Construction Project Management

PROJECT PLANNING
INTRODUCTION

Planning is a general term that sets a clear road map that should be followed to reach a destination. The
term, therefore, has been used at different levels to mean different things. Planning involves the
breakdown of the project into definable, measurable, and identifiable tasks/activities, and then
establishes the logical interdependences among them. Generally, planning answers three main questions:

What is to be done?

How to do it?

Who does it?

In construction, for example, plans may exist at several levels: corporate strategic plans, pre-tender plans,
pre-contract plans, short-term construction plans, and long-term construction plans. These plans are
different from each other; however, all these plans involve four main steps:

- Performing breakdown of work items involved in the project into activities.

- Identifying the proper sequence by which the activities should be executed.

- Activities representation.

- Estimating the resources, time, and cost of individual activities.

Detailed planning for tendering purposes and the preparation of construction needs to be conducted
through brainstorming sessions among the planning team. The inputs and outputs of the planning process
are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Planning inputs and outputs

Planning requires a rigorous effort by the planning team. A planner should know the different categories
of work and be familiar with the terminology and knowledge used in general practice. Also, the planning
tem should seek the opinion of experts including actual construction experience. This helps produce a
realistic plan and avoids problems later on site.
PROJECT PLANNING STEPS

The following steps may be used as a guideline, or checklist to develop a project plan:

1. Define the scope of work, method statement, and sequence of work.

2. Generate the work breakdown structure (WBS) to produce a complete list of activities.
3. Develop the organization breakdown structure (OBS) and link it with work breakdown structure o
identify responsibilities.
4. Determine the relationship between activities.
5. Estimate activities time duration, cost expenditure, and resource requirement.
6. Develop the project network.

1. Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)

The planning of a project involves the concept of an objective or facility, and a scope of work defining the
work product or deliverable. The bid package consisting of the plans and specifications establishes the
scope of work to be performed. To be properly managed, the scope of work must be broken into
components that define work elements or building blocks, which need to be accomplished to realize the
end objective. The assumption is that the project is the summation of its sub-elements.

Definition of the sub-elements is important because it determines how the project is to be realized in the
field. The sub-elements are often referred to as work packages. The summation of the work packages can
be shown in a hierarchical format called a work breakdown structure (WBS). Figure 2 is an example of a
WBS for a small building.

The building defined at Level I is subdivided into major subsystems at Level II. The foundation work is
again broken into major work activities at Level III. Similarly, the pile cap consists of work tasks such as
forming, installation of reinforcement, etc.

Development of a WBS requires a thorough understanding of the project scope of work. Experience in
building is key to establishing a functional WBS. The WBS and the hierarchy of work packages of which it
is composed are used to determine the status of a project and to manage the project from a time, cost,
and quality perspective. Mentally, building a WBS structures the work that must be physically
accomplished to realize the project and its end objective.

Planning can be thought of as the definition and sequencing of the work packages within a given project.
That is:

Planning = Work Breakdown + Work Sequencing

Planning leads to a refinement of the scope of work as established in the contract documents. A good plan
reduces uncertainty and improves efficiency.
 Figure 2: Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) Example.

A WORK BREAKDOWN EXAMPLE

In construction, the various aspects of the work that contribute to breakdown of the project into packages
relate to:

1. Methods used to place work.

2. Skills needed for the work.

3. Craft workers involved.

4. Critical resources (e.g., cranes, crews, etc.)

The definition of work packages can be facilitated by using categories which help in establishing a level of
uniqueness. For this example, the following four categories have been defined:

1. Location or area within the project (e.g., foundation–pile cap).

2. Material type (e.g., concrete, steel, etc.)

3. Method of installation (e.g., excavation).

4. Types of resources required (e.g., labor and equipment needed).

Location and material type will influence the method of placement or installation. The method of
installation and the material type will determine the human skills and equipment resources needed for
installation. The method of placement or installation dictates the types of resources required, thus
differentiating one package from another. For instance, in one case we may be placing concrete using a
concrete pump, whereas in another situation the concrete may be transported using concrete buggies. In
each case, labor and equipment resources, the budget, and the productivity of the concrete placement
will be different.

DETERMINING SEQUENCE OF WORK PACKAGES

Having broken the work in to work packages, activities which facilitate time management and control can
be defined and logically placed in sequence. The word activity is generally used when discussing time
control or scheduling to refer to the work elements that appear in the schedule in their expected sequence
or logical order.

In arranging the work package sequence for time control, the criteria of (a) location, (b) material, (c)
method, and (d) required resources developed in must be reconsidered from the perspective of how these
criteria impact the order or sequence of work activities. For instance, location can determine sequence.
It is normal to complete the structural frame for floor 1 of a building before beginning work on the
structural frame for floor 2. This could be considered a physical constraint because the second floor frame
cannot be supported until the first floor frame is completed. Such physical constraints or physical logic
are common and characteristic of construction operations (e.g., the floor must be complete before
installing the floor covering, etc.). Locational aspects of a work package may, therefore, determine its
sequence in the overall project.

In some cases, physical requirements do not dictate order or sequence. For instance, in finish work
relating to a restroom, fixtures such as sinks, toilets, partitions, etc. must be installed. Wall and floor
finishes such as ceramic tiles must also be completed. Since there is no physical constraint, it is a
management decision as to whether the walls and floors are completed first or the fixtures are installed
first. In this case, the situation is controlled by a management decision (e.g., the fixture subcontractor is
available first and is instructed to proceed) and the sequence is driven by management logic.

ESTIMATE DEVELOPMENT AND COST CONTROL RELATED TO THE WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE

A good WBS facilitates cost control during the life of the project. Work packages are defined so that they
have their own unique budgets. When referring to work packages in the context of cost control, the
terminology cost accounts or control accounts is often used. During the bidding process, the contractor
prepares an estimate of cost that becomes the basis for the bid price submitted for the proposed work. If
the bid is accepted, the detail estimate used for bid submittal is converted to a budget that serves as a
cost baseline to control spending during the life of the project.
2 Project Activities

The building block (the smallest unit) of a WBS is the activity, which is a unique unit of the project that has
a specified duration. An activity is defined as any function or decision in the project that: consumes time,
resources, and cost. Activities are classified to three types:

a. Production activities: activities that involve the use of resources such as labor, equipment,
material, or subcontractor. This type of activities can be easily identified by reading the project’s
drawings and specifications. Examples are: excavation, formwork, reinforcement, concreting, etc.
each production activity can have a certain quantity of work, resource needs, costs, and duration.
b. Procurement activities: activities that specify the time for procuring materials or equipment that
are needed for a production activity. Examples are: brick procurement, boiler manufacturing and
delivery, etc.
c. Management activities: activities that are related to management decisions such as approvals,
vacations, etc.

An activity can be as small as “steel fixing of first floor columns” or as large as “construct first floor
columns”. This level of details depends on the purpose of preparing the project plan. In the pre-
construction stages, less detailed activities can be utilized, however, in the construction stages, detailed
activities are required. Accordingly, level of details depends on: planning stage, size of the project,
complexity of the work, management expertise.

Example 1:
Figure 3 shows a double-span bridge. Break the construction works of the bridge into activities. The plan
will be used for bidding purposes.

Figure 3: Double Span Bridge

A list of the double-span bridge activities is shown in Table 1

 Table 1: Activities of the double-span bridge
Activity Description
10 Set-up site
14 Procure reinforcement
16 Procure precast beams
20 Excavate left abutment
30 Excavate right abutment
40 Excavate central pier
50 Foundation left abutment
60 Foundation right abutment
70 Foundation central pier
80 Construct left abutment
90 Construct right abutment
100 Construct central pier
110 Erect left precast beams
120 Erect right precast beams
140 Fill left embankment
150 Fill right embankment
155 Construct deck slab
160 Left road base
170 Right road base
180 Road surface
190 Bridge railing
200 Clear site

3. Activities Relationships
In order to identify the relationships among activities, the planning team needs to answer the following
questions for each activity in the project:
 Which activities must be finished before the current one can start?
 What activity(ies) may be constructed concurrently with the current one?
 What activity(ies) must follow the current one?

A circle of activity precedence will result in an impossible plan. For example, if activity A precedes activity
B, activity B precedes activity C, and activity C precedes activity A, then the project can never be started
or completed. Figure 4 illustrates the resulting activity network.
A

C B

Figure 4: Example of a circle of activity precedence

Example 2:

Suppose that a site preparation and concrete slab foundation construction project consists of nine
different activities:

A. Site clearing (of brush and minor debris),

B. Removal of trees,
C. General excavation,
D. Grading general area,
E. Excavation for utility trenches,
F. Placing formwork and reinforcement for concrete,
G. Installing sewer lines,
H. Installing other utilities,
I. Pouring concrete.

Activities A (site clearing) and B (tree removal) do not have preceding activities since they depend on none
of the other activities. We assume that activities C (general excavation) and D (general grading) are
preceded by activity A (site clearing). It might also be the case that the planner wished to delay any
excavation until trees were removed, so that B (tree removal) would be a precedent activity to C (general
excavation) and D (general grading). Activities E (trench excavation) and F (concrete preparation) cannot
begin until the completion of general excavation and grading, since they involve subsequent excavation
and trench preparation. Activities G (install lines) and H (install utilities) represent installation in the utility
trenches and cannot be attempted until the trenches are prepared, so that activity E (trench excavation)
is a preceding activity. We also assume that the utilities should not be installed until grading is completed
to avoid equipment conflicts, so activity D (general grading) is also preceding activities G (install sewers)
and H (install utilities). Finally, activity I (pour concrete) cannot begin until the sewer line is installed and
formwork and reinforcement are ready, so activities F and G are preceding. Other utilities may be routed
over the slab foundation, so activity H (install utilities) is not necessarily a preceding activity for activity I
(pour concrete). The result of our planning is the immediate precedence shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Precedence Relations for Example 2

Activity Description Predecessors
A Site clearing ---
B Removal of trees ---
C General excavation A
D Grading general area A
E Excavation for utility trenches B,C
F Placing formwork and reinforcement for concrete B,C
G Installing sewer lines D,E
H Installing other utilities D,E
I Pouring concrete F,G
Overlap or Lag
Overlap between activities (negative lag) is defined as how much a particular activity must be completed
before a succeeding activity may start. The absence of overlap means that the first activity must finish
before the second may start. A negative overlap (lag) means a delay is required between the two activities
(Figure 5).

Figure 5: Overlap among Activities

Types of Activities Relationships

Four types of relationships among activities can be defined as described and illustrated below (Figure 6).
Typically, relationships are defined from the predecessor to the successor activity.

a) Finish to start (FS). The successor activity can begin only when the current activity completes.
b) Finish to finish (FF). The finish of the successor activity depends on the finish of the current
activity.
c) Start to start (SS). The start of the successor activity depends on the start of the current activity.
d) Start to finish (SF). The successor activity cannot finish until the current activity starts.

Figure 6: Types of Relationships

4. Drawing Project Network

A network is a graphical representation of the project activities and their relationships. A project network
is a set of arrows and nodes. Before drawing the network, it is necessary to ensure that the project has a
unified starting and ending point. The need for this start activity arises when there is more than one
activity in the project that has no predecessors and the end activity is needed when there is more than
one activity that has no successors. Also, networks should be continuous (i.e., each activity except the first
and the last has both preceding and succeeding activities).
There are two ways that are commonly used to draw a network diagram for a project:

1. Activity on Arrow (AOA) representation.

2. Activity on Node (AON) representation

Activity on Arrow Network (AOA)

In this method, the arrows represent activities while the nodes represent the start and the end of an
activity (usually named as events) (Figure 7). The length of the arrow connecting the nodes has no
significance and may be straight, curved, or bent. When one activity depends upon another, both appear
on the diagram as two arrows having a common node.

Figure 7: Basic Patterns of AOA Diagrams

The following are some rules that need to be followed when constructing an AOA network diagram:

- Each activity must have a unique i – j numbers, where i (the number at the tail of the arrow) is
smaller than j (the number at the head of the arrow).
- It is recommended to have a gap between numbers (i.e., 5, 10, 15, etc.). This will allow for
accommodation of missed activities.
- Avoid back arrows.
In some situations, when more than one arrow leave the same node and arrive at another node, dummy
activities must be used. The dummy activity is an activity with zero duration, consumes no resources,
drawn as dashed lines, and used to adjust the network diagram. A dummy activity is also used when one
activity depends upon two preceding activities and another activity depends only upon one of these two
preceding activities as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8: Use of Dummy Activity

Activity on Node Network (AON)

This method is also called the precedence diagram method. In this method, the nodes represent activities
and the arrows represent logical relationships among the activities. If the arrow starts from the end side
of an activity (activity A) and ends at the start side of another activity (activity B), then A is a predecessor
of B (Figure 9). AON representation allows the overlap or lag representation on the relationship arrows
connecting.

Comparison between AOA and AON

While both networks can be used to represent a project network, there are some differences between
them:
- There is no need for the use of dummy activities in AON representation.
- AON are more easily to draw and to read.
- In AOA, an activity can only start when all its predecessors have finished.
- AON allows for overlap/lag representation.
- AON allows for the representation of the four types of relationships while AOA allows only for
the finish to start relationship.
 Figure 9: Basic Patterns of AON Diagrams

Example 3:
Construct an AOA and AON networks for the activities listed in Table 4.

Table 3: Data for Example 3.

Activity Predecessors
A -
B -
C A, B
D C
E C
F D
G D, E

Forming an AOA network for this set of activities might begin be drawing activities A, B and C as shown in
Figure 3.16 (a). At this point, we note that two activities (A and B) lie between the same two events nodes;
for clarity, we insert a dummy activity X and continue to place other activities as in Figure3.16 (b). Placing
activity G in the figure presents a problem, however, since we wish both activity D and activity E to be
predecessors. Inserting an additional dummy activity Y along with activity G completes the activity
network, as shown in Figure 3.10 (c).
 Figure 10: AOA Network for Example 3

Example 4.
Draw the AOA and AON networks for the project given in Table 4.

Table 4: Data for Example 4

Activity Predecessors
Start -
A Start
B Start
C Start
D A
E B
F B
G C
H D
I E
J F, G
K H, I
Finish J, K

Solution:
The AOA is given in Figure 11 and the AON is given in Figure 12 as shown below.
 Figure 11: AOA Network

Figure 12: AON Network

Example 5.
Draw the AOA and AON networks for the project given in Table 5.

Table 5: Data for Example 5

Duration
No. Activity Predecessors
(months)
A Excavation 2 -
B Concrete bases 3 A
C Erect Frames 1.5 B
D Concrete floor slab 1 B
E Fix cladding 1.5 C
F Install plant 1 D, E
Solution:
The AOA is given in Figure 13 and the AON is given in Figure 14 as shown below.

Figure 13: AOA Network

Figure 14: AON Network