c) калькування з поясненням d) транскодування 21. Виберіть правильний
варіант перекладу словосполучень з псевдоінтернаціоналізмами: intimate knowledge,
intimate friend. a) досконалі знання, близький друг b) інтимна інформація, бой-френд
c) глибокі знання, таємний друг d) знання про інтимні стосунки, кровний друг 22.
Виберіть правильний варіант перекладу словосполучень з
псевдоінтернаціоналізмами: delicate work, a delicate child. a) витончена робота,
хвороблива дитина b) делікатна робота, делікатна дитина c) складна робота,
вихована дитина d) примхлива робота, вередлива дитина 23. Виберіть правильний
варіант перекладу словосполучень з псевдоінтернаціоналізмами: delicate flavor,
delicate ear. a) ніжний смак, гострий слух b) приємний аромат, поганий слух c)
делікатний смак, витончена форма вуха d) витончений аромат, музикальний слух 24.
Виберіть правильний варіант перекладу словосполучень з
псевдоінтернаціоналізмами: aspirant to the title, academic degree. a) претендент на
звання чемпіона, наукова ступінь b) аспірант на здобуття наукового ступеня,
академічна ступінь c) післядипломна освіта, ступінь академіка d) претендент на
посаду, академічна підготовка 25. Виберіть правильний варіант перекладу
словосполучень з псевдоінтернаціоналізмами: academic qualifications, academic
panel. a) професійна підготовка, науковий семінар b) кваліфікація академіка, панель
наукових досягнень c) академічна підготовка, конференція вчених d) наукова
кваліфікація, професійне обговорення 26. Виберіть правильний варіант перекладу
словосполучень з псевдоінтернаціоналізмами: academic staff, academic degree. a)
викладацький склад, наукова ступінь b) академічні питання, академічна ступінь c)
науковці, академіки d) наукові питання, ступінь академіка 27. Виберіть правильний
варіант перекладу словосполучень з псевдоінтернаціоналізмами: liberal man, liberal
education. a) щедрий чоловік, гуманітарна освіта b) ліберал, школа для лібералів c)
ліберальна особа, необов’язкова освіта d) м’яка людина, художня підготовка 28.
Виберіть правильний варіант перекладу словосполучень з
псевдоінтернаціоналізмами: a genial person, an extravagant person. a) добродушна
людина, марнотратна людина b) геніальна людина, екстравагантна особа c) добра
людина, імпозантна особа d) геніальна особистість, пихата людина 29. Виберіть
правильний варіант перекладу словосполучень з псевдоінтернаціоналізмами: a trivial
loss, a pathetic story. a) незначна втрата, зворушлива історія b) тривіальна втрата,
пафосна історія c) важка втрата, жалюгідна історія d) банальна втрата, пишномовна
розповідь 30. Виберіть правильний варіант перекладу словосполучень з
псевдоінтернаціоналізмами: a decoration ribbon, war of elements. a) орденська
стрічка, війна стихій b) декоративна стрічка, природна війна c) гірлянда, стихійна
війна d) прикраса, війна етнічних меншин 31. Виберіть правильний варіант
перекладу: гуманітарна освіта, гуманітарна допомога. a) liberal education,
humanitarian aid b) humanitarian education, human aid c) humane education, humane aid
d) liberal education, liberal aid 32. Виберіть правильний варіант перекладу:
інтелігенція, новела. a) the intellectuals, a short story b) intelligence, novel c)
intelligentsia, story d) intellectuals, assay 33. Виберіть правильний варіант перекладу:
доцент, аспірант. a) associate professor, graduate student b) docent, aspirant c)
associater, post-graduate student d) vice-professor, post-graduate student 34. Виберіть
правильний варіант перекладу: академік, адвокат. a) academician, lawyer b) academic,
advocate c) member of the Academy, advocat d) academist, legal person 35. Виберіть
правильний варіант перекладу для: корисна інформація, корисні копалини, корисна
їжа. a) valuable information, minerals, healthy food b) useful information, mineral
resources, useful food c) valuable information, useful resources, agreeable food d)
valuable information, nature resources, junkless food 36. Назвіть прийом, використаний
для перекладу фразеологічної одиниці: Good wine needs no bush – добре вино не
потребує ярлику. a) фразеологічний аналог b) абсолютний еквівалент c) калькування
d) описовий переклад 37. Назвіть прийом, використаний для перекладу
фразеологічної одиниці: to cross the floor of the House – перейти з однієї політичної
партії до іншої. a) фразеологічний аналог b) абсолютний еквівалент c) калькування d)
описовий переклад 38. Назвіть прийом, використаний для перекладу фразеологічної
одиниці: Jack of all trades and master of none - за все братися – нічого не вміти. a)
фразеологічний аналог b) абсолютний еквівалент c) калькування d) описовий
переклад 39. Назвіть прийом, використаний для перекладу фразеологічної одиниці:
Jack of all trades and master of none - і швець, і жнець, і на дуді гравець. a)
фразеологічний аналог b) абсолютний еквівалент c) калькування d) описовий
переклад 40. Назвіть прийом, використаний для перекладу фразеологічної одиниці:
Cat's concert - Хто в ліс, хто по дрова. a) фразеологічний аналог b) абсолютний
еквівалент c) калькування d) описовий переклад 41. Вкажіть правильний варіант
передачі англійських власних назв Stephen, Sean. a) Стівен, Шон b) Стефан, Шон c)
Степан, Сен d) Стівен, Сін e) інше 42. Вкажіть правильний варіант передачі
англійських географічних назв the English Channel, the Straight of Dover. a) Інгліш
Ченел, Стрейт оф Доувер b) Ла-Манш, протока Па-де-Кале c) Англійський канал,
протока Доувер d) Ла-Манш, Стрейт оф Доувер e) інше 43. Вкажіть правильний
варіант передачі англійських географічних назв Beijing, Croatia, Sweden. a) Бейджін,
Кроатія, Швеція b) Пекін, Хорватія, Швеція c) Пекін, Хорватія, Швейцарія d) Бейджін,
Хорватія, Швеція e) інше 44. Вкажіть правильний варіант передачі географічних назв
the Rocky Mountains, the Cascade Mountain, the Cheviot Hills. a) гори Рокі, Каскадні
гори, гори Чевіот b) Скелясті гори, гори Кескейд, Чевіот Хілз c) гори Рокі, Кескейд
Маунтін, Чевіотські гори d) Скелясті гори, Каскадні гори, Чевіотські гори e) інше 45.
Вкажіть правильний варіант передачі географічних назв Venice, the Hague, Antwerp,
Nice. a) Венеція, Гаага, Антверпен, Ніца b) Веніс, Хейг, Антверп, Найс c) Венеція, Хейг,
Антверп, Ніца d) Венеція, Гаага, Антверп, Ніца e) інше 46. Вкажіть правильний варіант
передачі географічних назв: Кольський півострів, Мала Азія, Середня Азія,
Керченський півострів. a) Kolsk Peninsula, Little Asia, Middle Asia, Kerch Peninsula b)
Kolsky Peninsula, Asia Minor, Mid Asia, Kerchensky Peninsula c) Kola Peninsula, Asia
Minor, Central Asia, Kerch Peninsula d) Kola Peninsula, Asia Minor, Mid Asia, Kerchensky
Peninsula e) інше 47. Вкажіть правильний варіант передачі власних назв Humboldt
State college, George Washington Library, Cape Kennedy. a) Державний Гумболдтський
коледж, Вашингтонська бібліотека, мис Кеннеді b) Державний коледж ім. Гумбольдта,
бібліотека ім. Джорджа Вашингтона, мис Кеннеді c) Гумбольдт Стейт Коледж, Джордж
Вашингтон Лайбрері, Кейп Кеннеді d) державний коледж «Гумбольдт», бібліотека ім.
Джорджа Вашингтона, мис ім. Кеннеді e) інше 48. Вкажіть правильний варіант
передачі власних назв: бібліотека ім. Котляревського, Національна бібліотека України
ім. академіка Вернадського. a) the Kotlyarevskyi library, Ukrainian Academician
Vernadskyi National Library b) the library named after Kotlyarevskyi, the Ukrainian National
Library named after Academician Vernadskyi c) Kotlyarevskyi’s library, Academician
Vernadskyi’s Ukrainian National Library d) the library of Kotlyarevskyi, the Ukrainian
National Library of Academician Vernadskyi e) інше 49. Вкажіть правильний варіант
передачі власних назв: Львівський державний університет ім. І. Франка, музична
школа ім. М. Лисенка. a) Lviv I. Franko’s State University, the M. Lysenko’s Musical school
b) Lviv State University named after I. Franko, Musical School named after M. Lysenko c)
Lviv I. Franko State University, the M. Lysenko Musical School d) Lviv State University by I.
Franko, Musical School by M. Lysenko e) інше 50. Вкажіть правильний варіант передачі
географічних власних назв: Salt Lake City, Lake Superior, Plymouth. a) місто соленого
озера, озеро Верхнє, Плімус b) Солт-Лейк-Сіті, озеро Сюперіор, Плімус c) Солт-Лейк-
Сіті, озеро Сюперіор Лейк, Плімут d) Солт-Лейк-Сіті, озеро Верхнє, Плімут e) інше