Interaction of Photons With
Matter
7/5/2011
1
General Stuff
2
Objectives
• To review three principal interactions of
photons with matter.
• To examine the factors affecting g the
probability of photon interactions.
• To introduce the linear and mass
attenuation coefficients as useful
measures of the probability of interaction.
3
Introduction
• Understanding how radiation interacts with
matter is essential to understanding:
– How instruments detect radiation
– How dose is delivered to tissue
– How to design an effective shield
4
Properties of Photons
• A photon is a “packet” of electromagnetic
energy.
• It has no mass, no charge, and travels in a
straight line at the speed of light.
5
6
Properties of Photons (cont'd)
This discussion is limited to photons with
enough energy to ionize matter:
• X-rays: characteristic x-rays
bremsstrahlung
• gamma rays
• annihilation radiation (511 keV)
7
Photon Interactions
• Photons interact differently in matter than
charged particles because photons have
no electrical charge.
• In contrast to charged particles, photons
do not continuously lose energy when
they travel through matter.
8
Photon Interactions (cont'd)
• When photons interact, they transfer
energy to charged particles (usually
electrons) and the charged particles
give
i up ththeir
i energy via
i secondary
d
interactions (mostly ionization).
• The interaction of photons with matter is
probabilistic, while the interaction of
charged particles is certain.
9
+++++
------- alpha
e-
-
+
Beta
Possible Gamma
Interactions
10
Gamma
e-
11
Gamma
?
12
Photon Interactions (cont'd)
• The probability of a photon interacting
depends upon:
– The photon energy
– The atomic number and density of the
material (electron density of the absorbing
matter).
13
Photon Interactions (cont'd)
• The three principal types of photon
interactions are:
– Photoelectric
Ph t l t i effect
ff t
– Compton scattering
(incoherent scattering)
– Pair production
14
Photon Interactions (cont'd)
• There are a number of less important
mechanisms by which photons interact with
matter. The most important of the unimportant
photon interactions are:
– Rayleigh scattering (coherent scattering)
– Thomson scattering (coherent scattering)
– Photonuclear reactions
15
Photoelectric Interaction
16
Photoelectric Interaction
• In the photoelectric (PE) interaction, the photon is
absorbed by an inner shell (e.g., K shell) electron
of an atom.
• All the photon energy is transferred to the
electron so that the photon disappears.
• The electron is ejected from the atom. This
leaves a vacancy in the shell that the electron
originally occupied. 17
Photoelectric Interaction
• Some of the
photon’s energy is e-
used to overcome
the binding energy
of the electron
PE
• The rest of its e-
energy is given to
the electron as e-
e -
kinetic energy
18
Photoelectric Interaction
• The vacancy created in the electron
shell is then filled by an electron falling
from a higher
g energy
gy shell
• When this happens, either a
characteristic x-ray or an auger electron
is emitted
19
e-
e-
e-
e-
e-
20
e-
e-
e-
e-
e-
21
e-
e-
e-
e-
e-
22
e-
e-
e-
e-
e-
23
e-
e-
e-
e-
e-
24
e-
e-
e-
e-
e-
25
e-
e-
e-
e-
e-
26
e-
e-
e-
e-
e-
27
e-
e-
e-
e-
e-
28
e-
e-
e-
e-
e-
29
Characteristic
x-ray
e-
e-
e-
e-
30
e-
e-
e-
e-
31
Photoelectric Interaction
• PE interactions are desirable in shields
for photons since the photons are
completely
p y absorbed.
• On the other hand, PE interactions are
not desirable from the standpoint of
absorbed dose to human tissue.
32
Photoelectric Interaction
• The PE interaction is most probable for:
– Low energy photons (as long as the
photon energy exceeds the electron’s
binding energy)
– High atomic number and high density
materials (i.e., high electron density)
33
Photoelectric Interaction
• Lead is widely used for shielding gamma rays
and x-rays because it has a high atomic number
(Z = 82) and it is inexpensive.
• Tungsten has a lower atomic number (Z = 74)
but is a better shield because it has a much
higher density (18-19 g/cm3) than lead (11 g/cm3)
• Uranium can be an even better shield. Its atomic
number is 92 and its density is 18 g/cm3
34
Compton Scattering
35
Compton Scattering
• In Compton scattering, a photon transfers a
portion of its energy to a loosely bound outer
shell electron of an atom (the binding energy
off the
th electron
l t is
i considered
id d negligible)
li ibl )
• The photon loses energy and changes
direction. This is known as incoherent
scattering.
36
E(’
2
E(
e-
e- e-
e-
e-
37
Compton Scattering
• The following equation is used to calculate the
energy of the scattered photon (E’()
38
Compton Scattering
• The following equation is then used to calculate
the energy of the scattered electron (Ee)
39
Compton Scattering
• The division of energy between the electron and
scattered photon depends on the angle of scatter
(2)
• The photon loses the least amount of its energy
when 2 is small
• The photon loses the largest amount of its
energy when 2 is 180 degrees
40
Compton Scattering
• For example, lets calculate the energy of
the scattered photon (E’() when a 1 MeV
photon ((E() scatters at an angle
p g of:
– 10 º
– 180 º
41
E(’ (?)
2
(10, 180)
E( (1 MeV)
e-
e- e-
e-
e-
42
Compton Scattering
E = 1 MeV, and
2 = 10º and 180º
43
10 Degree Scattering Angle
44
180 Degree Scattering Angle
45
Bonus calculation! We will now calculate the
energy of 2 MeV photons scattered at 180º
46
Compton Scattering
• In most situations, the energy of gamma
rays scattered at 180 º is close to 200
keV.
• As the energy of the original photons
decrease, the energy of the scattered
photons decrease.
47
Compton Scattering
• Compton scattering occurs at all photon
energies and in all materials.
• The potential for Compton scattering is
always present.
• It is usually the most probable type of
interaction
48
Compton Scattering
• The photons are scattered in all
directions by the scattering object.
• The more energetic the incident photon,
the more forward the scatter (smaller 2)
• Lower energy photons are more likely to
scatter at an angle of 90º or higher.
49
Compton Scattering
– The photon loses the greatest amount
of energy when 2 = 180º.
– The scattered electron has the
greatest amount of energy when 2 =
180º.
50
e-
e-
e-
e-
e-
51
e-
E (1 MeV)
e-
e-
e-
e-
52
e-
E (1 MeV)
e-
e-
e-
e-
53
180 degrees
e-
E’ (0.2MeV) (0.8 MeV)
e-
e-
e-
e-
54
E’
e-
E’ (0.2MeV) (0.8 MeV)
e-
e-
e-
e-
55
e-
e-
e-
e-
56
Compton Scattering
• In some radiation safety applications the
exposure to Compton scattered photons
can be a significant
g source of exposure,
p ,
for example, to medical personnel
present during radiological procedures.
57
Compton Scattering
• In most applications Compton scattering is
undesirable, e.g.,
– Gamma spectroscopy
– Diagnostic x-ray imaging
• However, the absorbed dose to a tumor from
photons in radiation therapy is actually delivered
by the Compton scattered electrons.
58
Pair Production
59
Pair Production
• In pair production, a photon interacts
with the electric field of the nucleus of
an atom.
• The photon completely disappears while
an electron and a positron are
produced.
60
Pair Production
• Since the electron and positron each have an
energy equivalence of 511 keV, the incoming
photon must have an energy of at least 1022 keV
for pair production to take place.
e-
PP
e+
nucleus
61
Pair Production
• Any additional photon energy above 1022 keV is
given to the positron and the electron as kinetic
energy.
• The kinetic energy of the electron and the positron
are nott necessarily
il th
the same.
• PP is most likely to occur with relatively high
photon energies and high atomic number
materials (larger nuclei).
62
Pair Production
• The electron and positron will give up their kinetic
energy via ionization, excitation and/or
bremsstrahlung.
• Ultimately
Ultimately, the positron will annihilate itself and an
electron, most likely after it has given up all of its
kinetic energy. The result is the production of two
511 keV annihilation photons.
• If the positron comes to rest before its annihilation
(the most probable case), the two photons will be
emitted 180 degrees from each other. 63
nucleus
64
nucleus
65
nucleus
66
e-
e+
nucleus
67
e-
e+
nucleus
68
e+
e-
Innocent bystander
69
e+
e-
Innocent bystander
70
e+
e-
Innocent bystander
71
511 keV 511 keV
72
Pair Production
• In shielding, spectroscopy, or dosimetry
applications, the two 511 keV photons
created after ppair p
production must
always be considered.
73
Pair Production
• A fanciful thought: The
positron can be thought
511
of as the electron moving
backward in time! e+
e-
511
TIME
74
The Most Important of the
Unimportant Photon
Interactions with Matter
75
Raleigh Scattering
• Raleigh scattering is a type of coherent scattering
whereas Compton scattering is incoherent.
• With coherent scattering, the photon changes
direction but does not lose energy. Its wavelength
is unaffected.
• Because it can be explained in terms of a wave–
particle interaction, it is sometimes referred to as
“classical scattering.” The photon is the wave and
the electron is the particle.
76
Raleigh Scattering
• The photon is viewed as electric and magnetic
waves oscillating in two planes at right angles to
each other. The intersection of the two planes is
defined by the trajectory of the photon.
Photon
Trajectory
Magnetic vector of Electric vector of
electromagnetic electromagnetic
wave wave 77
Raleigh Scattering
• The electric field of the passing photon causes the
electrons of an atom to oscillate. These vibrating electrons
emit their own electromagnetic radiation and return to their
original undisturbed state. The electromagnetic emissions
of the atom’s electrons to combine to produce a photon
(electromagnetic wave) that leaves in a direction different
from that of the incident photon.
• Raleigh scattering is most important when the photon
energy is low and the atomic number is high. In such a
case, the binding energy of the outer electrons is high
compared to the photon energy - this limits the probability
of Compton scattering.
78
Raleigh Scattering
• In the case of lead, Raleigh scattering can be more
probable than Compton scattering at energies up to 100
keV or so. In water, this is true up to about 10 keV. At
these low energies, the photoelectric effect is far more
probable than either type of scattering.
• The scattering angle is quite small.
• The net effect of coherent scattering (in shielding, x-ray
imaging, etc.) is essentially the same as Compton
scattering at shallow angles where little energy is lost by
the photon.
79
Thomson Scattering
• Thomson scattering is another type of coherent scattering.
It is of even less interest than Raleigh scattering.
• In Thomson scattering, only a single “free” electron is
involved rather than all the electrons of the atom as was
the case with Raleigh scattering.
scattering
• Once again, the electromagnetic wave of the photon
causes the vibration of the electron. Note, this is not a
case of “excitation” where the electron is moved to a
higher energy level.
• The original photon disappears and a new photon of the
same energy is emitted in a different direction. 80
Photonuclear Reactions
• In photonuclear reactions, the photon is absorbed by the
nucleus of the atom and a nuclear particle (neutron,
proton, alpha) is ejected. Photon induced fission would be
an extreme example. Of these, photo-neutron reactions
are the most common.
• For these reactions to occur, the photon energy must
exceed the binding energy of the particle.
• Usually this threshold energy is on the order of 7 – 15
MeV. There are exceptions however.
81
Probability of Interactions
82
Probability of Interactions
• Charged particles (e.g., alphas and betas)
continuously interact with the material they
travel through. Photons occasionally interact.
• We will now consider the factors that affect the
probability of photon interactions (photoelectric
effect, compton scattering, pair production)
83
Probability of Interactions
• The two most important factors
influencing the probability of a given
type
yp of interaction are:
- the energy of the photon (E)
- the atomic number (Z) and density of the
material (i.e., the electron density)
84
Probability of Interactions
• The next slide shows the probability of an
interaction as a function of the photon
energy
gy in a low-Z material ((water).
)
• Note that the probability of the
photoelectric effect decreases dramatically
as the the photon energy increases.
85
86
Probability of Interactions
• The next slide shows the probability of an
interaction as a function of the photon
energy
gy for a high-Z
g material ((lead).
)
• Again, look at the probability of the
photoelectric effect.
87
88
Probability of Interactions
• In general, the curves for water and lead have
the same shape: as the photon energy
increases, the probability of a PE interaction
d
decreases.
• But, on the curve for lead, there are three
sudden increases (or decreases depending on
how you look at it) in the probability of a PE
interaction.
89
Probability of Interactions
• The “spikes” or sudden increases in the
probability of PE interactions are called the K, L
and M edges.
• Goingg from lower to higher
g energies,
g , there are
sudden increases in the probability of interaction
because the photon “gains” enough energy to
eject the M, L and K shell electrons, respectively.
• The electron binding energies are approximately 3
keV (M shell), 15 keV (L shell) and 88 keV (K
shell).
90
M edge
L edge
K edge
91
Probability of Interactions
• It is sometimes said that an element is transparent to its
own radiation. This means is that a material is somewhat
more effective at absorbing photon energies below and
above the energies of its own characteristic x-rays.
• For example
example, the energy of lead’s
lead s K" xx-ray
ray is 75 keV
keV. As
indicated in the previous figure, absorption by lead
increases as the photon energy decreases below 75 keV.
At the same time, absorption increases when the photon
energy exceeds 88 keV (at the K-edge).
• This effect of increasing energy is somewhat short-lived.
Absorption is greater at 75 keV than at energies above
120 keV or so.
92
93
Probability of Interactions
• The previous slide shows how the photoelectric
effect is dominant at low energies in high Z
materials.
• Compton scattering occurs at all energies in all
materials, but is the dominant interaction in the
medium energy range.
• Pair production only occurs at energies above
1.022 MeV. Pair production becomes more
probable as the photon energy and the atomic
number of the material increase. 94
Probability of Interactions
• There are two common quantities used
to describe the probabilities of these
interactions:
linear attenuation coefficient (:).
mass attenuation coefficient (:/D).
95
Probability of Interactions
• The linear attenuation coefficient (:) is the
probability of an interaction per linear distance
traveled by the photon.
• It is actually the sum of the probabilities of the
photoelectric effect (J), compton scattering (F)
and pair production (6)
: = J + F + 6
96
Probability of Interactions
• The greater the number of atoms
encountered per centimeter traveled, the
larger
g the value of : and the more
probable a given type of interaction.
• The units of : are cm-1.
97
Probability of Interactions
• : is the sum of the individual attenuation
coefficients for the photoelectric effect, Compton
scattering, and pair production.
• The value of : depends on photon energy and
type and the atomic number (and density) of the
material.
• Values of : can be hard to find in the literature.
98
Probability of Interactions
• A more common quantity for expressing
the probability of an interaction is the
mass attenuation coefficient (:/D)
• It is equal to the linear attenuation
coefficient (:), divided by the density of
the material (D). The units of :/D are
cm2/g.
99
Probability of Interactions
• The mass attenuation coefficient can be
thought of as the fraction of the photons
interacting per unit density thickness
• Values of :/D are found in:
PTP’s Radiological Health Handbook
(beginning on page 90)
[Link]
ayMassCoef/[Link]
100
101
102
Probability of Interactions
• Should it be necessary to convert from
: /D to :, the densities of common
materials can found in PTP’s
R di l i l H
Radiological Health
lth H
Handbook
db k on page
5 and the RHH pg. 65, or the HHPRH
pp. 5-50—5-51.
103
Probability of Interactions
• Photoelectric effect
The probability varies approximately with Z4
The probability varies approximately with 1/E3
104
Probability of Interactions
• Compton Scattering
The probability per atom varies
approximately with Z
The probability varies approximately
with 1/E
105
Probability of Interactions
• Pair Production
The probability per atom varies
approximately with Z2
The probability varies approximately
with the natural log of E
106
Probability of Interactions
• A related quantity is the mass energy
absorption coefficient (:en/D). The units are
the same as those of the mass attenuation
coefficient
ffi i t (cm
( 2/g).
/ )
• The mass energy absorption coefficient can
be thought of as the fraction of the photon
energy that is absorbed per unit density
thickness
107
Probability of Interactions
• The mass energy absorption coefficient
(:en/D) is smaller than the mass attenuation
coefficient (: D)
(:/D
• Values of :en/D are found in:
PTP’s Radiological Health Handbook
(beginning on page 90)
[Link]
ayMassCoef/[Link]
108
Probability of Interactions
• The mass attenuation coefficient (:/D ) is
normally used in shielding calculations
• The mass energy absorption coefficient
(:en/D) is normally used in dosimetry
calculations
109
No interaction
Photoelectric Effect
Compton Scattering
Pair Production
110
511 keV