KNC 2462

INSTRUMENTATION
PROCESS
SEMESTER 2
ACADEMIC SESSION 2023/2024
Courtesy of Mohd Farid Atan
Edited by Dayang Salyani
 Introduction to the instrumentations
used in Process Control

Overview of Process Control,

Process Variables and Process Loop
Table of Contents
Standard Measurement and SI Units

Parameters
Learning Objectives
To introduce various types of instrumentations, measurement units, and
process control elements

To introduce the instruments terminology, units, standards and prefixes used

in the measurement

To expose the basic concepts of process control loop

To distinguish the differences of process variables

 Introduction

 Instrumentation
✓ Essential for process control in the
industry
✓ Example: Domestic Water Heater
❑ Measured Variable: Temperature
❑ Controlled Variable: Gas flow rate /
Oil flow rate
✓ Complex industrial process control
applications -> Petroleum and Chemical
Industry
 4th Industrial Revolution: Require advanced
control framework to control all the
manipulated variable (s)
Types of
Variable (s)
[Link] Variable (CV)
[Link] Variable
[Link] Variables
(MV)
 Process Control
 Automatic control of an output variable by sensing the amplitude of the output
parameter from the process and comparing it to the desired or set level and
feeding an error signal back to control an input variable
 Example: Supply of water to several cleaning stations
❖ Steam and cold water are fed into heat exchanger (HE)
❖ Steam brings cold water to the required working T
❖ Thermometer is used to measure T of water flowing from the process or
HE
❖ Twater = Constant
❖ Operator observes T and adjust steam flow into HE to keep the Twater
constant at the Set Point (SP)
➢ Controlled Variable (CV): Twater flowing out from HE
➢ Measured Variable: Twater flowing out from HE
➢ Manipulated Variable (MV): Steam flowrate into the HE
➢ Variables: Controlled Input (CI) to the process (MV) and the measured output
parameters from the process (measured / CV)
Process Control Loop

• In a process control facility, the controller is not necessarily limited to ONE variable
• Multivariable Process Control System: Able to measure and control many variables at
one time
Process
Control Loop
• Measuring Instruments:
Sensor, transducer,
transmitter
• Control Instruments:
Actuator, power control
circuit and power supply
Multivariable
Process
Control System
Main Definition (1)
Feedback Loop
❖ Signal path from the output back to input to correct for any variation between the output
level from the set level
❖ Output of the process is being continually monitored, error between set point (SP) and
output parameter is determined, correction signal is sent back to one of the process
inputs to correct the measured output parameter
Controlled or Measured Variables
❖ Monitor output variables from the process
❖ Variable that is manipulated within the defined limit
Manipulated Variables
❖ Input variables or parameters that is varied by a control signal from the processor to an
actuator
❖ By changing the input variable, the measured variable can be controlled
 Main Definition (2)
Set Point (SP)
❖ Desired values of output parameter or variable being monitored by the sensor
❖ Deviation from the SP will generate an error signal (ES)
Transducer
❖ Devices that change energy from one form to another
❖ Example: Resistance Thermometer (Convert T into electrical signal) & Thermocouple
(Convert T into Voltage)
Converter
❖ Devices that change the format of a signal without changing the energy form
❖ Example: Convert from voltage to a current signal
Main Definition (3)
Instruments
❖ Device that indicates or measures physical quantities or conditions, performance, position and
direction
Sensor
❖ Devices that detect physical variables (T, light intensity, motion, etc.)
❖ Provide measurable output that varies in relation to the amplitude of the physical variable
❖ Examples: Thermometer, pressure sensor, transducer etc.
Actuator
❖ Devices that can be used to control an input variable in response to a signal from the controller
❖ Example: Flow control valve (control fluid flow rate in proportion to the amplitude of an
electrical signal from the controller)
Main Definition (4)
Controller
❖ Device that monitor signals issued from the transducer
❖ Take necessary action to keep the process within the specified limits by activating and
controlling the necessary actuator
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
❖ Monitor process variables and control corresponding actuator
❖ Able to use analog or digital input information and output analog or digital control signals
❖ Able to communicate globally with other controllers
❖ Can be programmed either in online of offline mode
❖ Provide unprecedented amount of data and information to operators
Error Signal (ES)
❖ Difference between the SP and amplitude of the measured variable
Main Definition (5)
Correction Signal
❖ Signal used to control power to actuator to set the level of the
input variable
Transmitter
❖ Device that is used to amplify and format signals for
transmission over long distance with zero or minimal loss of
information
❖ Format of transmitted signal: Pneumatic, digital, analog voltage,
analog current, radio frequency (RF)
Example 1

• Identify Sensor, Transducer, Actuator, Transmitter, Controller,

Measured Variable, Manipulated Variable
Example - Solution
• Sensor: pressure cell
• Transducer: P/I and I/P converters
• Actuator: Pneumatic Valve
• Transmitter: I/T line driver
• Controller: PLC
• Measured Variable: liquid flow rate (Controlled Variable)
• Manipulated Variable – differential P developed by the fluid
flowing through the orifice plate constriction
UNITS AND
STANDARDS
 Example

• How many meters are there in 110 yard?

• What is the equivalent length in inches of 2.5m?
• The weight of an object is 2.5 lb. What is the equivalent force and
mass in the SI system of units?
• What is the pressure equivalent of 18 psi in SI units?
Example - Solution

• 110 yard = 330 ft = (330 x 0.305) m = 100.65 m

• 2.5 m (2.5 / 0.305) ft = 8.2 ft = 98.4 in
• 2.4 lb = (2.5 x 4.448) N = 11.12 N & 2.4 lb = (2.5 x 0.454) kg = 1.135 kg
• 1 psi = 6.897 kPa, thus 18 psi = (18 x 6.897) kPa = 124 kPa
INSTRUMENT PARAMETERS
 Multiple Prefix Symbol
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k

Units and 102

10
hecto
deka
h
da

Standards - 10-1 deci d

Prefixes 10-2
10-3
centi
milli
c
m
10-6 micro μ
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p
10-15 femto f
10-18 atto a
 Instrument Parameters (1)
Accuracy
❖Difference between predicted and actual values
❖Determined by comparing an indicated reading to that of a known standard
❖Calibration -> Refer to National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
❖It depends on linearity, hysteresis, offset, drift and sensitivity
❖Format: ± maximum deviation (Percentage of full-scale reading of deflection, %PFD)
❖Other form of presentation: Percentage of Span or Percentage of Actual Value or Absolute Value
❖Example: A pressure gauge ranges from 0 to 50 psi, the worst-case spread (maximum deviation)
in reading is ±4.35 psi. What is the %FSD accuracy?
Instrument Parameters (2)
Solution

%FSD = ± (4.35 psi / 50 psi) x 100 = ± 8.7 %

Instrument Parameters (3)

Range
❖Specify the lowest and the highest measured reading
❖Example: Thermometer which scale is from -300 K and 500 K possesses a range
between -300 and 500 K
Span
❖Range from the minimum and maximum scale value
❖Thermostat which scale is from -300 K and 500 K has a span of 800 K
❖Percentage of Span = Deviation of the True Value
 Instrument Parameters (4)
Reading Accuracy
❖Deviation from the true value at the point the reading is taken
❖Example: If the deviation is ±4.35 psi is measured at 28.5 psi, thus the reading
accuracy is (4.35/28.5) x 100 = ±15.26 % of reading

Absolute Accuracy
❖Deviation from the true, as a number not as a percentage
❖Example: Voltmeter possesses an absolute accuracy of ±3 V in the 100 V
range => The deviation is ±3 V at all the scale readings => 10±3 V or 70±3 V etc.
 Instrument Parameters (5)
Example

In the data sheet of a scale capable of weighing up to 200 lb,

the accuracy is given as ±2.5% of a reading.

What is the deviation at the 50 and 100 lb readings and what

is the %FSD accuracy?
 Instrument Parameters (6)
Example - Solution

Deviation at 50lb = ±(50 x 2.5/100) lb= ±1.25lb

Deviation at 100lb = ±(100 x 2.5/100) lb= ±2.5lb
Maximum Deviation at 50lb = ±(2.5 / 50) x 100= ±5 % FSD
Minimum Deviation at 100lb= ±(2.5 / 100) x 100= ±2.5 % FSD
Instrument Parameters (7)
Precision
❖Refers to the limits within which a signal can be read and may be somewhat
subjective
❖Analog instrument: the scale is graduated in division
❖Digital instrument: the last digit may change in steps
Reproducibility
❖The ability of the instruments to read the same signal continuously and provide
the same output under the same conditions
❖Ability to reproduce the output signal exactly when the same measured quantity
is applied repeatedly under the same environmental conditions
❖Some instruments may not be accurate but possess good reproducibility
❖Example: Instrument can read 20 psi as having a range from 17.5 and 17.6 psi
over 20 readings
Instrument Parameters (8)
Sensitivity
❖Ratio of the change in the output of an instrument for a change in the
measured variable
❖Known a Transfer Function (TF)
❖Example: When the output of a pressure transducer changes by 3.2 mV for a
change in pressure of 1 psi, thus the sensitivity is 3.2 / 1 = 3.2 mV/psi
❖High Sensitivity => high output amplitudes (this may have to be weighted
against linearity, range and accuracy)
Offset
❖Reading of an instrument with ZERO input
Drift
❖Changes in the reading of an instrument of a fixed variable over time
Instrument Parameters (9)
Hysteresis
❖The differences in the readings obtained when an instrument approaches a signal from opposite
directions
❖Example: Instrument reads a midscale value going from ZERO, it can give a different reading from
the value after making a full-scale reading. This is due to stress induced into the material of the
instrument by changing its shape in going from ZERO to FULL-SCALE deflection
Instrument Parameters (11)
Resolution
❖The smallest value of the variables that the instrument can resolve
❖Example: The smallest changes in the variables to which the
instruments could detect or measure
Repeatedly
❖A measure of the closeness between a number of readings (above
3) taken consecutively of a variable before the variable changes over
time
❖The average reading is measured over all the measured readings
Instrument Parameters (11)
Linearity
• Measure the proportionality between the actual data and the predicted data generated from any
mathematical model/
• = a measure of the proportionality between the actual value of a variable being measured and the
output of the instrument over its operating range.
Summary

Basic concept of process instruments

Basic concept of data measurement

Basic concept of instrument parameters