PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 6: Reservoir Rocks

Topic 6: Reservoir Rocks

Review

In this topic the student is introduced to the key properties of oil and gas
reservoir rocks.

Content
Introduction

The reservoir is the portion of rock containing the pool of petroleum. It is usually
composed of unmetamorphosed sedimentary rocks, such as sandstones, limestones
and dolomites. However, reservoirs do, rarely, occur in igneous, metamorphic and shale
rocks. Pools of hydrocarbons accumulate within rocks that have enough space to
accommodate them. For commercial viability, this pool must be big enough. What is
regarded as “big enough” depends on many factors including porosity, permeability, and
location of the reservoir and proximity to other reservoirs or fields. A reservoir formation
must have both porosity and permeability.
Porosity, or the presence of void spaces, enables the rock to contain hydrocarbons
and other fluids. The greater the porosity, the greater the holding characteristics of the
rock. Porosity alone however does not make recovery of formation fluids possible. If all
the pore spaces are sealed off after hydrocarbon migration, recovery will be nigh on
impossible as no fluid will be able to flow through the rock. For this to be viable the rock
also needs permeability. Permeability is a measure of the ease of fluid flow through the
rock, ie, the connectivity between the pore spaces.

Porosity

Void spaces within most rocks usually contain connate water. It is this water which is
displaced due to hydrocarbon migration. Porosity can be expressed as a void ratio or
percentage.
Volume of voids
Equation 1. Porosity (φ) = × 100%
Bulk volume
Porosity is independent of grain size, but is affected by sorting and roundness of grains.
Pores take on three different morphologies (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Pore Morphology.

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Hydrocarbons can be recovered from catenary and cul-de-sac pores but not from closed
pores. Catenary pores may be flushed out by natural or artificial water flow, whereas cul-
de-sac pores will only produce hydrocarbons due to expansion as reservoir pressures
drop. The ratio of total to effective porosity is important as it relates directly to
permeability.
Most reservoirs are water wet. This means that, even in an oil sand, there will be a thin
film of water attached atomically to the surface of each grain (Figure 2). It cannot be
removed and is known as the irreducible water content (Sw).
Figure 2. Irreducible Water Films.

This film of water will occupy a proportion of the pore space and will therefore reduce
the porosity of the reservoir. We define the effective porosity of the reservoir as:
Equation 2 Effective porosity = porosity (1 − S w )

Since in a fine grained rock the pore spaces are small, the irreducible water content will
affect a greater proportion of the porosity. Effective porosity is therefore affected by
grain size. Small pores will be completely filled with water due to capillary action.
Effective porosities are commonly 5-10% lower than the total porosity. Common
reservoir porosities are 10-20% with exceptions of 5-30%. Carbonates generally have
higher porosities and permeabilities than clastic reservoirs.

Nature of Porosity

Porosity can be defined as primary or secondary. Primary porosity is that present after
deposition on first burial, whereas secondary porosity is that formed sometime after
deposition. Primary porosity will only be maintained if the grains are not altered,
fractured or dissolved in any way and depends on factors such as:
• uniformity of grain size;
• grain shape;
• manner of packing, which is related to the above;
• effects of compaction after deposition.

Primary porosity may be further broken down into two subsets, namely, intergranular
(interparticle) and intragranular (intraparticle). Interparticle pores are present in all
sediments initially, but are often lost quickly in carbonate sands and shales due to
compaction and cementation. Intraparticle pores are generally found within skeletal
grains (fossils) of carbonate sands. Compaction and cementation again, may destroy
this. Most of the porosity in sandstone is preserved primary interparticle porosity.
In theory, the grain size should make no difference to the percentage of porosity.
However, large grained sediments are much more likely to have a wide variety of grain
sizes. Smaller grains will take up the pore spaces between larger grains. Hence fine
overall grained sediments may have higher porosities than course grained sediments.

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Uniform spherical grains have a higher theoretical porosity than that of angular grains.
However, in practice, spherical grains pack with minimal porosity, as absolute uniformity
of grain size is never achieved, whereas angular grains tend not to. The highest porosity
is often found in sediments containing well sorted angular grains.
Porosity as can be seen is highly dependent on sorting. Packing helps sort grains
according to size but also tends to make the rock as tight as possible. Packing is an
ongoing process during rock formation as depositional packing will be followed by post-
depositional packing and then compaction under increasing loads produced by burial.
Compaction deforms the rock grains in an irreversible manner past their elastic limit.
Secondary porosity is generally referred to as the occurrence of extra pore spaces
caused by post-depositional and diagenetic processes. In sandstones, modification of
primary porosity is due mainly to interlocking of grains through compaction, contact
solution and re-deposition, and to cementation. In carbonates, the principle
modifications are due to solution, recrystallisation, fracturing and cementation.
Sandstones and carbonates therefore have very different natural porosity
characteristics. Due to continued burial, however, unless secondary porosity is formed
at a rate in excess of the loss due to compaction, the total resultant porosity may in fact
be less than the original primary porosity.
Solution porosity is common in carbonate reservoirs and is present in two forms.
Moldic porosity occurs when only the grains or rock matrix is leached out. Vuggy
porosity is formed when leaching and resultant pores cross cut grains, matrices and
cementatious particles. Vuggy porosity tends to be larger than moldic porosity, and is
termed cavenous porosity when it reaches a larger scale, sometimes several metres
across.
Cementation porosity again takes on two forms. Fenestral porosity occurs where there
is a gap in the rock that is larger than the grain supported interstices. This could appear
to be a primary form of porosity but is due in fact to shrinkage and buckling caused by
dehydration, characteristically of lagoonal deposits. Intercrystalline porosity refers to
pore that occur between the crystal faces of crystalline rocks. Most recrystallised
limestone have negligible porosity. Dolomitization (replacement of calcite with dolomite)
in the formation of secondary dolomites however results in as much as 13% shrinkage in
size from the original rock bulk, leading to a much greater porosity. Intercrystalline pores
are characteristically angular (polyhedral) with sheet like throats.
Fracture porosity is rare in unconsolidated, loosely cemented sediments as they flow
plastically under applied stress. Relatively brittle rocks, such as limestones, sandstones,
shales and igneous and metamorphic rocks may however contain large numbers of
fractures. Fractures tend to be larger than most pores and increase permeability as well
as overall porosity. Fractures can be caused by tectonics, compaction, dehydration and
diagenesis. Tectonically, fracturing tends to occur under three different scenarios
(Figure 3).
Figure 3. Fracture Porosity and Tectonics (after Selley, 1998).

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These characteristics may again be altered by tectonics. Faulting, folding and the
presence of unconformities may create fracturing on a large scale, even in quite ductile
rocks.

Porosity Measurement

There are several techniques for porosity measurement. The most direct techniques in
the laboratory involve the withdrawal of air from the pore spaces using a vacuum, and
measurement of the volume of displaced air. This combined with a calculation
comparison to the bulk sample volume can be used to determine porosity. For clastic
reservoirs the measurements are commonly made on quite small samples or core plugs.
For carbonate reservoirs, however, the nature of the porosity may be insufficiently
homogeneous for the use of small samples to give accurate readings. The presence of
vugs for instance may be completely missed. Full core samples are generally used for
analysis of carbonate reservoirs therefore. Porosity may also be measured indirectly
from geophysical well logs and seismic data.

Permeability

Permeability is the property of a medium of allowing fluids to pass through it without

change in the structure of the medium or displacement of its parts, or more simply, a
measure of the ease of which a fluid will pass through a rock. It can be defined from the
relationship:
K.(P1 − P2 ).A
Q= (Darcy' s Law)
µL

Q = rate of flow
Equation 3 K = permeabilt y
(P1 - P2 ) = pressure drop across sample
A = cross sectional area
L = length of sample
µ = viscosity of fluid

The unit of permeability is the Darcy (from [Link] who carried out the original work on
permeability in the 1850’s) and is defined as the permeability that allows a fluid of 1
centipoise viscosity to flow at a velocity of 1 cm/s for a pressure drop of 1 atm/cm.
Permeability is a property of the rock. The higher the permeability the faster, and
therefore the more economic, the well production. The presence of irreducible water
content reduces the permeability, and it is the job of the petroleum engineer to calculate
the effective or relative permeability. Permeability is measured in millidarcies (md).
Average reservoirs have permeabilities of between 5-1000 Md. An approximate
appraisal of permeability is:
• fair: 1.0 – 10.0 md
• good: 10.0 – 100.0 md
• very good: 100.0 – 1000.0 md.

In the laboratory, permeability is measured using a permeameter (Figure 4). As with

porosity measurement, smaller samples may be used for homogeneous rocks, whereas
full core samples may be needed for proper appraisal for rocks such as vuggy
carbonates. Usually a gas such as nitrogen is pumped through the sample and readings
taken. Mobile or ‘mini’ - permeaters which pump nitrogen via a sealed probe that is
pressed against the rock sample are also commonly used for convenience as they are
portable. Permeability often varies in direction, and is generally greater horizontally
along the bedding than vertically across it. Measurements are commonly taken in both

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directions therefore. In the field permeability can be measured via drill stem testing,
where the production zone to be tested is isolated and allowed to flow, or from wireline
logging.
Figure 4. Permeameter Schematic.

P1 P2

Fluid of viscosity µ
A

Darcy’s Law is only valid for situations of uniform porosity/permeability and for single
phases. As most reservoirs will contain water as well as hydrocarbons, the concept of
effective permeability must be taken into account in the same way that we have effective
porositiy. The mutual interference of fluids with one another within the reservoir is
generally retardative to absolute permeability. The capacity for flow of each fluid present
is therefore less relative to flow capacity for each individual fluid if it were the only one
present. Figure 5 illustrates how an oil and gas mixture may affect flow. As can be seen,
just because only one fluid is produced, does not mean that the rock does not contain
other fluids. Hence, water free oil may be produced from water wet reservoir rocks.
Figure 5. Relative Permeability.

The Effect of Capillary Pressure

Most reservoirs are water wet and will contain a certain irreducible water content. The
level of water content will depend on the capillary characteristics of the rock. The
capillary pressure is the difference between the ambient pressure and the pressure
exerted by the column of liquid. In the laboratory it can easily be demonstrated that
capillary pressures increase with decreasing tube diameter, and hence pore size in
reservoir rocks (Figure 6, left). Capillary pressure is also related to the surface tension
between adjacent fluids. The greater the surface tension, the greater the capillary
pressure. Capillary pressure tests can tell us a lot about the reservoir relative
permeability characteristics. The pressure required to inject a second fluid into the rock
(commonly oil, water, gas or mercury) is known as the displacement pressure. As
pressure increases, the proportions of the two fluids gradually reverse until the
irreversible saturation point of the first fluid is reached. At this point, no further increase

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in the proportion of the second fluid is possible. Figure 6 (right) shows different capillary
pressure test results. Curve 1 shows good displacement characteristics, as once
invasion of the second fluid has begun, only small increases in pressure are required for
maximum displacement of the first fluid. Irreducible water saturation is also low. This
rock is likely to be well sorted, porous and permeable – a good producer. In contrast,
Curve 3 shows high displacement pressures and high water saturation, and is likely to
come from a poorly sorted reservoir – a poor producer.
Figure 6. Capillary Pressure.

The Effect of Rock Characteristics

There is a general relationship between porosity and permeability. In sandstones for

example, where porosity may be mostly primary in nature, permeability changes by a
factor of ten for a certain ‘x’ percentage change in porosity. For thick Tertiary sections ‘x’
is approximately equal to seven. Even where this approximation can be used,
permeability is much more variable than porosity. The percentage of porosity does not
define ‘tortuosity’, the length of path and resistance to flow that the fluid is exposed to.
Changes in either of these factors can vastly alter permeability.
When porosity is largely secondary, the variation of permeability is even greater. This
can be demonstrated by looking at an artificial rock, ie, concrete. Concrete undergoes
various reactions on cementation. When cured, it is very porous, but largely
impermeable. A similar situation occurs in many carbonate reservoirs. Subsequent
cracking, fracturing or dissolution will increase permeability, often in a very direction
dependant manner.
With constant porosity, permeability tends to decrease with decreasing grain size due
to the increasing effects of capillary pressure. As with porosity, permeability is also often
poorer in un–sorted formations due to the restriction of pore throats by finer particles.
The effects of grain shape may however be the reverse from porosity. Well rounded,
spherical particles may form a less porous structure than angular particles, but the
resistance of flow (tortuosity) between the angular particles in a more porous structure
may have a greater effect on permeability. Elongated particles will tend to pack in a
directional manner depending on local conditions during. Deposition processes and
packing are therefore extremely influential for both porosity and permeability, but may
affect both in different ways. The relationships are complex and still poorly understood.

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Reservoir Types

The presence of oil and gas in appreciable quantity within a rock does not mean that
their recovery is viable, either commercially or practically. Any rock however containing
hydrocarbons and possessing the suitable porosity and permeability characteristics
enabling recovery is a reservoir rock. Generally reservoirs are considered as two basic
types, clastic reservoirs (mainly sandstones) and chemical reservoirs (mainly
carbonates - limestone or dolomite). Sandstones are wholly inorganic in origin, whereas
limestones are at least partially organic or chemical in origin, even if they are now in a
clastic state. A small proportion of reservoirs are found in other rock types.
Porous clastic rocks are formed by standard geological processes and are composed
of essentially stable, insoluble, hard particles. A ‘good’ sandstone will be formed of well
sorted particles that have probably travelled long distances before deposition. In
contrast, ‘good’ carbonate reservoirs are formed from soft, reactive, soluble materials
that have not been transported. An understanding of reservoir rocks and their properties
is essential if hydrocarbon recovery is to be efficient. Mismanagement could render a
reservoir, or at least a well, useless.

Clastic Reservoirs

Clastic reservoirs are aggregates of particles and fragments eroded, transported and
deposited as sedimentary rocks. They can have a marine or continental origin. Deltaic
(Niger Delta), beach and turbiditic (North Sea) sandstones are examples of marine
deposits. Dune sands (North Sea) are an example of continental deposits.
Not all sandstones form good reservoirs. They must possess certain characteristics.
The best reservoir sands are those in which all the grains are the same size (well
sorted), well rounded, devoid of clay, only lightly cemented and preferably coarse
grained as this minimises the space filled by the irreducible water content. Sands
deposited as desert dunes are ideal reservoir rocks, for example, gas in the southern
North Sea is contained in dune sands of a Permian age (250 Ma). The quality of a
sandstone is therefore a function of the source area, transport and depositional
processes, depositional environment and subsequent compaction. Diagenesis after
deposition may play a significant role depending on the type of sandstone formed.
Sandstones classified by source materials are dominated by three types:
• almost entirely detrital quartz (orthoquartzites);
• significant feldspar content (arkoses);
• high content of rock fragments (lithic) or clay matrix (greywackes).

Although there are always exceptions in nature, the best clastic reservoirs are likely to
be composed of detrital quatrz as transport and weathering is likely to produce a well
sorted, unreactive sediment. High quantities of feldspar are undesirable as they easily
decompose to form clays. A high lithic content is undersirable as many contstituents
also decompose readily. In addition particles may be readily deformed on compaction,
thus reducing porosity and permeability.
Environments of sand deposition are varied. They may be wholly terrestrial, (dunes),
fluvial (river deposits), tidal, deltaic, coastal or deep marine. Individual bodies tend to be
restricted in size and lenticular or linear in shape. For example, in a beach environment,
just offshore of the wave action muds, not sands, will be deposited. Sandstone
reservoirs are commonly less than 25 metres thick. The accumulation of sand requires
conducive bottom conditions for localisation of it. Low energy environments may seem
to be most suitable, but removal of fine materials transported to and deposited at the
site, or after deposition, requires high energy or flow characteristics. Water currents are
most effective.
The original porosity of high energy sands may be as much as 45% – 50% with
permeability of 25d – 100d. Loose sands may have porosity of approximately 30% while

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tight siliceous sands may be only 1%. A porosity of 15% is common in sandstone
reservoirs. In addition to commonly high porosity, horizontal permeability of sandstones
is generally higher than carbonates. Conversely however, cross bedding permeability
may be low due to the frequent occurrence of shale breaks.
Depositional sorting influences not only the initial porosity, but also the sandstones
capacity to receive cementatious material from external sources. Good initial sorting with
decreasing grain size commonly leads to increasing porosity, and also, a decrease in
total cement content and the proportion of external cement within that content. A small
amount of cementation is desirable because it prevents sand production from the
reservoir. Widespread cementation however will tend to reduce porosity and
permeability. The most significant minerals involved with cementation of sandstones are
quartz, calcite and authigenic clays. Pure quartz sandstones present the smallest
opportunity for diagenetic alteration, though overgrowths of secondary silica are
common. Quartz and calcite distribution is dependent on the pore fluids that have
migrated through the rock, their chemistry and where they flow, as dissolution and
precipitation take place. Clays can occur as detrital parts of the rock matrix or due to
chemical precipitation. Clays themselves will hold water and reduce permeability, but
may also alter chemically, depending on pore fluid chemistry, further affecting the rock
properties. The presence of hydrocarbons will tend to inhibit cementation as water will
not flow through the trapping structure freely. Porosity and permeability may therefore
be lower in the water zones of a reservoir than in the oil bearing zones.
Dissolution of minerals and their subsequent removal may lead to an increase in
porosity. Dissolution of original constituents, most commonly non–quartz materials, will
lead to secondary porosity, while dissoloution of introduced cements will lead to the
rejuvination of primary porosity. Usually weathering induced porosity is subsequently
destroyed due to normal diagenesis on burial, and may only be preserved within
hydrocarbon reservoirs. Dissolution will only occur if large quantities of under–saturated
water flows through the rock.
Compaction is also important in sandstones, the effects of which are directly related to
the texture and mineralogy of the rock and depth. Porosity willl decrease with increasing
depth as compaction forces due to the weight of the rock and fluids increase. Any
abnormal pressures within the sands, however, may help preserve porosity by reacting
against the compaction forces. Abnormal geothermal gradients will also affect porosity
gradients as reaction rates increase as temperature rises. Generally the more
mineralogically mature a sand is, the better its ability to retain its porosity on burial. Pure
quartz sand will have a much lower porosity gradient than a chemically unstable
volcanistic sand for example (Figure 7A). Texture is also important. A poorly sorted sand
with an abundance of clay will lose porosity much faster than a well sorted sand. A linear
relationship between porosity and depth is often found (Figure 7B). Figure 8 simplifies
diagenetic pathways for sandstones.

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Figure 7. A Porosity Gradients and Mineralogical Maturity (Nagtegaal, 1978), B

Linear Porosity Relationships for Tertiary Sandstones Containing Different Fluids
(Gregory 1977).

Figure 8. Simplified Diagenetic Pathways for Sandstones (after Selley, 1998).

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Carbonate Reservoirs

Chemical reservoirs are composed of chemical precipitates. Carbonates are the most
important reservoirs and are found in the form of Limestone (CaCO3) as aragonite
(unstable) or calcite (stable), or in the form of dolomite (CaMg (CO3)2). More than 50%
of the World’s reserves are found in Carbonate reservoirs. The porosity is less
predictable than that of sandstones, as carbonates undergo a dissolution/reprecipitation
processes, dependant on the pH of the percolating waters. The effects of diagenesis
within carbonates is much more important than in sandstones, resultant reservoir rocks
tend to be much less uniform than sandstones.
Carbonates form primarily in shallow, warm, low energy marine environments that do
not receive significant quantities of external sediments. Most carbonate rocks begin as
skeletal assemblages of carbonate secreting animals and plants which are highly
permeable and unstable in the subsurface environment. Carbonate minerals are
therefore easily dissolved and re–precipitated to form limestones whose porosity is
largely secondary in nature and often unrelated to the primary porosity.
Limestones are generally considered separately as reefs, sands and muds. Reefs are
unique in the fact that they are formed as rock rather than from lithification of sediment.
Porosity may be high (60% - 80%). Because they are formed in a lithified state, they do
not undergo compaction to a great extent. If the reef is buried quickly, by impermeable
sands for example, water will not flow throught the formation and no dissolution or
precipitation reactions will occur. Thus primary porosity will be preserved. If acid or
alkaline waters pass throught the reef however, dissolution (porosity enhancement) or
cementation (porosity loss) will occur respectively. Fluctuations in sea level over the
formation time period of the reef before burial may lead to a very complex diagenetic
history.
Lime sands (detrital grains) may also have high initial porosities, but as they are not
consolidated porosity will be reduced on compaction. As with reefs, exposure of the
sands to flowing waters will lead to diagenesis. Although cementation will tend to reduce
porosity and permeability, if it occurs early enough after burial, it may infact limit the
overall loss as crystals can consolidate the matrix and thus inhibit further compaction
losses. Carbonate sands that do not undergo early cementation of some type rarely
form reservoirs. Lime sands are extremely important reservoir rocks. Figure 9 shows
simplified diagenetic pathways for lime sands.
Lime muds refer to deposition of any carbonate sediment consisting of largely clay
sized particles. The mud may be directly organic (animal and plant remains), wholly
detrital, or more commonly, formed by direct precipitation from warm seawater in the
form of aragonite needles. Aragonite is unstable in subsurface waters and reverts to
calcite. This reaction involves an 8% bulk volume increase. Compaction and the
aragonite to calcite reaction lead to rapid loss of porosity, and no real potential as a
reservoir rock unless fracturing or dolomitisation occurs at a later stage. If the mud
consists mainly of calcite however, chalks form with preserved porosity. Overpressures
may further inhibit compaction giving values of 30% - 40%. Permeability tends to be low,
but later fracturing may enhance this. Porosity within this type of reservoir is usually
much more uniform than in other carbonate formations.
Dolomites can form from calcites, and vice versa, and may therefore be primary or
secondary. This reaction depends upon the Mg-Ca ratio and salinity (Figure 10). Primary
dolomites arfe generally bedded and often from laterally continuous units. Porosity may
be high, but permeability low due to small pore throats. The exact chemistry of formation
of primary dolomites is still contested. Secondary dolomites cross–cut bedding often
occuring in irregular zones underlying unconformities or around faults and fractures.
secondary dolomites are generally crystalline in nature with porosity values in excess of
30%. Due to the intercrystalline nature of the pores, secondary dolomites also tend to be
permeable. As has been mentioned, dolomitisation of calcite leads to a reduction in bulk
volume of 13% and subsequent porosity increase. Any fracturing of the dolomite itself
around the main fracture or fault zone will further increase porosity and permeability.
Secondary dolomites are important reservoir rocks.

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Figure 9. Simplified Diagenetic Pathways for Lime Sands (after Selley, 1998).

Figure 10. Stability Fields for Different Carbonate Reactions (Selley, 1998).

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Other Reservoir Rocks

Theoretically, any rock can act as a hydrocarbon reservoir, as long as it possesses

desirable porosity and permeability characteristics. Rocks that do not inherently possess
these qualities may sometimes gain them in time due to either fracturing or weathering.
Weathering of sandstones and carbonates in the formation of solution porosity has
already been noted. Weathering of other rocks such as granites and gneisses also
occurs as feldspars are leached out, leaving unconsolidated quartz sand.
In addition to enhancing a current reservoir rocks permeabilty, fracturing can occur in
any brittle rock, porous or not, thus turning it into a potential reservoir. Fracture intensity
and orientation are important factors. For instance, fractures commonly occur vertically
and are therefore suited to production from horizontal wells. Even shales, which are
generally only cap rocks, can form reservoirs when fractured sufficiently.

As we can deduce from the notes thus far, no matter how suitable a rocks properties are
as a reservoir, for the pooling of hydrocarbons and the formation of a reservoir within
this rock, further structures are needed.
The reservoir rock must be capped by an impermeable rock, commonly a shale, or the
hydrocarbons will leach to the surface. If this occurs, many of the lighter fractions will be
lost.
In addition to a cap rock, there must also be some form of trapping structure that stops
the flow of hydrocarbons along the strata. In the absence of a trap continued migration
will occur, with eventual leaching to the surface if none is encountered. Trapping
structures are examined in the next topic.

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