ANDHRA PRADESH | Biology : How do Organisms Reproduce?
How do Organisms
Reproduce?
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ANDHRA PRADESH | Biology : How do Organisms Reproduce?
B efore we discuss the mechanisms by
which organisms reproduce, let us ask a
more basic question – why do organisms
DNA. This creates two copies of the DNA in a
reproducing cell, and they will need to be
separated from each other. However, keeping
reproduce? After all, reproduction is not one copy of DNA in the original cell and simply
necessary to maintain the life of an individual pushing the other one out would not work,
organism, unlike the essential life processes because the copy pushed out would not have
such as nutrition, respiration, or excretion. On any organised cellular structure for maintaining
the other hand, if an individual organism is life processes. Therefore, DNA copying is
going to create more individuals, a lot of its accompanied by the creation of an additional
energy will be spent in the process. So why cellular apparatus, and then the DNA copies
should an individual organism waste energy on separate, each with its own cellular apparatus.
a process it does not need to stay alive? It would Effectively, a cell divides to give rise to two
be interesting to discuss the possible answers in cells.
the classroom! These two cells are of course similar, but
Whatever the answer to this question, it are they likely to be absolutely identical? The
is obvious that we notice organisms because answer to this question will depend on how
they reproduce. If there were to be only one, accurately the copying reactions involved
non-reproducing member of a particular kind, it occur. No bio-chemical reaction is absolutely
is doubtful that we would have noticed its reliable. Therefore, it is only to be expected that
existence. It is the large numbers of organisms the process of copying the DNA will have some
belonging to a single species that bring them to variations each time. As a result, the DNA
our notice. How do we know that two different copies generated will be similar, but may not be
individual organisms belong to the same identical to the original. Some of these
species? Usually, we say this because they look variations might be so drastic that the new DNA
similar to each other. Thus, reproducing copy cannot work with the cellular apparatus it
organisms create new individuals that look inherits. Such a newborn cell will simply die.
very much like themselves. On the other hand, there could still be many
7.1 DO ORGANISMS CREATE EXACT other variations in the DNA copies that would
COPIES OF THEMSELVES? not lead to such a drastic outcome. Thus, the
Organisms look similar because their body surviving cells are similar to, but subtly
designs are similar. If body designs are to be different from each other. This inbuilt tendency
similar, the blueprints for these designs should for variation during reproduction is the basis
be similar. Thus, reproduction at its most basic for evolution, as we will discuss in the next
level will involve making copies of the chapter.
blueprints of body design. In Class IX, we 7.1.1 The Importance of Variation
learnt that the chromosomes in the nucleus of a Populations of organisms ll well-
cell contain information for inheritance of dened places, or niches, in the ecosystem,
features from parents to next generation in the using their ability to reproduce. The
form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) consistency of DNA copying during
molecules. The DNA in the cell nucleus is the reproduction is important for the maintenance
information source for making proteins. If the of body design features that allow the organism
information is changed, different proteins will to use that particular niche. Reproduction is
be made. Different proteins will eventually lead therefore linked to the stability of populations
to altered body designs. of species.
Therefore, a basic event in reproduction However, niches can change because of
is the creation of a DNA copy. Cells use reasons beyond the control of the organisms.
chemical reactions to build copies of their Temperatures on earth can go up or down,
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ANDHRA PRADESH | Biology : How do Organisms Reproduce?
water levels can vary, or there could be Having discussed the context in which
meteorite hits, to think of a few examples. If a reproductive processes work, let us now
population of reproducing organisms were examine how different organisms actually
suited to a particular niche and if the niche were reproduce. The modes by which various
drastically altered, the population could be organisms reproduce depend on the body
wiped out. However, if some variations were to design of the organisms.
be present in a few individuals in these 7.2.1 Fission
populations, there would be some chance for For unicellular organisms, cell division, or
them to survive. Thus, if there were a ssion, leads to the creation of new individuals.
population of bacteria living in temperate Many different patterns of ssion have been
waters, and if the water temperature were to be observed. Many bacteria and protozoa simply
increased by global warming, most of these split into two equal halves during cell division.
bacteria would die, but the few variants In organisms such as Amoeba, the splitting of
resistant to heat would survive and grow the two cells during division can take place in
further. Variation is thus useful for the survival any plane.
of species over time.
Activity 7.3
g Observe a permanent slide of Amoeba
1. What is the importance of DNA copying in
under a microscope.
reproduction? g Similarly observe another permanent
2. Why is variation benecial to the species slide of Amoeba showing binary ssion.
but not necessarily for the individual? g Now, compare the observations of both
7.2 MODES OF REPRODUCTION USED the slides.
BY SINGLE ORGANISMS
Activity 7.1
g Dissolve about 10 gm of sugar in 100 mL
of water.
g Take 20 mL of this solution in a test tube Figure 7.1
(a) Binary ssion in Amoeba
and add a pinch of yeast granules to it.
g Put a cotton plug on the mouth of the test
tube and keep it in a warm place.
g After 1 or 2 hours, put a small drop of
yeast culture from the test tube on a slide
and cover it with a coverslip.
g Observe the slide under a microscope. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
Figure 7.1 (b) Binary ssion in Leishmania
Activity 7.2 However, some unicellular organisms show
somewhat more organisation of their bodies,
g Wet a slice of bread, and keep it in a cool, such as is seen in Leishmania (which cause
moist and dark place. kala-azar), which have a whip-like structure at
g Observe the surface of the slice with a one end of the cell. In such organisms, binary
magnifying glass. ssion occurs in a denite orientation in
g Record your observations for a week. relation to these structures. Other single-celled
Compare and contrast the ways in which organisms, such as the malarial parasite,
yeast grows in the rst case, and how mould Plasmodium, divide into many daughter cells
grows in the second. simultaneously by multiple ssion.
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ANDHRA PRADESH | Biology : How do Organisms Reproduce?
Yeast, on the other hand, can put out small buds is also the function of a specic cell type. How
that separate and grow further, as we saw in is reproduction to be achieved from a single cell
Activity 7.1. type, if the organism itself consists of many cell
types? The answer is that there must be a single
cell type in the organism that is capable of
growing, proliferating and making other cell
types under the right circumstances.
7.2.3 Regeneration
Many fully differentiated organisms have the
Figure 7.2 Multiple ssion in Plasmodium ability to give rise to new individual organisms
from their body parts. That is, if the individual
7.2.2 Fragmentation is somehow cut or broken up into many pieces,
Activity 7.4 many of these pieces grow into separate
individuals. For example, simple animals like
g Collect water from a lake or pond that Hydra and Planaria can be cut into any number
appears dark green and contains of pieces and each piece grows into a complete
lamentous structures. organism. This is known as regeneration (see
g Put one or two laments on a slide. Fig.7.3). Regeneration is carried out by
g Put a drop of glycerine on these laments specialised cells. These cells proliferate and
and cover it with a cover slip. make large numbers of cells. From this mass of
g Observe the slide under a microscope. cells, different cells undergo changes to
g Can you identify different tissues in the become various cell types and tissues. These
Spirogyra laments? changes take place in an organised sequence
In multi-cellular organisms with referred to as development. However,
relatively simple body organisation, simple regeneration is not the same as reproduction,
reproductive methods can still work. since most organisms would not normally
Spirogyra, for example, simply breaks up into depend on being cut up to be able to reproduce.
smaller pieces upon maturation. These pieces
or fragments grow into new individuals. Can
we work out the reason for this, based on what
we saw in Activity 7.4?
This is not true for all multi-cellular
organisms. They cannot simply divide cell-by-
cell. The reason is that many multi-cellular
organisms, as we have seen, are not simply a
random collection of cells. Specialised cells are
organised as tissues, and tissues are organised Figure 7.3
Regeneration in Planaria
into organs, which then have to be placed at
denite positions in the body. In such a 7.2.4 Budding
carefully organised situation, cell-by-cell Organisms such as Hydra use
division would be impractical. Multi-cellular regenerative cells for reproduction in the
organisms, therefore, need to use more process of budding. In Hydra, a bud develops
complex ways of reproduction. as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at
A basic strategy used in multi-cellular one specic site (Fig. 7.4). These buds develop
organisms is that different cell types perform into tiny individuals and when fully mature,
different specialised functions. Following this detach from the parent body and become new
general pattern, reproduction in such organisms independent individuals.
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ANDHRA PRADESH | Biology : How do Organisms Reproduce?
g Observe changes taking place in these
potato pieces over the next few days.
Make sure that the cotton is kept
moistened.
g Which are the potato pieces that give rise
to fresh green shoots and roots?
Figure 7.4 Budding in Hydra
Similarly buds produced in the notches
7.2.5 Vegetative Propagation along the leaf margin of Bryophyllum fall on the
There are many plants in which parts like the soil and develop into new plants (Fig. 7.5).
root, stem and leaves develop into new plants
under appropriate conditions. Unlike in most
animals, plants can indeed use such a mode for
reproduction. This property of vegetative
propagation is used in methods such as layering
or grafting to grow many plants like sugarcane,
roses, or grapes for agricultural purposes.
Plants raised by vegetative propagation can
bear owers and fruits earlier than those
produced from seeds. Such methods also make
possible the propagation of plants such as Figure 7.5
banana, orange, rose and jasmine that have lost Leaf of Bryophyllum with buds
the capacity to produce seeds. Another
advantage of vegetative propagation is that all Activity 7.6
plants produced are genetically similar enough g Select a money-plant.
to the parent plant to have all its characteristics. g Cut some pieces such that they contain at
Activity 7.5 least one leaf.
g Cut out some other portions between two
g Take a potato and observe its surface. leaves.
Can notches be seen? g Dip one end of all the pieces in water and
g Cut the potato into small pieces such that observe over the next few days.
some pieces contain a notch or bud and g Which ones grow and give rise to fresh
some do not. leaves?
g Spread some cotton on a tray and wet it. g What can you conclude from your
Place the potato pieces on this cotton. observations?
Note where the pieces with the buds are
placed.
More to Know!
Tissue culture
In tissue culture, new plants are grown by removing tissue or separating cells from the growing tip
of a plant. The cells are then placed in an articial medium where they divide rapidly to form a
small group of cells or callus. The callus is transferred to another medium containing hormones
for growth and differentiation. The plantlets are then placed in the soil so that they can grow into
mature plants. Using tissue culture, many plants can be grown from one parent in disease-free
conditions. This technique is commonly used for ornamental plants.
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ANDHRA PRADESH | Biology : How do Organisms Reproduce?
7.2.6 Spore Formation 7.3 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Even in many simple multi-cellular organisms, We are also familiar with modes of
specic reproductive parts can be identied. reproduction that depend on the involvement of
The thread-like structures that developed on the two individuals before a new generation can be
bread in Activity 7.2 above are the hyphae of
the bread mould (Rhizopus). They are not created. Bulls alone cannot produce new
reproductive parts. On the other hand, the tiny calves, nor can hens alone produce new chicks.
blob-on-a-stick structures are involved in In such cases, both sexes, males and females,
reproduction. The blobs are sporangia, which are needed to produce new generations. What is
contain cells, or spores, that can eventually the signicance of this sexual mode of
develop into new Rhizopus individuals (Fig.
reproduction? Are there any limitations of the
7.6). The spores are covered by thick walls that
protect them until they come into contact with asexual mode of reproduction, which we have
another moist surface and can begin to grow. been discussing above?
All the modes of reproduction that we have 7.3.1 Why the Sexual Mode of Reproduction?
discussed so far allow new generations to be The creation of two new cells from one
created from a single individual. This is known involves copying of the DNA as well as of the
as asexual reproduction.
cellular apparatus. The DNA copying
mechanism, as we have noted, cannot be
absolutely accurate, and the resultant errors are
a source of variations in populations of
organisms. Every individual organism cannot
be protected by variations, but in a population,
variations are useful for ensuring the survival
of the species. It would therefore make sense if
organisms came up with reproductive modes
that allowed more and more variation to be
generated.
While DNA-copying mechanisms are not
Figure 7.6 absolutely accurate, they are precise enough to
Spore formation in Rhizopus make the generation of variation a fairly slow
process. If the DNA copying mechanisms were
to be less accurate, many of the resultant DNA
1. How does binary ssion differ from copies would not be able to work with the
multiple ssion?
2. How will an organism be beneted if it cellular apparatus, and would die. So how can
reproduces through spores? the process of making variants be speeded up?
3. Can you think of reasons why more Each new variation is made in a DNA copy that
complex organisms cannot give rise to already has variations accumulated from
new individuals through regeneration? previous generations. Thus, two different
4. Why is vegetative propagation practised individuals in a population would have quite
for growing some types of plants?
5. Why is DNA copying an essential part of different patterns of accumulated variations.
the process of reproduction? Since all of these variations are in living
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ANDHRA PRADESH | Biology : How do Organisms Reproduce?
individuals, it is assured that they do not have become more complex, the germ-cells also
any really bad effects. Combining variations specialise. One germ-cell is large and contains
from two or more individuals would thus create the food-stores while the other is smaller and
new combinations of variants. Each likely to be motile. Conventionally, the motile
combination would be novel, since it would germ-cell is called the male gamete and the
involve two different individuals. The sexual germ-cell containing the stored food is called
mode of reproduction incorporates such a the female gamete. We shall see in the next few
process of combining DNA from two different sections how the need to create these two
individuals during reproduction. different types of gametes give rise to
But this creates a major difculty. If each differences in the male and female reproductive
new generation is to be the combination of the organs and, in some cases, differences in the
DNA copies from two pre-existing individuals, bodies of the male and female organisms.
then each new generation will end up having 7.3.2 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering
twice the amount of DNA that the previous Plants
generation had. This is likely to mess up the The reproductive parts of angiosperms are
control of the cellular apparatus by the DNA. located in the ower. You have already studied
How many ways can we think of for solving the different parts of a ower – sepals, petals,
this difculty? stamens and pistil. Stamens and pistil are the
We have seen earlier that as organisms reproductive parts of a ower which contain the
become more complex, the specialisation of germ-cells. What possible functions could the
tissue increases. One solution that many multi- petals and sepals serve?
cellular organisms have found for the problem The ower may be unisexual (papaya,
mentioned above is to have special lineages of watermelon) when it contains either stamens or
pistil or bisexual (Hibiscus, mustard) when it
cells in specialised organs in which only half contains both stamens and pistil. Stamen is the
the number of chromosomes and half the male reproductive part and it produces pollen
amount of DNA as compared to the non- grains that are yellowish in colour. You must
reproductive body cells. This is achieved by a have seen this yellowish powder that often
process of cell division called meiosis. Thus, sticks to our hands if we touch the stamen of a
when these germ-cells from two individuals ower. Pistil is present in the centre of a ower
and is the female reproductive part. It is made
combine during sexual reproduction to form a of three parts.
new individual, it results in re-establishment of
the number of chromosomes and the DNA
content in the new generation.
If the zygote is to grow and develop into an
organism which has highly specialised tissues
and organs, then it has to have sufcient stores
of energy for doing this. In very simple
organisms, it is seen that the two germ-cells are
not very different from one another, or may
even be similar. But as the body designs Figure 7.7
Longitudinal section of ower
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ANDHRA PRADESH | Biology : How do Organisms Reproduce?
The swollen bottom part is the ovary, middle
elongated part is the style and the terminal part
which may be sticky is the stigma. The ovary
contains ovules and each ovule has an egg cell.
The male germ-cell produced by pollen grain
fuses with the female gamete present in the
ovule. This fusion of the germ-cells or
fertilisation gives us the zygote which is
capable of growing into a new plant.
Thus the pollen needs to be transferred
from the stamen to the stigma. If this transfer of
pollen occurs in the same ower, it is referred to
as self-pollination. On the other hand, if the
pollen is transferred from one ower to another,
it is known as cross-pollination. This transfer of
pollen from one ower to another is achieved
by agents like wind, water or animals.
After the pollen lands on a suitable Figure 7.8
stigma, it has to reach the female germ-cells Germination of pollen on stigma
which are in the ovary. For this, a tube grows
out of the pollen grain and travels through the
style to reach the ovary.
After fertilisation, the zygote divides
several times to form an embryo within the
ovule. The ovule develops a tough coat and is
gradually converted into a seed. The ovary
grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
Meanwhile, the petals, sepals, stamens, style
and stigma may shrivel and fall off. Have you Figure 7.9 Germination
ever observed any ower part still persisting in
the fruit? Try and work out the advantages of
seed-formation for the plant. The seed contains 7.3.3 Reproduction in Human Beings
the future plant or embryo which develops into So far, we have been discussing the variety of
a seedling under appropriate conditions. This modes that different species use for
process is known as germination. reproduction. Let us now look at the species
that we are most interested in, namely, humans.
Activity 7.7 Humans use a sexual mode of reproduction.
g Soak a few seeds of Bengal gram (chana) How does this process work?
and keep them overnight. Let us begin at an apparently unrelated
g Drain the excess water and cover the point. All of us know that our bodies change as
seeds with a wet cloth and leave them for a we become older. You have learnt changes that
day. Make sure that the seeds do not take place in your body earlier in Class VIII
become dry. also. We notice that our height has increased
g Cut open the seeds carefully and observe
continuously from early age till now. We
the different parts.
g Compare your observations with the Fig. acquire teeth, we even lose the old, so-called
7.9 and see if you can identify all the parts. milk teeth and acquire new ones.
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ANDHRA PRADESH | Biology : How do Organisms Reproduce?
All of these are changes that can be grouped Why does the body show sexual
under the general process of growth, in which maturation at this age? We have talked about
the body becomes larger. But in early teenage the need for specialised cell types in multi-
years, a whole new set of changes occurs that cellular bodies to carry out specialised
cannot be explained simply as body functions. The creation of germ-cells to
enlargement. Instead, the appearance of the participate in sexual reproduction is another
body changes. Proportions change, new specialised function, and we have seen that
features appear, and so do new sensations. plants develop special cell and tissue types to
Some of these changes are common to both create them. Human beings also develop
boys and girls. We begin to notice thick hair special tissues for this purpose. However, while
growing in new parts of the body such as armpits the body of the individual organism is growing
and the genital area between the thighs, which
to its adult size, the resources of the body are
can also become darker in colour. Thinner hair
mainly directed at achieving this growth. While
can also appear on legs and arms, as well as on
that is happening, the maturation of the
the face. The skin frequently becomes oily and
reproductive tissue is not likely to be a major
we might begin to develop pimples. We begin to
priority. Thus, as the rate of general body
be conscious and aware of both our own bodies
and those of others in new ways. growth begins to slow down, reproductive
On the other hand, there are also changes tissues begin to mature. This period during
taking place that are different between boys and adolescence is called puberty.
girls. In girls, breast size begins to increase, So how do all the changes that we have
talked about link to the reproductive process?
with darkening of the skin of the nipples at the
We must remember that the sexual mode of
tips of the breasts. Also, girls begin to
reproduction means that germ-cells from two
menstruate at around this time. Boys begin to
individuals have to join together. This can
have new thick hair growth on the face and their happen by the external release of germ-cells
voices begin to crack. Further, the penis from the bodies of individuals, as happens in
occasionally begins to become enlarged and owering plants. Or it can happen by two
erect, either in daydreams or at night. individuals joining their bodies together for
All of these changes take place slowly, internal transfer of germ-cells for fusion, as
over a period of months and years. They do not happens in many animals. If animals are to
happen all at the same time in one person, nor participate in this process of mating, their state
do they happen at an exact age. In some people, of sexual maturity must be identiable by other
they happen early and quickly, while in others, individuals. Many changes during puberty,
they can happen slowly. Also, each change does such as new hair-growth patterns, are signals
not become complete quickly either. So, for that sexual maturation is taking place.
example, thick hair on the face in boys appears On the other hand, the actual transfer of
as a few scattered hairs rst, and only slowly germ-cells between two people needs special
does the growth begin to become uniform. organs for the sexual act, such as the penis when
Even so, all these changes show differences it is capable of becoming erect. In mammals such
between people. Just as we have differently as humans, the baby is carried in the mother’s
shaped noses or ngers, so also we have body for a long period, and will be breast-fed
different patterns of hair growth, or size and later. The female reproductive organs and breasts
shape of breast or penis. All of these changes will need to mature to accommodate these
possibilities. Let us look at the systems involved
are aspects of the sexual maturation of the body.
in the process of sexual reproduction.
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ANDHRA PRADESH | Biology : How do Organisms Reproduce?
7.3.3 (a) Male Reproductive System
The male reproductive system (Fig. 7.10)
consists of portions which produce the germ-
cells and other portions that deliver the germ-
cells to the site of fertilisation.
The formation of germ-cells or sperms
takes place in the testes. These are located
outside the abdominal cavity in scrotum because
sperm formation requires a lower temperature
than the normal body temperature. We have
discussed the role of the testes in the secretion of Figure 7.11 Human–female reproductive system
the hormone, testosterone, in the previous
7.11 and identify the various organs in the
chapter. In addition to regulating the formation of
female reproductive system.
sperms, testosterone brings about changes in
When a girl is born, the ovaries already
appearance seen in boys at the time of puberty.
contain thousands of immature eggs. On
The sperms formed are delivered through
reaching puberty, some of these start maturing.
the vas deferens which unites with a tube coming
One egg is produced every month by one of the
from the urinary bladder. The urethra thus forms
ovaries. The egg is carried from the ovary to the
a common passage for both the sperms and urine.
womb through a thin oviduct or fallopian tube.
Along the path of the vas deferens, glands like the
The two oviducts unite into an elastic bag-like
prostate and the seminal vesicles add their
structure known as the uterus. The uterus opens
secretions so that the sperms are now in a uid
into the vagina through the cervix.
which makes their transport easier and this uid
The sperms enter through the vaginal
also provides nutrition. The sperms are tiny
passage during sexual intercourse. They travel
bodies that consist of mainly genetic material
upwards and reach the oviduct where they may
and a long tail that helps them to move towards
encounter the egg. The fertilised egg (zygote)
the female germ-cell.
starts dividing and form a ball of cells or
7.3.3 (b) Female Reproductive System
embryo. The embryo is implanted in the lining
The female germ-cells or eggs are made in the
of the uterus where they continue to grow and
ovaries. They are also responsible for the
develop organs to become foetus. We have seen
production of some hormones. Look at Fig.
in earlier sections that the mother’s body is
designed to undertake the development of the
child. Hence the uterus prepares itself every
month to receive and nurture the growing
embryo. The lining thickens and is richly
supplied with blood to nourish the growing
embryo.
The embryo gets nutrition from the
mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue
called placenta. This is a disc which is
embedded in the uterine wall. It contains villi
on the embryo’s side of the tissue. On the
Figure 7.10 mother’s side are blood spaces, which surround
Human–male reproductive system
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ANDHRA PRADESH | Biology : How do Organisms Reproduce?
the villi. This provides a large surface area for We must also consider the possible health
glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to consequences of having sex. We have
the embryo. The developing embryo will also discussed in Class IX that diseases can be
generate waste substances which can be transmitted from person to person in a variety
removed by transferring them into the mother’s of ways. Since the sexual act is a very intimate
blood through the placenta. The development connection of bodies, it is not surprising that
of the child inside the mother’s body takes many diseases can be sexually transmitted.
approximately nine months. The child is born These include bacterial infections such as
as a result of rhythmic contractions of the gonorrhoea and syphilis, and viral infections
muscles in the uterus. such as warts and HIV-AIDS. Is it possible to
7.3.3 (c) What happens when the Egg is not prevent the transmission of such diseases
Fertilised? during the sexual act? Using a covering, called
If the egg is not fertilised, it lives for about one a condom, for the penis during sex helps to
day. Since the ovary releases one egg every prevent transmission of many of these
month, the uterus also prepares itself every infections to some extent.
month to receive a fertilised egg. Thus its lining The sexual act always has the potential to
becomes thick and spongy. This would be lead to pregnancy. Pregnancy will make major
required for nourishing the embryo if demands on the body and the mind of the
fertilisation had taken place. Now, however, woman, and if she is not ready for it, her health
this lining is not needed any longer. So, the will be adversely affected. Therefore, many
lining slowly breaks and comes out through the ways have been devised to avoid pregnancy.
vagina as blood and mucous. This cycle takes These contraceptive methods fall in a number
place roughly every month and is known as of categories. One category is the creation of a
menstruation. It usually lasts for about two to mechanical barrier so that sperm does not reach
eight days. the egg. Condoms on the penis or similar
7.3.3 (d) Reproductive Health coverings worn in the vagina can serve this
As we have seen, the process of sexual purpose. Another category of contraceptives
maturation is gradual, and takes place while acts by changing the hormonal balance of the
general body growth is still going on. body so that eggs are not released and
Therefore, some degree of sexual maturation fertilisation cannot occur. These drugs
does not necessarily mean that the body or the commonly need to be taken orally as pills.
mind is ready for sexual acts or for having and However, since they change hormonal
bringing up children. How do we decide if the balances, they can cause side-effects too. Other
body or the mind is ready for this major contraceptive devices such as the loop or the
responsibility? All of us are under many copper-T are placed in the uterus to prevent
different kinds of pressures about these issues. pregnancy. Again, they can cause side effects
There can be pressure from our friends for due to irritation of the uterus. If the vas deferens
participating in many activities, whether we in the male is blocked, sperm transfer will be
really want to or not. There can be pressure prevented. If the fallopian tube in the female is
from families to get married and start having blocked, the egg will not be able to reach the
children. There can be pressure from uterus. In both cases fertilisation will not take
government agencies to avoid having children. place. Surgical methods can be used to create
In this situation, making choices can become such blocks. While surgical methods are safe in
very difcult. the long run, surgery itself can cause infections
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ANDHRA PRADESH | Biology : How do Organisms Reproduce?
and other problems if not performed properly. everybody’s standard of living. However, if
Surgery can also be used for removal of inequality in society is the main reason for poor
unwanted pregnancies. These may be misused standards of living for many people, the size of
by people who do not want a particular child, as the population is relatively unimportant. If we
happens in illegal sex-selective abortion of look around us, what can we identify as the most
female foetuses. For a healthy society, the important reason(s) for poor living standards?
female-male sex ratio must be maintained.
Because of reckless female foeticides, child sex
1. How is the process of pollination different
ratio is declining at an alarming rate in some
from fertilisation?
sections of our society, although prenatal sex
2. What is the role of the seminal vesicles and
determination has been prohibited by law. the prostate gland?
We have noted earlier that reproduction is 3. What are the changes seen in girls at the
the process by which organisms increase their time of puberty?
populations. The rates of birth and death in a 4. How does the embryo get nourishment
given population will determine its size. The size inside the mother’s body?
of the human population is a cause for concern 5. If a woman is using a copper-T, will it help
for many people. This is because an expanding in protecting her from sexually transmitted
population makes it harder to improve diseases?
What you have learnt
g Reproduction, unlike other life processes, is not essential to maintain the life of an
individual organism.
g Reproduction involves creation of a DNA copy and additional cellular apparatus by the cell
involved in the process.
g Various organisms use different modes of reproduction depending on their body design.
g In ssion, many bacteria and protozoa simply divide into two or more daughter cells.
g Organisms such as hydra can regenerate if they are broken into pieces. They can also give
out buds which mature into new individuals.
g Roots, stems and leaves of some plants develop into new plants through vegetative
propagation.
g These are examples of asexual reproduction where new generations are created from a
single individual.
g Sexual reproduction involves two individuals for the creation of a new individual.
g DNA copying mechanisms creates variations which are useful for ensuring the survival of
the species. Modes of sexual reproduction allow for greater variation to be generated.
g Reproduction in owering plants involves transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the
stigma which is referred to as pollination. This is followed by fertilisation.
g Changes in the body at puberty, such as increase in breast size in girls and new facial hair
growth in boys, are signs of sexual maturation.
g The male reproductive system in human beings consists of testes which produce sperms,
vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra and penis.
g The female reproductive system in human beings consists of ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus
and vagina.
g Sexual reproduction in human beings involves the introduction of sperm in the vagina of
the female. Fertilisation occurs in the fallopian tube.
g Contraception to avoid pregnancy can be achieved by the use of condoms, oral pills,
copper-T and other methods.
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ANDHRA PRADESH | Biology : How do Organisms Reproduce?
EXERCISES
1. Asexual reproduction takes place through budding in
(a) Amoeba.
(b) Yeast.
(c) Plasmodium.
(d) Leishmania.
2. Which of the following is not a part of the female reproductive system in human beings?
(a) Ovary
(b) Uterus
(c) Vas deferens
(d) Fallopian tube
3. The anther contains
(a) sepals.
(b) ovules.
(c) pistil.
(d) pollen grains.
4. What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction?
5. What are the functions performed by the testis in human beings?
6. Why does menstruation occur?
7. Draw a labelled diagram of the longitudinal section of a ower.
8. What are the different methods of contraception?
9. How are the modes for reproduction different in unicellular and multicellular organisms?
10. How does reproduction help in providing stability to populations of species?
11. What could be the reasons for adopting contraceptive methods?
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