Unit 4

TYPOLOGY OF LEARNERS WITH

SPECIAL NEEDS & ATYPICAL & TYPICAL DEVELOPLMENT
OF CHILDREN
Intended Learning Outcomes:
Within the unit, the pre-service teacher (PST) will be able to:
1. distinguish the different types, identifications, etiologies, causes, characteristics of learners
who have special needs and atypical and typical development of children (BTI 1.1.1; CLO 2,
CLO 3); and
2. determine teaching strategies that are inclusive of learners from indigenous groups (BTI
3.5.1; CLO 4, CLO 6).
__________________________________________________________________________
SDG INTEGRATION: SDG # 4 – Quality Education (Ensure inclusive and equitable quality
education and promote life-long learning opportunities for all) and SDG # 10 - Reduced
Inequalities (Reduce inequality within and among countries).

CaptivaTe yo Urself
ACTIVE LEARNING – Infographics on Learners with Special Needs

Connect To Understand
A. Learners with Intellectual Disability
(Source: [Link]
What is an intellectual disability?
An intellectual disability is characterized by someone having an IQ below 70 (the median IQ is 100),
as well as significant difficulty with daily living such as self-care, safety, communication, and
socialization.

People with an intellectual disability may process information more slowly, find communication and
daily living skills hard, and also have difficulty with abstract concepts such as money and time.

About 3% of Australians have an intellectual disability, making it the most common primary disability
(Australian Institute of Health and Welfare).

An intellectual disability may be caused by a genetic condition, problems during pregnancy and birth,
health problems or illness, and environmental factors.

Types of intellectual disabilities

1. Fragile X syndrome
Fragile X syndrome is the most common known cause of an inherited intellectual disability worldwide.
It is a genetic condition caused by a mutation (a change in the DNA structure) in the X chromosome.

People born with Fragile X syndrome may experience a wide range of physical, developmental,
behavioral, and emotional difficulties, however, the severity can be very varied.

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Some common signs include a developmental delay, intellectual disability, communication difficulties,
anxiety, ADHD, and behaviors similar to autism such as hand flapping, difficulty with social
interactions, difficulty processing sensory information, and poor eye contact (Better Health).

Boys are usually more affected than girls – it affects around 1 in 3,600 boys and between 1 in 4,000 –
6,000 girls (Better Health).

2. Down syndrome
Down syndrome is not a disease or illness, it is a genetic disorder which occurs when someone is born
with a full, or partial, extra copy of chromosome 21 in their DNA.

Down syndrome is the most common genetic chromosomal disorder and cause of learning disabilities
in children (Mayo Clinic). In Australia, approximately 270 children, or one in 1,100, are born with
Down syndrome each year.

People with Down syndrome can have a range of common physical and developmental characteristics
as well as a higher than normal incidence of respiratory and heart conditions.

Physical characteristics associated with Down syndrome can include a slight upward slant of the eyes,
a rounded face, and a short stature. People may also have some level of intellectual and learning
disabilities, but this can be quite different from person to to another.

3. Developmental delay
When a child develops at a slower rate compared to other children of the same age, they may have a
developmental delay.

One or more areas of development may be affected including their ability to move, communicate,
learn, understand, or interact with other children.

Sometimes children with a developmental delay may not talk, move or behave in a way that’s
appropriate for their age but can progress more quickly as they grow. For others, their developmental
delay may become more significant over time and can affect their learning and education.

4. Prader-Willi Syndrome (PWS)

Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) is a rare genetic disorder which affects around 1 in 10,000 – 20,000
people (Better Health Channel). This disability is quite complex and it’s caused by an abnormality in
the genes of chromosome 15.

One of the most common symptoms of PWS is a constant and insatiable hunger which typically begins
at two years of age. People with PWS have an urge to eat because their brain (specifically their
hypothalamus) won’t tell them that they are full, so they are forever feeling hungry.

The symptoms of PWS can be quite varied, but poor muscle tone and a short stature are common. A
level of intellectual disability is also common, and children can find language, problem solving, and
maths difficult.

Someone with PWS may also be born with distinct facial features including almond-shaped eyes, a
narrowing of the head, a thin upper-lip, light skin and hair, and a turned-down mouth.

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 5. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)
FASD refers to a number of conditions that are caused when an unborn foetus is exposed to alcohol.

When a mother is pregnant, alcohol crosses the placenta from the mother’s bloodstream into the
baby’s, exposing the baby to similar concentrations as the mother (Better Health Channel).

The symptoms can vary however can include distinctive facial features, deformities of joints, damage
to organs such as the heart and kidneys, slow physical growth, learning difficulties, poor memory and
judgement, behavioral problems, and poor social skills.

Many cases are also often misdiagnosed as autism or ADHD as they can have similarities.

The World Health Organization recommends that mothers-to-be, or those planning on conceiving,
should completely abstain from alcohol.

Environmental and other causes

Sometimes an intellectual disability is caused by an environmental factor or other causes. These
causes can be quite varied but can include:

✔ Problems during pregnancy such as viral or bacterial infections

✔ Complications during birth
✔ Exposure to toxins such as lead or mercury
✔ Complications from illnesses such as meningitis, measles or whooping cough
✔ Malnutrition
✔ Exposure to alcohol and other drugs
✔ Trauma
✔ And even unknown causes

B. Learners with Learning Disability

(Source: [Link]

A learning disability is not an intellectual disability. A learning disability is a disability that affects a
person’s ability to process information. People with learning disabilities possess an average to
above-average IQ.

Dyslexia: Dyslexia is the most common form of all learning disabilities. It is a language-based
disability in which a person has trouble understanding words, sentences, or paragraphs. People with
dyslexia often have problems with processing or understanding what they read or hear. Many dyslexic
people are notably talented in arts and music; 3-D visual perception; athletic and mechanical ability.

Dyscalculia: Dyscalculia is a life-long learning disability that affects the ability to grasp and solve
math concepts. There are many different types of math disability and these can affect people
differently at different stages of a person’s life. People with dyscalculia often have difficulty
manipulating numbers in their head and remembering steps in formulas and equations. Just like
dyslexia, people with dyscalculia can be taught to achieve success.

Dysgraphia: Dysgraphia is a writing disability where people find it hard to form letters and write
within a defined space. Many people with dysgraphia possess handwriting that is uneven and
inconsistent. Many are able to write legibly but do so very slowly or very small. Typically, people with

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dysgraphia are unable to visualize letters and do not possess the ability to remember the motor
patterns of letters and writing requires a large amount of energy and time.

Dyspraxia: Dyspraxia is a disorder that affects the development of motor skills. People with
dyspraxia have trouble planning and executing fine motor tasks, which can range from waving
goodbye to getting dressed. Dyspraxia is a life-long disorder with no cure, but options are available for
helping to improve a person’s ability to function and be independent. Dyspraxia is not a learning
disability, but it commonly coexists with other learning disabilities that can affect learning ability.

ADHD: ADHD is a disorder that causes people to lose focus on tasks very easily. ADHD has two main
types, with a third being a combination of the two. Hyperactive-Impulsive ADHD is distinguished by
the person’s excessive amount of activity. This may include constant fidgeting, non-stop talking,
problems with doing quiet activities, trouble controlling their temper, and more. Inattentive ADHD
causes people to not put the needed attention into a required task. People with inattentive ADHD may
struggle with paying attention to instruction, daydream a lot, process information slowly, become
bored easily, and be very poorly organized. ADHD is not a learning disability, but can cause people to
struggle with learning and is commonly linked to other learning disabilities. For more information visit
[Link]/adhd/article/10497

Auditory Processing Disorders: Auditory processing disorders are disorders that may cause a
person to struggle with distinguishing similar sounds, as well as other difficulties. Auditory processing
disorders are not considered learning disabilities by the Canadian Government, but they might explain
why someone would be having troubles with learning.

Visual Processing Disorders: Visual processing disorders are disorders that cause people to
struggle with seeing the differences between similar letters, number, objects, colors, shapes and
patterns. Just like auditory processing disorders, visual processing disorders are not considered
learning disabilities by the Canadian Government, but could be an issue when it comes to learning.

Non-verbal Learning Disorders: Non-verbal learning disabilities (NLD), or non-verbal learning

disorders, are neurological syndromes that develop in the right side of the brain. People with NLD
have a very strong verbal ability, remarkable memory and spelling skills, and strong auditory
retention; although they possess poor social skills and have difficulty understanding facial expression
and body language. Many do not react well to change and some possess poor social judgement. Some
people with NLD have poor co-ordination, balance problems and difficulty with fine motor skills.

C. Learners with Physical Disabilities

(Source: [Link]

Physical disabilities may affect, either temporarily or permanently, a person’s physical capacity and/or
mobility.

There are many different causes of physical disabilities but they can include inherited or genetic
disorders, serious illnesses, and injury.

Types of physical disabilities

1. Acquired brain injury

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Acquired brain injuries are due to damage that happens to the brain after birth. They can be caused
through a wide range of factors including a blow to the head, stroke, alcohol or drugs, infection,
disease such as AIDs or cancer, or a lack of oxygen.

It is common for many people with a brain injury to have trouble processing information, planning,
and solving problems. They may also experience changes to their behavior and personality, physical
and sensory abilities, or thinking and learning.

The effects of brain injuries and the disabilities they cause can be temporary or permanent.

2. Spinal cord injury (SCI)

The spinal cord can become injured if too much pressure is applied and/or if the blood and oxygen
supply to the spinal cord is cut. When the spinal cord has been damaged, it leads to a loss of function
such as mobility or feeling.

For some people, a spinal cord injury results in paraplegia (loss of function below the chest), for
others it leads to quadriplegia (loss of function below the neck).

Accidents account for 79% of spinal cord injuries in Australia – mostly caused by motor vehicle
accidents and falls. Other causes include cancer, arthritis, infections, blood clots, and degenerative
spinal conditions.

As well as affecting the ability to move through paralysis, it may affect many areas of a person’s body
– such as the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, bladder and bowel function, temperature, and
sensory abilities.

3. Spina bifida
Spina bifida is the incomplete formation of the spine and spinal cord in utero. It can cause the spinal
cord and nerves to be exposed on the surface of the back, instead of being inside a canal of bone
surrounded by muscle.

People with spina bifida experience a range of mild to severe physical disabilities including paralysis or
weakness in the legs, bowel and bladder incontinence, hydrocephalus (too much fluid in the brain
cavities), deformities of the spine, and learning difficulties.

The cause of spina bifida is not well understood, but it is likely caused by genetic and environmental
factors. Adequate intake of folate by the mother in early pregnancy has been found to be a significant
factor in preventing a child developing spina bifida.

4. Cerebral palsy
Cerebral palsy is typically due to an injury to the developing brain before or during birth, caused by a
reduced blood supply and lack of oxygen to the brain.

Illnesses during pregnancy such as rubella (the German measles), accidental injury to the brain,
meningitis in young children, and premature birth can all be causes.

In Australia, over 90% of cerebral palsy was due to a brain injury while the mother was pregnant, or
before one month of age, however, 10% of people develop the disability later in life, usually as a
result of infections such as meningitis or encephalitis, stroke, or a severe head injury (Cerebral Palsy
Alliance).
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People with Cerebral palsy may experience weakness, difficulty walking, lack of muscle control,
problems with coordination, involuntary movements, and other symptoms.

5. Cystic fibrosis (CF)

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an inherited genetic condition, which affects the body’s respiratory, digestive,
and reproductive systems.

It specifically affects the mucus and sweat glands in the body, causing mucus to be thick and sticky. In
the case of the lungs, this can clog the air passages and trap bacteria causing lung damage and
recurrent infections.

In Australia, more than 1 in 25 people carry the cystic fibrosis gene, but being a carrier doesn’t mean
that you will also have CF itself (Better Health Channel).

A range of other symptoms are caused by the effects of CF on other parts of the body, including sinus
infections, liver damage, diabetes, poor growth, diarrhea, and infertility.

People with CF can also have low salt levels in the body which causes problems such as fatigue,
cramps, and dehydration.

6. Epilepsy
Epilepsy is a neurological condition where a person has a tendency to have recurring seizures due to a
sudden burst of electrical activity in the brain. Seizures can cause unusual movements, odd feelings or
sensations, a change in a person’s behavior, or cause them to lose consciousness.

The causes of epilepsy are not always known, however, brain injuries, strokes, cancer, brain infection,
structural abnormalities of the brain, and other genetic factors can all cause epilepsy.

There are many different types of epilepsy and the nature and severity of seizures experienced by
people can vary widely. Some people can control their seizures with medication and the condition is
not lifelong for every person.

7. Multiple sclerosis (MS)

MS occurs when the myelin sheath – protective tissue around nerve fibers in the body – becomes
damaged, causing random patches or scars. The scars can interfere with messages sent through the
central nervous system, affecting the brain, optic nerves, and spinal cord.

The symptoms of MS are very varied but can include fatigue, loss of motor control, tingling,
numbness, visual disturbances, memory loss, depression, and cognitive difficulties.

The progress and severity of MS can be difficult to predict – it may progress very slowly for one
person, but develop quickly in another.

8. Muscular dystrophy
Muscular dystrophy is a group of genetic disorders that lead to progressive and irreversible weakness
and loss of muscle mass. There are more than 30 different types of muscular dystrophy, and each has
a separate cause.

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Signs and symptoms can be very varied however can include difficulty walking, trouble breathing or
swallowing, restriction in joint motion, and heart and other organ problems.

Symptoms of the most common type of the disease appear in childhood, however, others do not
become apparent until middle age or older.

9. Tourette syndrome
Tourette syndrome is a neurological disorder which involves involuntary and repetitive vocalizations,
sounds, and movements called tics. These tics are neurological not behavioral – which means a
person with Tourette syndrome cannot control them.

Vocal tics can include sniffing, throat clearing, tongue clicking, grunting, or more rarely blurting out
socially unacceptable words or phrases. Motor tics can include eye blinking, shrugging, nose twitching,
head jerking, facial expressions, touching objects or people, spinning around, imitating someone else’s
actions, or jumping up and down.

Tourette syndrome is typically diagnosed between the ages of 2 and 21. It is not known exactly what
causes Tourette syndrome, but it is likely a combination of genetic, environmental, and neurochemical
(chemicals of the brain) factors.

[Link]
Dwarfism is short stature (abnormal skeletal growth) which can be caused by over 300 genetic or
medical conditions. It is generally defined as an adult height of 4 feet 10 inches or less, with the
average height of someone with dwarfism being 4 feet (Mayo Clinic).

In general, there are two categories for dwarfism:

Disproportionate dwarfism: where some parts of the body are smaller, whilst other parts are average
or above-average.

Proportionate dwarfism where the body is averagely proportioned, and all parts of the body are small
to the same degree

Children with dwarfism may experience a delay on developing motor skills, however, dwarfism does
not have a link to any intellectual disability.

D. Learners who are Gifted and Talented

(Source: [Link]

The Six Types of Gifted Children

According to Dr Maureen Neihart, a licensed child psychologist with more than thirty years’ experience
working with gifted children and their families, there are six types of gifted children:

​ . The Successful – a level and motivated teacher and parent pleaser who fits the system and learns
1
to underachieve, therefore might not reach their potential. The Successful needs more challenge in a
safe environment for risk taking.

​ . The Challenging – a divergent and disruptive creative thinker, possibly also a pessimist and
2
introvert. The Challenging can be noisy in class and too much group work may cause distress and an
eruption of emotion. Teachers are not keen on too many of these types of students in class.
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​ . The Underground – previously highly motivated and intensely interested in academic or creative
3
pursuits, the Underground begins to deny their talent as their need to belong rises dramatically. They
hide their giftedness to be with peers and simply do enough work to pass but may put time into peer
fashion/sport. They appear average.

4. The Dropout – an angry, frustrated student who is bitter with the system that has failed them and
causes anguish to everybody. They perceive that they are not accepted for who they are and that
society wants to change them. The Dropout will likely refuse any cooperation and any help but
counselling can help them. Their problems are not educational but relate to a belief and mindset
within them.

5. The Double-Labelled – physically, emotionally or learning disabled as well as being gifted but
appears average or even below average. They exhibit symptoms of stress, disruptive behaviors and
confusion about their inability to perform school tasks. Society often fails to look past their disability.

6. The Autonomous Learner – independent and self-directed, the Autonomous Learner makes the
school system work for them and feels comfortable creating opportunities for themselves. They make
up their own minds about how hard to work in the circumstances and what else they have planned.
They are well respected by adults and peers and frequently serve in some leadership capacity within
their school or community but still need a good coach at the appropriate level.

Only Type 1 – the Successful and Type 6 – the Autonomous Learner are easy to identify in schools.

E. Learners with Socio-Emotional behaviors

(Source: [Link]

Behavioral disorders, also known as disruptive behavioral disorders, are the most common reasons
that parents are told to take their kids for mental health assessments and treatment. Behavioral
disorders are also common in adults. If left untreated in childhood, these disorders can negatively
affect a person’s ability to hold a job and maintain relationships.

What Are the Types of Behavioral Disorders?

According to [Link], behavioral disorders may be broken down into a few types, which
include:
1. Anxiety disorders
2. Disruptive behavioral disorders
3. Dissociative disorders
4. Emotional disorders
5. Pervasive developmental disorders
6. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

According to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, ADHD is a condition that impairs an
individual’s ability to properly focus and to control impulsive behaviors, or it may make the person
overactive.

ADHD is more common in boys than it is in girls. According to the Wexner Medical Center at Ohio
State University, males are two to three times more likely than females to get ADHD.

Emotional Behavioral Disorder

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An emotional behavioral disorder affects a person’s ability to be happy, control their emotions and pay
attention in school. According to Gallaudet University, symptoms of an emotional behavioral disorder
include:

✔ Inappropriate actions or emotions under normal circumstances

✔ Learning difficulties that are not caused by another health factor
✔ Difficulty with interpersonal relationships, including relationships with teachers and
peers
✔ A general feeling of unhappiness or depression
✔ Feelings of fear and anxiety related to personal or school matters

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)

ODD is a behavioral disorder characterized by hostile, irritable and uncooperative attitudes in
children, according to Children’s Mental Health Ontario. Children with ODD may be spiteful or
annoying on purpose, and they generally direct their negative actions at authority figures.

Anxiety
Anxiety is a normal emotion, and all people feel anxiety at some point in their lives. However,
for some people, anxiety may get to a point where it interferes with their daily lives, causing insomnia
and negatively affecting performance at work or school, according to the Mayo Clinic. Anxiety
disorders involve more than regular anxiety. They are serious mental health conditions that require
treatment. Examples of these types of mental conditions include:

✔ Post-traumatic stress disorder

✔ Obsessive-compulsive disorder
✔ Generalized anxiety disorder
✔ Panic disorder

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

OCD is characterized by fears and irrational thoughts that lead to obsessions, which, in turn,
cause compulsions, according to the Mayo Clinic. If you have OCD, you engage in compulsive,
repetitive behavior despite realizing the negative consequences of — or even the unreasonable nature
of — your actions. Performing these repetitive acts does nothing more than relieve stress temporarily.

If you or a loved one is experiencing any of these behavioral disorders, it is important to get help as
soon as possible, because these conditions can affect quality of life to such a degree that they may
lead to self-harm. Please call for assistance.

What Causes a Behavioral Disorder?

A behavioral disorder can have a variety of causes. According to the University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill, the abnormal behavior that is usually associated with these disorders can be
traced back to biological, family and school-related factors.

Some biological causes may include:

✔ Physical illness or disability
✔ Malnutrition
✔ Brain damage
✔ Hereditary factors
Other factors related to an individual’s home life may contribute to behaviors associated with a
behavioral disorder:
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 ✔ Divorce or other emotional upset at home
✔ Coercion from parents
✔ Unhealthy or inconsistent discipline style
✔ Poor attitude toward education or schooling

What Are the Signs of a Behavioral Disorder?

Someone who has a behavioral disorder may act out or display emotional upset in different ways,
which will also vary from person to person.
Emotional Symptoms of Behavioral Disorders
According to Boston Children’s Hospital, some of the emotional symptoms of behavioral disorders
include:

✔ Easily getting annoyed or nervous

✔ Often appearing angry
✔ Putting blame on others
✔ Refusing to follow rules or questioning authority
✔ Arguing and throwing temper tantrums
✔ Having difficulty in handling frustration

Physical Symptoms of Behavioral Disorders

Unlike other types of health issues, a behavioral disorder will have mostly emotional
symptoms, with physical symptoms such as a fever, rash, or headache being absent. However,
sometimes people suffering from a behavioral disorder will develop a substance abuse problem, which
could show physical symptoms such as burnt fingertips, shaking or bloodshot eyes.

Short-Term and Long-Term Effects of a Behavioral Disorder

If left untreated, a behavioral disorder may have negative short-term and long-term effects on
an individual’s personal and professional life. People may get into trouble for acting out, such as face
suspension or expulsion for fighting, bullying or arguing with authority figures. Adults may eventually
lose their jobs. Marriages can fall apart due to prolonged strained relationships, while children may
have to switch schools and then eventually run out of options.

According to [Link], the most serious actions a person with a behavioral disorder
may engage in include starting fights, abusing animals and threatening to use a weapon on others.

The earlier a behavioral disorder is diagnosed and properly treated, the more likely it is that a
child or adult suffering from it will be able to control their behavior. Contact us at for assistance in
finding treatment options.

Is There a Test or Self-Assessment I Can Do?

Mental health professionals and treatment centers can evaluate people to determine if they a
behavioral disorder. Tests called functional behavioral assessments offer problem-solving help to
address behavioral problems in students. According to Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice,
these assessments are based on many techniques and strategies for identifying problem behaviors.
Individualized educational program teams use these assessments to choose interventions that address
specific behavioral problems. These teams are involved in the education of students, and they may
include parents and teachers.

Medication: Behavior-Modifying Drug Options

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 A person may receive prescription medications to help manage a behavioral disorder. Though
medication will not cure the disorder, it is effective in assisting with treatment to control and modify
behaviors.

Behavioral Drugs: Possible Options

Many drugs are available for behavioral problems, and the type of drug that will be prescribed
depends on the specific condition being treated. The Positive Environments Network of Trainers of the
California Department of Education lists Ritalin and Dexedrine as short-acting medications for the
treatment of ADHD. They may help a child focus better, reduce impulsive behavior and reduce motor
restlessness.

Ritalin is also included in a group of medications known as long-acting stimulants. Other types
of medications in this group include Concerta, Methylin ER, Methylin CD, Focalin, and Metadate ER.
These medications may also be effective against ADHD. Concerta may prevent drug abuse, as can
Vyanase and Daytrana. Some professionals recommend Wellbutrin as a primary ADHD treatment.

People with an anxiety disorder, OCD or ADHD may benefit from antidepressants, including
Paxil, Tofranil, Anafranil, Prozac, Luvox, Celexa, Zoloft and Norpramin. Other medications that may
help include Daytrana, Biphetamine, Dexedrine, Adderall XR and Strattera. These medications are
aimed at decreasing impulsivity, reducing hyperactivity, decreasing obsessive-compulsive actions and
reducing feelings of depression.

Medication Side Effects

Medications for behavioral disorders may have side effects. They can increase emotional issues,
increase suicidal thoughts and aggravate seizure conditions. Some of the possible side effects include:
o Insomnia
o Appetite reduction
o Tremors
o Depression
o Abnormal heart rhythms

Behavior Drug Addiction, Dependence and Withdrawal

An individual may become addicted to the medication taken to treat a behavioral disorder. As a
result, the person may need professional help with weaning off that medication. You may experience
withdrawal symptoms if you abuse certain medications.

If you suspect that you, your child or someone else you know has become dependent on prescription
medication, contact us at for immediate assistance.

Medication Overdose
Children are more likely than adults to accidentally overdose on medication, including
behavioral medications. A person who is depressed because of a behavioral disorder may attempt an
overdose on purpose. People who are depressed or have suicidal thoughts have a high risk for
overdose, according to the National Coalition Against Prescription Drug Abuse.

Depression and Behavioral Disorders

According to the Cleveland Clinic, a behavioral disorder may trigger depression. The opposite is
also possible, with depression being a trigger for a behavioral disorder, which can also lead to
substance abuse.

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Dual Diagnosis: Addiction and Behavioral Disorders
It is not uncommon for people with a behavioral disorder to also have an addiction to drugs or
alcohol. According to Psychology Today, an individual who has a panic disorder may also be addicted
to alcohol.

Children with ADHD may be at a higher risk for developing a substance abuse or alcohol
dependence issue if the condition carries over into adulthood, according to WebMD.

Getting Help for a Behavioral Disorder

Because of the severity of these mental health issues, getting help for a behavioral disorder is
crucial. Cognitive behavioral therapy along with medication is an effective way to treat disorders such
as ODD. The sooner you get help, the easier it will be to restore your life to normal.

F. Learners with Chronic Illnesses

(Source: [Link]

About chronic illness

A chronic or long-term illness means having to adjust to the demands of the illness and the
therapy used to treat the condition. There may be additional stresses, since chronic illness might
change the way you live, see yourself and relate to others.

Characteristics of a chronic illness

Chronic illnesses are mostly characterized by:

✔ complex causes
✔ many risk factors
✔ long latency periods (time between onset of the illness and feeling its effects)
✔ a long illness
✔ functional impairment or disability.

Most chronic illnesses do not fix themselves and are generally not cured completely. Some can be
immediately life-threatening, such as heart disease and stroke. Others linger over time and need
intensive management, such as diabetes. Most chronic illnesses persist throughout a person’s life, but
are not always the cause of death, such as arthritis.

Common chronic illnesses

While many illnesses can be considered chronic, there are 12 major chronic conditions that are
a significant burden in terms of morbidity, mortality and healthcare costs in Australia, including:

✔ heart disease
✔ stroke
✔ lung cancer
✔ colorectal cancer
✔ depression
✔ type 2 diabetes
✔ arthritis
✔ osteoporosis
✔ asthma
✔ chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
✔ chronic kidney disease
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 ✔ oral disease.

Common stresses of chronic illness

Chronic or long-term illness and its treatment pose special problems. You need to learn how to:

✔ live with the physical effects of the illness

✔ deal with the treatments
✔ make sure there is clear communication with doctors
✔ maintain emotional balance to cope with negative feelings
✔ maintain confidence and a positive self-image.

Additional demands of chronic illness

As well as needing to find ways to deal with the stress involved with chronic illness, you also need to:
✔ understand the condition
✔ know about the treatment and therapy
✔ maintain trust and confidence in the doctors, especially when recovery isn’t possible
✔ know how to control the symptoms
✔ maintain social relationships and a strong support network when faced with an uncertain
medical future or when symptoms arise
✔ avoid social isolation.

Type of help available for chronic illness

Dealing with the stresses of chronic illness can be demanding and it puts extra pressure on
you. It is important you speak to your doctor or healthcare provider about your feelings and how
effectively you think you are coping with the illness and its treatment.

Ways to cope with chronic illness

There is a range of ways to deal with the stress of chronic illness. These include:
✔ finding information – this can help if you feel helpless or out of control
✔ emotional support from others – particularly family and friends, this can be a source of great
help
✔ joining a well facilitated support group
✔ setting concrete, short-term goals – to restore certainty, power and control
✔ thinking about possible outcomes – discussing them with the doctor can help you to face them
before they become a reality.
The overall aim of these strategies is to help put your illness into context and give some meaning
to what is happening.

Children with a chronic illness

For children with a chronic illness, there are programs and opportunities for funding support
attached to government, Catholic and independent sector schools. If your child has a chronic illness,
speak to your school principal for help developing a health support plan and applying for programs or
funding support for your child.
Raising Children Network also has information about support groups for teenagers with chronic
illness, or visit livewire – the online community for teens living with a chronic illness or a disability.

G. Learners in Difficult Circumstances

(Source: [Link]

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Children in Especially Difficult Circumstances: Right to Protection and Participation

UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD

Article 19 (Protection from all forms of violence): Children have the right to be protected from being hurt and mistreated, physically or mentally. Governments should ensure that children
are properly cared for and protect them from violence, abuse and neglect

Children in Especially Difficult Circumstances

All children are not fortunate enough to receive an environment which is conducive to provide
appropriate development opportunities. The need to protect some children is certainly greater than
others due to their specific socio-economic and political circumstances and geographical location. They
are more vulnerable in terms of the risk to their right to survival, development, protection and
participation. These are the children in especially difficult circumstances.

Children in especially difficult circumstances (CEDC) is a worldwide problem. They suffer from
deprivation, exploitation and neglect for no fault of their own and for reasons beyond their control. It
is an enormous global social concern that has attracted the attention of the entire world community,
ranging from professionals in the various fields of pediatrics, social work, psychology and psychiatry,
to legislators, administrators and politicians.

CEDC are those children whose basic needs are not met. Children in difficult circumstances
represent a large and diverse group. Some form of social disruption is common to their lives. All of
these children have special needs, specially the need for psychosocial support. The needs vary greatly,
especially as the circumstances and reasons for difficulties in existence vary and are ever changing.
Some of these children live with their families, while some do not or could be orphans. Some are
working or are found vagrant on the streets, while others could be in conflict with law or affected by
armed conflicts or natural calamities. Children could be sexually exploited, trafficked or forced to work
in bondage hence taking away from them the delights and the innocence of childhood. The health and
well-being of CEDC are severely compromised. It could largely depend on the social interventions,
moral values and sensitivity of civil society and legal system and the nature of rehabilitative services
provided so as to restore to them their childhood. Outcomes depend on the intensity and duration of
the adversity, the child’s age and gender, and availability of support and protection.

Over the years, based on the social conditions, economic involvement, familial situation and
conditions of living, children have been categorized as those in difficult circumstances. The
categorization done by the Ministry of Women and Child Development (n.d.(a)) on Children in
Especially Difficult Circumstances includes:

✔ Homeless children (pavement dwellers, displaced/evicted, etc.)

✔ Orphaned or abandoned children
14 | Page
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illustrations used are not mine. CREDITS TO THE OWNERS/CREATORS. No copyright infringement intended. /Fitzgerald C. Kintanar/
 ✔ Children whose parents cannot or are not able to take care of them
✔ Children separated from parents
✔ Migrant and refugee children
✔ Street children
✔ Working children
✔ Trafficked children
✔ Children in bondage
✔ Children in prostitution
✔ Children of sex workers/prostitutes/sexual minorities/Children of prisoners
✔ Children affected by wars and conflict
✔ Children affected by natural disasters
✔ Children affected by HIV/AIDS
✔ Children suffering from terminal diseases
✔ The girl child
✔ Children with disabilities and related special needs
✔ Children belonging to the ethnic and religious minorities, and other minority communities, and
those belonging to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes;
✔ Children in institutional care, be it in state-run institutions or religious and other charitable
institutions
✔ Children in conflict with law
✔ Children who are victims of crime

● Homeless Children
Homelessness is not a condition unknown to children in some countries. Migration to cities in
search of livelihood and dreams of a better life is one of the major causes of homelessness, which is
more of an urban phenomenon. Globalization has also destabilized rural livelihoods. Pressures of
infrastructure development like construction of high rise buildings, or SEZs (special economic zones)
or even dams and highways have taken away the lands of farmers, and shanties and hutments of
urban slum dwellers. Situations like natural disasters and conflicts render many homeless or force
them to live in unsafe housing conditions. Living on the streets or in urban slum dwellings, lack of
basic facilities and unhygienic living conditions become a way of life. The UNCRC has recognized right
to adequate housing as a right of every child.

● Orphaned and Abandoned Child

Death of biological parents or abandonment by them leads to a child becoming an orphan.
Death could be due to natural reasons like illness or due to accidents or natural calamity.
Abandonment could be due to poverty, illness of parents, gender of the child, being an unwed mother,
being an unattractive child or even disability in the child. With caring practices moving more towards
non-institutional services, adoption of the orphaned or abandoned child provides to the child a family
and to the parents a child. Currently, the state of adoption in India is very dismal. There are far more
number of children who are orphaned, abandoned and destitute and far few who have been given a
home through adoption.

● Migrant Children
Large-scale migration of families from rural to urban areas has resulted in severe
overcrowding, degrading work conditions, homelessness, deprivation of basic services and appalling
living conditions in the city. Yet, to return to the village means starvation: to remain in the city means
possible survival at least physically.

15 | Page
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 The major reason for migration to the cities is that the traditional occupations in villages do not
provide sufficient income. So, the basic need for survival pushes the migration from rural to urban
areas. The influx of people creates housing problems, sanitation and hygiene issues along with
creating an alienation and marginalization of people. The migrants are faceless, mostly both parents
are working, leaving children at home with no adult supervision, low self-esteem and no sense of
belongingness. This puts the migrant child at great risk of becoming vagrant, taking to loitering on
streets or being exposed to anti-social elements. With the National Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme in place, it is hoped that the migration of village dwellers to cities should decrease, as this
scheme guarantees the employment in rural areas. Under this scheme, a person has a right to 100
days of employment for each family within 5 km of their residence and within 15 days of applying on a
local development project.

● Child Labor
The total number of working children in the country has declined from 12.6 million as per the
Census 2001 to 4.35 million as per Census 2011 which shows 65 % reduction. The number of child
laborers in the country was 11.28 million in 1991. Of 12.59 million in 2001, out of the total child
population of 210 million (5–14 years), 5.77 million are classified as ‘main’ workers and 6.88 million as
‘marginal’ workers. The share of workers of the country aged 5–14 years to the total workforce is 3.15
%. The analysis of the 2001 census data shows that there are 6.8 million boys and 5.8 million girls
who are child laborers. In addition, it is found that the majority of ‘main’ workers are boys, whereas
the majority of ‘marginal’ workers are girls. Main workers are those who have worked for more than 6
months and marginal workers are those who have worked for less than 6 months. Unofficial figures on
number of child labor in India vary significantly from the official figures.

Many children are engaged in occupations and processes classified as ‘hazardous labor’, i.e.
harmful to the physical, emotional or moral well-being of children. The factors that contribute to child
taking to labor force, and hazardous child labor in particular, include parental poverty and illiteracy;
social and economic circumstances; lack of awareness; lack of access to basic and meaningful quality
education and skills; high rates of adult unemployment and under-employment and cultural values of
the family and society.

Working children are exploited economically and often physically, including sexually. They are forced
to do heavy work, work overtime, are often deprived of food, schooling, play and rest, and work in
unhealthy and unsafe conditions. Crucial early years when the child should be attending school and
acquiring skills for a productive and fruitful adult life are lost in the toil of earning, often in most
unconducive conditions, to feed their own mouths and those of their family. A child labor also throws
out the adult from productive employment.

● Bonded Child Labor

The primitive practice of bonded child labor is prevalent in some countries. Recent reports are
indicating that India has highest numbers of humans who have been enslaved in the entire world.
Bondage is a traditional worker–employer relationship when the parents borrowed money for their
needs, which could have been for medicine or food or marriage of daughter, mostly on astronomical
interest rates which they could not repay with their meagre earnings. Hence, the child is pledged to
lifelong bondage to the lender. As long as the poor in India remain so poor, parent’s indebtedness,
poverty and unethical trade practices will make it very difficult to abolish pledging of children into
bondage and many such cruel practices which have put to shame India’s image as a nation that
cannot take care of her children.

● Domestic Child Worker

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 Domestic child workers are commonly seen in cities and metropolis. A systematic exploitation
is found, wherein the children are made to work for long hours, with meagre food, meagre wages and
at times physical and sexual torture.

Till recently, domestic child labor was not one of the prohibited occupations in the Child Labor
(Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986. But recently it has been notified by the Ministry of labor,
prohibiting employment of children below 14 years as domestic servants or in dhabas, tea stalls and
restaurants. This is a much needed amendment but, as a result of this notification, there is a
likelihood of a large number of children being laid off, especially in metropolitan cities and big towns.
Therefore, there is a need to address the rehabilitation of these children including shelter, education,
food, health and other needs and to restore them to their families. It is possible that the families of
these children are not in position to take care of them. In such a scenario, an alternative action plan
will need to be in place; otherwise, these children are likely to be recycled as child labors.

● Street Children
Street children or children living and working on the streets are a common phenomenon in
urban areas. Often treated as an eyesore and nuisance, their presence in everyday urban life is
difficult to ignore.

Street children have to fight for survival day after day. From finding food, looking for a safe
place to spend the night to protecting themselves against the violence that constantly threatens them,
life is a constant struggle. Victims of discrimination and revulsion stemming from societal apathy, their
needs are seldom considered, forget being met. They are the most marginalized of all categories of
children in especially difficult circumstances. They live on the fringes of the society, sometimes with
their families and sometimes without. They are exposed to harsh life on the streets fighting for their
subsistence. Poverty, broken homes, migration, breakdown of social networks, crime and conflict,
street children are exposed to all the risks and abuses: substance abuse, physical and moral violence,
sexual abuse, health risks like STD/HIV-AIDS, promiscuity and prostitution. Some live in gangs, thus
taking up the laws of the group as their own and are in danger of developing risk behaviors in their
everyday lives. These children too have the right to adequate housing/shelter, proper nutrition,
education, health care and above all protection from all forms of abuse and violence. This is a group
of children neglected completely by legislatures and programme planners.

● Child Beggars
No accurate data is available on the number of beggars especially child beggars, but the
magnitude of the problem can be appreciated by some old statistics from different parts of the
country: According to the statement made by the Minister of State for Social Justice, Government of
Maharashtra in State Assembly, the number of beggars in Mumbai, which was 20,000 in 1963, rose to
3 lakh in 2004. Many children are being exploited by organized mafia-style groups; the more serious
being, begging, prostitution and drug trafficking (Ministry of Women and Child Development n.d.(a)).
These children are not in need of alms to satisfy hunger and basic survival needs. Rather, most of
these children are a part of organized beggar groups. Child beggars are at great risk of engaging in
petty crime, subjected to sexual and physical abuse, substance abuse and developing health problems
like skin ailments and STDs. These children are victims of abuse of different forms and are living on
the edge.

● Child Sex Workers

In different countries, a large number of children are trafficked for various reasons such as
labor, begging and sexual exploitation. Many girls who are trafficked become a part of the sex trade
and are forced into prostitution. Though most of the trafficking occurs within the country, there is also
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a significant number of children trafficked from Nepal and Bangladesh. Global trafficking of children
and women is considered to be more profitable than arms or drugs smuggling.

It is estimated that there are 4,00,000 child prostitutes in the country. Commercial child prostitution is
increasing at the rate of 8–10 % per annum. Child victims of commercial sexual exploitation are
deprived of basic necessities and suffer the dangers of unwanted pregnancies, maternal mortality,
torture, physical injury, mental trauma and disorders and sexually transmitted diseases
(​nipccd.​nic.​in/​pub_​coop_​div_​3.​html).

● Child Suffering from Abuse

Child abuse can take several forms, i.e. physical, psychological or emotional, sexual abuse and
neglect. What would fall in the category of physical abuse varies from culture to culture. In USA and
European countries, physical punishment of the child by the parents is considered as a form of
physical abuse. It is common knowledge that if you hit or beat your child in the US, the child can call
the police. However, in India, our culture is such that physical punishment by parents or other senior
members of the family is considered as essential at times to discipline children. It is categorized as
abuse only when it leads to bruises or injuries. What is considered abuse in the western countries
does not even raise an eyebrow in India and goes virtually un-noticed. The Human Rights Committee
of United Nations has stated that the prohibition of degrading treatment or punishment extends to
corporal punishment of children. Humiliations, spankings and beatings, slaps in the face, etc. are all
considered as forms of physical abuse of children, because they injure the integrity and dignity of a
child. Child sexual abuse occurs when an adult or older adolescent abuses a child for sexual activities
such as sexual intercourse, indecent exposure of the genitals to a child or viewing child’s genitals
forcefully, making physical contact with the child’s genitals, showing porn films to the child or using a
child to produce pornography. Effects of child sexual abuse on the victim(s) include guilt and
self-blame, nightmares, insomnia, fear of the abuser or things associated with the abuse (including
objects, smells, places etc.), lower self-esteem, sexually transmitted diseases, chronic pain,
self-injurious or suicidal tendencies, depression, stress disorders, personality disorders or other
psychiatric problems etc.

Unfortunately, in most of the child sexual abuse cases, offenders are people on whom the child
had placed trust and are mostly known to the child. The offender in many instances could be a family
member, neighbors etc. Hence, it is very essential for parents to develop in the child trust in them so
that they can comfortably report to the parent such instances of sexual abuse. It is also important to
tell the child the difference between ‘good touch’ and ‘bad touch’ so that the child is intolerant to
sexual abuse in any form.

● Children with AIDS

The first case of HIV/AIDS was reported in India in Tamil Nadu in 1986. Since then the virus
has spread from the high-risk groups to the general population very fast. Today, there are 5.7 million
people living with HIV/AIDS in India. Women and children are increasingly becoming vulnerable to
HIV/AIDS. The new findings conclude that 38 % of the infected persons in India are women. This
indicates the increasing feminization of HIV/AIDS in India. This alarming trend is being observed
closely as more HIV-positive mothers will unknowingly pass the virus on to their children. India has an
estimated 220,000 children infected by HIV/AIDS. It is estimated that 55,000–60,000 children are
born every year to mothers who are HIV positive. Without treatment, these newborns stand an
estimated 30 % chance of becoming infected during the mother’s pregnancy, labor or through
breastfeeding after 6 months. There is effective treatment available, but this is not reaching all women
and children who need it (​www.​unicef.​org/​india/​children_​2358.​htm retrieved on 12 August 2014).

18 | Page
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 Of all the AIDS infections, 4.36 % are through peri-natal transmission. The HIV prevalence
among high-risk groups continues to be nearly 6–8 times greater than that among the general
population (National AIDS Control Programme). Child sex workers are a high-risk group. Sexual
experimentation among the youth could be another high-risk areas. Using youth-friendly interventions
like the education, information, tools and services would help young people make healthy decisions
and enable them to adopt protective practices. Working with influential adults such as parents,
teachers and traditional and religious leaders would contribute to a more supportive environment that
ensures that young people can get the help they need from their communities and remove barriers to
accessing services.

The major concern is for millions of children who are becoming orphans due to parents losing
out to AIDS. Such children face gross discrimination by their extended families and have to be often
placed in institutions. Sometimes, children live with HIV-positive parents. And sometimes, children are
affected by AIDS. These children need long-term care to prolong and improve their quality of life.

● Children in Conflict with Law

The term ‘children in conflict with the law’ refers to anyone under 18 years of age who comes
into contact with the justice system as a result of being suspected or accused of committing an
offence. Children who come in conflict with law cannot be treated in the same way as an adult
offender. The system needs to understand what circumstances lead to the child committing a crime
and then help the child to come out of the situation. Being a child, there is always hope that the child
with proper guidance and support can be rehabilitated into the main stream rather than becoming a
hardened criminal. The entire juvenile justice system rests on this belief and ideology.

It is important to ensure that the child is not being victimized by the system. As reported by
the Ministry of Women and Child Development (n.d.(a)), most children in conflict with the law have
committed petty crimes or minor offences of which most are not considered criminal when committed
by adults. In addition, some children who engage in criminal behavior have been used or coerced by
adults. Too often, prejudice related to social and economic status may bring a child into conflict with
the law even when no crime has been committed, or result in harsh treatment by law enforcement
officials. In the area of juvenile justice, there is need to reduce incarceration while protecting children
from violence, abuse and exploitation. Options that promote rehabilitation that involves families and
communities are safer, more appropriate and effective approach than punitive measures.

Justice systems designed for adults often lack the capacity to adequately address these issues
and are more likely to harm than improve a child’s chances for reintegration into society. For all these
reasons, a just juvenile justice system needs to evolve which would strongly advocate directing
children away from judicial proceedings and towards community solutions which promote
reconciliation, restitution, restoration, rehabilitation and responsibility through the involvement of the
child, family members, victims and communities. It also looks for alternatives to custody or
sentencing, like counselling and community service.

H. Learners from Indigenous Groups

(Source: [Link]

Relevant Learning for Indigenous Filipinos

Indigenous Filipinos are among the many indigenous peoples (IP) who have experienced
devastating destruction of their homes, imposition of settlers in their ancestral domains, and retreats
to areas far from basic social services. Approximately 110 ethnic tribes lives in the Philippines, most of
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whom fight for their way of life for themselves and future generations as they struggle to keep their
lands (Abejuela, Ricarte B. III. (n.d.). Indigenous Education in the Philippines [Research Study].)

With regard to education, the IP are among those with the lowest literacy rates. It is a
challenge to serve their needs in remote areas, and standard education programs fail to take into
account their cultures, languages, and current realities.

In an attempt to respond to these challenges, the Department of Education in the Philippines

has recently adopted the Indigenous Peoples Curriculum Education Framework (DepEd Order No. 32,
s. 2015) as a guide for IP educators in developing “culturally appropriate and responsive” curricula,
lesson plans, instructional materials, and teaching methods.

Classes in Bancas for Seafaring Bajau

The Angiskul ma Bangka (AmB) or “Classes in Bancas” is one example of an innovative
program that helps indigenous young learners gain access to quality and culturally relevant education.
The AmB initiative began in 2014 to serve the internally displaced indigenous Bajau children in
Zamboanga City. It is spearheaded by Cartwheel Foundation, Inc. (CFI), a non-government
organization that focuses on IP education as its main goal for advocacy, with Ateneo de Zamboanga
University-Center for Community Extension Services (ADZU-CCES) as implementing partner and TELUS
International Philippines, Inc., Karapatan sa Malikhaing Paraan Innovative Human Rights Initiative
(KaSaMa), Spanish Agency for International Development Cooperation (AECID), and Sun Life
Financial Philippines Foundation, Inc. as funding partners.

Known as being among of the last seafaring peoples in the world, Bajau communities build
their homes on stilts in coastal areas. An estimated 600 of their families were forced to evacuate from
their original homes, many of which were burned in the prolonged armed conflict between the Moro
National Liberation Front and government troops (referred to as the “Zamboanga Siege”) in 2013.
Many of them remain in a post-conflict transitory site at Barangay Mampang in Zamboanga City,
where they live in cramped bunk houses and lack access to basic services. Identified as both IPs and
as internally displaced persons (IDPs), they represent some of the most vulnerable sectors in the
Philippines today.

Context-based Instruction
Given their unique context, CFI, ADZU-CCES, and their local partners designed AmB to uphold
both IP education and peace advocacy principles. It is based on modules that equip children with
basic literacy and numeracy skills, while also fostering their cultural identity and psychosocial
well-being. Classes are conducted for three hours a day by two trained para-teachers who are
themselves members of the Bajau community, currently residing at the transitory site in Mampang.

20 | Page
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 TEACHER SARIBA ABDULBASIT LEADS BAJAU YOUNG LEARNERS AND THEIR PARENTS IN SINGING THE NATIONAL ANTHEM AT THE LAUNCHING OF AMB’S
FLOATING CLASSROOM. (MARCH 2016)

At the onset of the program in November 2014, 48 learners were enrolled in AmB classes.
When more members of the community learned about the initiative, they requested their children be
allowed to take part, thus increasing the number of enrollees to 96 by December 2015. The age of the
enrollees range from 3 to 11 years old; none of them have attended school before and did not know
how to read nor write when they began attending classes. By June 2015, the program’s first cycle
graduated 77 children, or 80% of the total enrollees. Of the total number of graduates, 52% (40
children) were ready and qualified to enroll in public schools as kindergarten pupils.

Even if the results do not reflect perfect readiness of all learners for entry into the next
academic level, the progression from zero literacy to qualifying for the public schools in a span of
seven months is no mean feat. The Bajau parents recognize this—on its third cycle in 2016-2017, AmB
now has a total of 108 learners.

Community Ownership and Action

Throughout implementation of AmB, community members are engaged as partners and given
opportunities to determine program directions. This is in line with the IP Rights Act (Republic Act No.
8371), which states that “free, prior, and informed consent” must be given by IPs regarding matters
that directly involve them. From the beginning, the program was well-received by the parents and the
wider community because they aspire for their children to be in school, which they thought would be
an impossibility after the Siege of 2013.

To show their appreciation for the AmB initiative, parents actively participate in “counterpart”
activities, such as the construction and maintenance of the temporary learning center; the design,
construction, and maintenance of the floating classroom; the daily preparation of meals for the
supplemental feeding; and attendance in regular community meetings and workshops conducted by
stakeholders.

The constant involvement of community members eventually paved the way for the formation
of their own peoples’ organization, locally known as Kahapan, Kasulutan, Kasanyangan Parimpunan or
KKKP (Service, Peace and Progress Organization). One of the main roles of this organization is to
ensure that AmB activities are implemented, and that more community members participate in them.
In this way, the leadership potential of active members is harnessed and leveraged for building
community ownership of the program.
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Safe Space for Learning
Beyond helping the children build competencies in line with DepEd’s learning standards, AmB
also provided them with a “safe space” for learning. The use of familiar cultural elements helps them
gain a sense of normalcy and stability in the context of their displacement and poor living conditions.
This is consistent with Article 39 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (1990), which states
that “recovery and reintegration takes place in an environment which fosters the health, self-respect
and dignity of the child.”

Inside the boat classroom are indigenous instructional materials prepared by the teachers with
the help of the parents, using resources from around their community. AmB learners have been using
the boat school for their classes since March 2016. Although it is presently docked in an area near the
mangroves of their transitory site, the boat classroom is intended to move with the children once they
eventually relocate to their families’ more permanent coastal homes.
Al-Fatima Ahiyal, Local Project Coordinator from ADZU-CCES, summarized the significance of the
floating classroom as both a learning space and a center of living heritage for the Bajau learners,
parents, and community members with whom she closely works:

AMB FLOATING CLASSROOM IN USE

“For other Indigenous Peoples, land is life; for the Bajau, the sea is life. The boat has deep
roots in the Bajau, as they are the same in often setting to sail at sea. They do not view the AmB boat
only as their classroom. They also see it as a promotion of their culture. It is colorful not only because
it was built as a daycare center for kids, but also to show the vibrance of Bajau culture.
“They take pride in the floating classroom as truly theirs. Not only does it show their desire to
attend school, but it also reflects the importance they give to their culture. The current number of
learners has ballooned; I think it is the boat that has helped in encouraging the children. It is where
they feel at home. They understand that the boat represents their tribe.

“During the turn-over of the boat to the community, one of the parents said that begging is
not the only thing that the Bajau know how to do. They also know how to educate themselves and
enrich their own culture all the more.”

Learning From IPEd Program Implementation

IP education is unique in that it often takes approaches different from those used in traditional
instruction. The importance of highlighting indigenous knowledge, skills, practices, and values is
acknowledged and incorporated. To effectively teach IP learners, it is crucial to understand the world
as perceived through their eyes. Only when connections are made between new information being
presented and a child’s known way of life can learning be relevant and have life-long value. Even as

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changes through education are intended for the good of their community, all efforts must respect to
their identity as IPs.

Openness is key in nurturing a dynamic where teachers and students learn from each other.
Respect for the dignity of each community member is manifested in respect for their entire culture.
Education programs for such communities bear good fruit when they are facilitated rather than forced.
All key players need to recognize the abundance in both human and natural resources in the
community as education harnesses the many strengths that had been theirs all along.

The Difference Between Typical and Atypical Development in Children

JENNIFER ZIMMERMAN
(SOURCE: HTTPS://[Link]/ARTICLE/561905-THE-DIFFERENCE-BETWEEN-TYPICAL-AND-ATYPICAL-DEVELOPMENT-IN-CHILDREN/)

Children have so many ways in which they need to develop: language skills, cognitive skills,
social skills and physical skills. Since each child develops at his own pace, with his own particular
strengths and weaknesses, it can be challenging to determine the difference between typical and
atypical development in children. How can you tell what is typical and what is not?

Preschool Development
The American Academy of Pediatrics describes atypical preschool development by listing skills
that all preschoolers should have. If your child is missing one or more of the following skills, you
should talk to your pediatrician: the abilities to throw a ball overhand, jump in place, ride a tricycle,
scribble, pay attention to other children, use the toilet, copy a circle, say sentences with more than
three words and engage in pretend play.

Kindergarten Development
The Centers for Disease Control lists indications that a 5-year-old child has atypical
development. The CDC suggests talking to your child's pediatrician if he does not show a wide range
or emotions, cannot focus on one activity for more than five minutes, cannot tell what's real and what
is imaginary, loses acquired skills, cannot get undressed or wash his hands without help, or shows
extreme behaviors like biting when angry.

Elementary Development
Australia's Youth Services Department lists traits that may indicate developmental problems for
children from 6 to 9 years old. Not being able to keep up with the rest of the students is definitely a
concern, but parents should also look out for lying, cheating or trouble separating from them. Being
bullied or being a bully are other experiences that may indicate developmental problems.

Puberty Development

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 The onset of puberty can start as young as 8 years of age in girls, with age 10 being average.
For some girls, it may not begin until as late as age 13. In boys, puberty typically begins at age 11,
although for some it may begin as early as age 9 while or be delayed until age 14. If your child begins
earlier or later than these ages, you'll need to talk to your pediatrician. Another indication of atypical
development would be physical changes that occur out of order. The first sign of puberty in girls, for
example, is breast development. The beginning of menstruation before breast development might be
a cause for concern.

Early Identification: Normal and Atypical Development

By: National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD)
(Source: [Link]

NORMAL DEVELOPMENT

Children gather information from people, things, and events in their environment. They
organize this information in their minds, and code it in ways that keep it usable and easily understood.
They match the information with what they've learned before, noticing similarities and differences,
and store the information for future use. Once this process is complete, children behave in ways that
suggest that learning has taken place.

Children's development usually follows a known and predictable course. The acquisition of
certain skills and abilities is often used to gauge children's development. These skills and abilities are
known as developmental milestones. Such things as crawling, walking, saying single words, putting
words together into phrases and sentences, and following directions are examples of these predictable
achievements. Although not all children reach each milestone at the same time, there is an expected
time-frame for reaching these developmental markers.

The following points are important to understanding the nature and course of children's
development.

The course of children's development is mapped using a chart of developmental

milestones
These milestones are behaviors that emerge over time, forming the building blocks for growth and
continued learning. Some of the categories within which these behaviors are seen include:
● Cognition (thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, understanding)
● Language (expressive and receptive abilities)
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 ● Motor coordination (gross/fine motor, jumping, hopping, throwing/catching, drawing, stacking)
● Social interaction (initiating peer contact, group play)
● Adaptive (dressing, eating,washing)

Some children may be very advanced in their use of oral language while others may first be
discovering the power of spoken words. Some children may be advance in motor skills while others
are reluctant to use play equipment or engage in building activities or crafts projects.

PATTERNS OF GROWTH WITHIN DIFFERENT CHILDREN CAN ALSO VARY

Children who show strength in one area of development might be slower to develop skills in
another. For example, a child who has wonderful ability to understand spoken language might struggle
with verbal expression.

CULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT CONTRIBUTE TO THE WAYS CHILDREN BEHAVE

The course of development can be greatly influenced by cultural and environmental factors.
Behaviors that are acceptable in one environment may be inappropriate, even strange, in another. It is
important to remember that differences in behavior do not always reflect differences in development.

Behavior Possible variations due to cultural/environmental influences

Making eye Limited eye contact may show respect; maintaining eye contact may be an
contact inappropriate way for children to interact with adults

Speaking to Responding only when spoken to first; answering questions with formal titles (sir,
adults ma'am)

Waiting for adult direction; making sure to ask permission before starting an
Taking initiative
activity

EXPOSURE TO A FOREIGN LANGUAGE CAN INFLUENCE THE WAY CHILDREN LEARN AND
INTERACT
Children who do not have a working knowledge of the primary language used in their
classroom may not be able to express their needs or fully participate in classroom activities. Teachers
can provide these children with opportunities for successful communication and participation while
learning a new language. They can:
● explain concepts using models or multi-sensory materials
● facilitate vocabulary growth using pictures accompanied by verbal cues
● provide opportunities for children to demonstrate understanding through non-verbal play
● find alternate ways to help children communicate and participate until language foundations
are secure

ATYPICAL DEVELOPMENT

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 Some children exhibit behaviors that fall outside of the normal, or expected, range of
development. These behaviors emerge in a way or at a pace that is different from their peers.
Some important thoughts about atypical development are listed below:
Some children show patterns of behaviors that are unusual or are markedly different from
their peers

Great care should be given to determining whether patterns of behavior are reflections of
children's personality, or whether they exemplify areas of weakness and concern. Teachers and
parents should note the:
● time at which skills emerge
● sequence within which skills emerge
● quality of skill level and how it contributes to children's functioning

Atypical behaviors should be noted and carefully recorded. They may be isolated events that have
little or no impact on later development. They might, however, be early warning signs of later and
more significant problems. Patterns of atypical behavior can be useful in confirming areas of need.
Teachers and parents should note the:
● dates and times of occurrence
● duration and frequency of behavior
● type of activity: language, fine motor
● settings and activities
● interactions with peers and other influences

There is a world of difference between a skill that is delayed and one that is disordered
Great care should be taken to distinguish between skills that are slow in emerging and those
that are different in quality, form, and function.

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27 | Page
Ed 124 – Foundation of Special & Inclusive Education. This is NOT for sale. This is for instruction purposes only. Figures, tables, pictures and
illustrations used are not mine. CREDITS TO THE OWNERS/CREATORS. No copyright infringement intended. /Fitzgerald C. Kintanar/