A LEVEL PHYSICS (P510/1)

DEFINITIONS,EXPERIMENTS AND LAWS

by
STEPHEN KAZIBA

This book contains the common definitions,laws,experiments,and

explanations in the following topics
• NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
• HEAT
• MODERN PHYSICS
.

The problem is most students give up during the struggle · Never knowing how close
they were to victory!!The only way you’ll fail is if you QUIT. NEVER ,NEVER
QUIT.
Happiness is · · · studying physics
 P510/1

NEWTONIAN MECHANICS OR .It is the rate of change of displacement

.SI units ms−1
1. Scalar Quantities: These are quantities
that have magnitude only but no direc- 12. Uniform velocity: This is the constant
tion.e.g mass,length ,time,distance,volume, rate of change of displacement .OR it is
temperature,pressure,Power,work,Energy, the constant rate of change of distance
Speed,Temperature,area,Density, Volume moved in a specified direction . SI units
,Current,Potential difference ms−1

2. Vector Quantities: These are quantities 13. Acceleration: This is the rate of change
that have both magnitude and direction. of velocity .SI units ms−2
.[Link],acceleration,displacement,
14. Uniform acceleration: Is the constant rate
momentum,force,magnetic field,Impulse,
of change of velocity .SI units ms−2
electric field,Weight, Tension,Up-thrust,
Friction, Magnetic flux density 15. Deceleration: This is the rate of decrease
,Magnetic field intensity,Viscous drag, of velocity .SI units ms−2
Electric field Intensity
16. Uniform deceleration: This is the constant
3. Fundamental quantities: These are quan- rate of decrease of velocity .SI units ms−2
tities which can’t be expressed in terms of 17. Acceleration due to gravity: This is
any other quantities by using any mathe- the rate of change of velocity for an object
matical equation.e.g mass,length and time falling freely under [Link] units ms−2
4. Derived quantities: These are quanti- 18. Force: This is a push or a pull that changes
ties which can be expressed in terms of a bodys state of rest or uniform motion in
fundamental quantities of mass, length and a straight [Link] units N or newton
time.e.g velocity,acceleration,force
19. Inertia: This is the tendency of a body
5. Dimensions of a physical quantity:This to remain at rest or keep moving with uni-
refers to the way a derived quantity is re- form [Link] Its the reluctance to start
lated to the three fundamental quantities moving and its reluctance to stop once it
of length,mass and time. has begun [Link] Inertia is the reluc-
tance of a body to start moving once its
KINEMATICS at rest or to stop moving if its already in
6. Linear motion:This is motion in a straight motion.
line 20. Momentum: This is the product of mass
7. Distance: This is the length between two of a body and its [Link] units kgms−1
fixed [Link] units metre(m) 21. Linear Momentum:This is the product
8. Displacement: This is the distance moved of mass and velocity of a body moving in
in a specificied [Link] units metre(m) a straight [Link] units kgms−1
22. Impulse:Is the product of force and the
9. Speed: This is the rate of change of dis-
time of action of the force on the body
[Link] units ms−1
OR This is the product of the force and
10. Uniform speed: This is the constant rate time for which the force acts on a [Link]
of change of distance .SI units ms−1 units kgms−1 or Ns
11. Velocity: This is the rate of change of 23. Elastic collision: This is the type of col-
distance moved in a specified direction. lision where the colliding bodies separate

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after collision and both momentum and

kinetic energy are conserved.e.g collision be- Friction: This is the force that opposes
tween atoms,collision between two billiard relative motion between two surfaces in
balls,when we throw a ball on the floor,it contact.S.I units N or newton
bounces back
33. Static friction: This is the frictional force
24. Inelastic collision: This is the type of between bodies tending to slide against
collision where the colliding bodies stay one [Link] This is the force that op-
together after collision and move with a poses relative motion of two surfaces in
common velocity, momentum is conserved contact ,which are at rest but have a ten-
but kinetic energy is not conserved.e.g col- dency to move
lision between a bullet and a block of wood,
34. Dynamic friction(Kinetic or Sliding
car crush(car crashing against the tree).
friction): This is the frictional force be-
tween two bodies moving relative to one
STATICS
another.
25. Moment: This is the turning effect of the
35. Coefficient of friction: This is the ratio
force about the fixed point.
of limiting frictional force to the normal
26. Moment of a force: This is the product reaction on the body.
of the force and the perpendicular distance 36. Limiting friction: This the maximum
of its line of action from the [Link] units force that opposes relative motion of two
Nm surfaces in contact, if the two surfaces were
27. Couple: This is a pair of equal, parallel not in motion originally.
and opposite forces whose line of action do
not coincide.

28. Centre of gravity: This is the point of PROJECTION

application of the resultant force due to 37. Projectile: Is any body that is given an
the earths attraction on [Link] is the point initial velocity and left to move on its own
where its resultant weight acts in presence of a constant force field.
29. Centre of mass:This is the point at which 38. Projectile motion:This is the motion of
the whole mass of the body is considered a body which after being given an initial
to be concentrated velocity moves under the influence of grav-
ity.
30. Neutral Equilibrium: This is when a
body is slightly displaced its Centre of grav- 39. Angle of projection: This is the angle
ity doesnot change position relative to the between the direction of the projectile and
ground. the horizontal.
31. Stable equilibrium: This is when a body 40. Time of flight:This is the total time taken
is slightly displaced its Centre of gravity is by the projectile to move from its initial
raised and the body returns to its original position to the final position along its [Link]
position. This is the time taken by a projectile to
cover its trajectory through the point of
32. Un-Stable equilibrium: This is when
projection
a body is slightly displaced its Centre of
gravity is lowered and the body does not 41. Speed of projection:Initial velocity of
return to its original position. projection

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42. Range:It refers to the horizontal distance 52. A non-conservative force:This is one
from the point of projection to where the where the work done moving around a closed
projectile lands along the horizontal plane path in the field of force is not zero.e.g
through the point of projection OR Is the Frictional force,Air resistance,Viscous drag
distance between the initial and final posi-
53. Dissipative force:Is one for which the
tions of the projectile on the plane through
workdone against them can not be recov-
the point of projection
ered .e.g friction,air resistance
43. Trajectory:This is the path taken by the
projectile . Circular motion
54. Circular motionThis is the motion of
the body with a uniform speed around a
44. Relative velocity:This is the velocity a circular path of fixed radius about a cen-
body would have as seen by an observer ter.
on another body OR Is the velocity with
55. Period : This is the time taken to make
which a body moves as observed from an-
one complete revolution.
other body
56. Angular velocity :This is the is the rate
45. Work: This is the product of force and of change of the angle for a body moving
distance moved in the direction of [Link] in a circular path.
units joules or J
57. Period:This is the time taken for the body
46. Work done :This is the product of the to describe one complete revolution
component of the force in the direction of
motion and displacement in that direction 58. Centripetal acceleration This is the rate
of change of velocity of a body moving in
47. Energy: This is the ability to do [Link] a circular path and is always directed to-
is the capacity to perform [Link] units J wards the centre.
48. Potential energy: This is the energy pos- 59. Centripetal force :This is a force which
sessed by a body by reason of its position keeps a body moving in a circular path
in the field of [Link] This is the energy and is directed towards the center of the
possessed by a body by virtue of its posi- circular path.
tion above the ground .SI units joules or
J Gravitation
49. Kinetic energy: This is the energy pos- 60. Parking orbit:This is an orbit in which
sessed by a body by reason of its [Link] a satellite revolves a round a planet with
units joules or J the same period as that with which the
planet rotates about its [Link] A park-
50. Mechanical energy: This is the energy
ing orbit is a path in space of a satellite
possessed by a body by virtue of its mo-
which makes it appear to be in the same
tion and its position in the gravitational
position relative to the observer at a point
[Link] units joules or J
on the Earth.
51. A conservative force :This is one where
61. Gravitational potential:This is the work-
the work done in moving around a closed
done to move a body of unit mass from in-
path in the field of force is zero.e.g Grav-
finity to a point in the gravitational field
itational force,Electrostatics force, Mag-
netic force,Elastic force 62. Escape velocity:This is the minimum ver-

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tical velocity with which a body is pro- the force that opposes motion of a body
jected from the surface of the earth so that in a fluid.
it escapes from the earth’s gravitational
71. Terminal velocity: This is the maxi-
pull. OR This is the minimum velocity
mum constant velocity a body attains when
with which an object must be projected
it falls through a fluid
from the surface of a planet so that is no-
longer under the influence of that plan- 72. Up-thrust: This is the upward force act-
ets gravitational field and the object will ing on a body immersed in a fluid. SI units
never return to the planet. N or newton

63. Weightlessness: is the condition of a body 73. Laminar flow(Streamline flow):This is

having zero reaction when a body moves the liquid flow where equidistant liquid
with the acceleration equal to the accelera- layers from the axis have the same flow ve-
tion due to the [Link] This is when an locity and the flow lines of the liquid are
object seems to have no weight when the parallel.
force acting on it is due to gravity so that
74. Turbulent flow :This is a type of fluid
it falls freely with an acceleration equal to
flow where successive particles passing at a
acceleration due to gravity.
certain point have different velocities, and
64. Satellite:This is a celestial body which re- the flow lines of the liquid are not parallel
volves in an orbit around another object to the axis of the tube or pipe.
usually larger in size than it.
75. Pressure energy:This is the energy pos-
65. Geostationary orbit:This is a path in sessed by the fluid by virtue of its pres-
space of a satellite in which it has a pe- sure at a particular [Link] It’s the work
riod of 24 hours and appears to be at the done by the pressure in moving a fluid
same position relative to an observer on through a small displacement.
the earth’s surface
76. Viscosity :This is the frictional force be-
66. Gravitational field strength:This is the tween adjacent layers of a fluid moving at
force acting on a unit mass at a point in different [Link] This is the friction
the gravitational field. force that opposes the relative motion be-
tween two fluid layers in contact
Fluid Dynamics
77. Coefficient of viscosity: This is the fric-
67. Surface tension: This is the force acting tional force acting on a unit area of a fluid
normally per unit length on an imaginary when it is in a region of unit velocity gradi-
line drawn tangentially on the surface of [Link] is the tangential stress which one
the liquid. layer of a fluid exerts on another layer in
contact with it when the velocity gradient
68. Angle of contact:This is the angle be-
between the layers is 1s−1
tween the solid surface and the tangent to
the meniscus at the point where it touches 78. Velocity gradient:This is the change in
the liquid, and measured through the liq- velocity between two layers (points) per
uid. unit length of separation of the points.
69. Velocity gradient :Is the change in ve- 79. Density: This is mass per unit volume of
locity between two molecular layers of the an [Link] units kgm−3
field separated by a distance of one meter
80. Relative Density: This is the ratio of
70. Viscous drag(fluid friction): This is density of a substance to density of an

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equal volume of water. 90. Elastic material: This is a material which

regains its original shape and size when
the deforming load has been removed.E.g.
Rubber band, spring.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
91. Elastic limit: This is the maximum load
81. Simple harmonic motion:This is the which a material can experience and still
periodic motion where/in which acceler- regain its original size and shape once the
ation is directly proportional to the dis- load has been [Link] This is a point
placement from a fixed point and is di- beyond which a material doesnot regain
rected towards that point. its original length(shape) when a load is
82. Period: This is the time taken to com- removed
plete one oscillation.S.I units s 92. Linear expansivity:This is the fractional
83. Amplitude: This is the maximum dis- increase in length of a material of a solid,
placement of the particles of the wave from per unit rise in temperature
their rest position 93. Plasticity:This is the ability of a material
84. Angular speed(Angular frequency:This to remain permanently deformed when a
is the rate of angular displacement for an deforming force has been removed.
object moving in a circular path 94. Toughness:This is the ability of a mate-
rial to resist wearing e.g. rubber
85. Free oscillations:These are oscillations
in which the amplitude remains constant 95. Strength: This is the ability of the mate-
and oscillating systems does not do work rial to withstand the applied force before
against dissipative force such as air fric- breaking.
tion, and viscous drag.
96. Stiffness: This is the ability of the ma-
86. Damped oscillations:These are oscilla- terial to resist change in size or [Link]
tions in which energy is lost and amplitude Its the ability of a material to resist being
keeps on decreasing until it dies away due bent.
to dissipative forces.
97. Strength:This is the ability of a material
87. Forced oscillations:These are oscillations to withstand or to resist an applied force
where the system is subjected to an exter- before it brakes.
nal periodic force, so as to set it oscillating
98. Annealing: It is a process by which a
for the required time.
material restores its ductility.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF 99. Work hardening:It is the process of in-
MATTER creasing the resistance of a material to
plastic deformation by plastically deform-
88. Elasticity: This is the ability of a sub-
ing it [Link] is the strengthening
stance to regain its original shape, size and
of a material by repeatedly deforming it.
length when the tensile force applied on it
is removed. 100. Ductility: This is the ability of a material
to be hammered, moulded, bent, stretched
89. Elastic deformation: This is when a
and rolled into different shapes without
material can recover its original length and
breaking.
shape when the deforming load has been
removed 101. Brittleness: This is the ability of a ma-

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terial to break just after elastic limit is HEAT DEFINITIONS:

reached.
113. Heat: This is the form of energy which
102. Hardness:This is the ability of a material is transferred from one place to another
to resist wearing owing to a temperature difference between
[Link] units joules or J
103. Stiff material: This is the material that
resists change of size or shape. 114. Temperature:Is a number which expresses
its degree of hotness or coldness on some
104. Ductile material: This is the material
choosen scale.S.I units kelvin or K
that can be hammered, moulded, bent,
stretched and rolled into different shapes 115. Fundamental interval:Is the difference
without breaking.e.g copper, steel, iron, between the two fixed points
lead,plasticine
116. Thermometric property: This is a phys-
105. Brittle material: These are materials ical property of a substance which varies
that can not be permanently [Link] continuously and linearly with tempera-
breaks as soon as the elastic limit has been ture.e.g
reached e.g. glass, chalk, rocks and cast
• Volume of a fixed mass of a gas at
iron
constant pressure
106. Plastic material: This is the material
• Pressure of a fixed mass of a gas at
that cannot regain its original size or shape
constant volume
when the applied force has been removed.
• Emf of a thermocouple
107. Proportional limit: This is the point
beyond which force applied is not directly • Length of a liquid column in a capil-
proportional to the extension. lary tube

108. Yield point: Is a load of material be- • Electrical resistance of a platinum wire
yond which the material stops undergoing
117. Fixed point: This is temperature at which
plastic deformation and instead undergoes
a physical change is expected to occur.
auntil rapid increase in its extension when
loaded beyond this point until the mate- 118. Lower fixed point(ice point): This is
rial breaks the temperature at which pure ice can ex-
ist in dynamic equilibrium with pure wa-
109. Plastic deformation: This is the type of
ter at standard atmospheric pressure of
deformation in which the material cannot
760mmHg.
regain its original shape or size when the
force is removed. 119. Upper fixed point(steam point): This
is the temperature at which steam and wa-
110. Tensile Stress: This is the ratio of force
ter exist in [Link] Is the temper-
applied to cross sectional area of the ma-
ature of steam from water boiling under
terial. SI units Nm−2 or Pa
standard atmospheric pressure of 760mmHg
111. Tensile Strain: This is the ratio of ex-
120. Triple point of water:This is a temper-
tension to original length of the material.
ature at which pure ice, pure water and
112. Young’s modulus: This is the ratio of pure vapour can exist together in dynamic
tensile stress to tensile strain. SI units equilibrium.
Nm−2 or Pa
CALORIMETRY

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121. Heat capacity: This is the heat required of the gas have minimum kinetic energy.
to raise the temperature of a body by one
131. Triple point of water: This is the tem-
[Link] units JK−1
perature at which pure water, pure melt-
122. Specific heat capacity: This is the heat ing ice and saturated vapour exist in equi-
required to raise the temperature of a unit librium.
mass of a body by one kelvin.S.I units
132. Saturated vapour: This is the vapour
Jkg−1 K−1
which is in dynamic equilibrium with its
123. Latent heat: This is the heat required own liquid.
to change the state of a substance without
change in [Link] units J 133. Unsaturated vapour: This is the vapour
which is not in dynamic equilibrium with
124. Latent heat of fusion: This is the heat its own liquid.
required to change the state of a substance
from solid to liquid without change in tem- 134. Evaporation: This is the escape of molecules
[Link] units J of the liquid from its surface.

125. Latent heat of vaporization: This is 135. Boiling: This is the process which oc-
the heat required to change the state of a curs when the saturated vapour pressure
substance from liquid to vapour without is equal to external pressure.
change in [Link] units J 136. Boiling point: This the temperature at
126. Specific latent heat: This is the heat re- which the saturated vapour pressure is equal
quired to change the state of one kilogram to external pressure(atmospheric pressure).
of a substance without change in temper- 137. Freezing: This is the process that oc-
[Link] units Jkg−1 curs when a substance changes from liquid
127. Specific latent heat of fusion: This state to solid state at constant temperature.
is the heat required to convert the state 138. Freezing point: This is the temperature
of a unit mass of a substance from solid at which a substance changes from liquid
to liquid at constant [Link] units state to solid state.
Jkg−1
139. Melting: This is a process which occurs
128. Specific latent heat of vaporization: when a substance changes from solid state
This is the heat required to convert the to liquid state at constant temperature.
state of a unit mass of a substance from
liquid to vapour without change in tem- 140. Melting point: This is the temperature
[Link] units Jkg−1 at which a substance changes from solid
state to liquid state.
129. Cooling correction:This is the number
of degrees Celsius that should be added
to the observed maximum temperature of
mixtures to cater for the heat losses during 141. Gas: This is the state of a substance above
temperature rise or fall OR Is the extra its critical temperature.
temperature that is added to the observed
142. Ideal gas: Is one which obeys all the
maximum temperature to compensate for
three gas laws [Link] This is a gas
the heat lose to the surrounding.
whose intermolecular forces are negligible
130. Absolute zero temperature: This is and its molecules undergo perfectly elastic
the temperature at which the molecules collision.

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143. Real gas: This is a gas whose intermolec- MODERN(NUCLEAR) PHYSICS

ular forces attraction or repulsion are not DEFINITIONS:
negligible.
154. An atom: This is the smallest particle of
144. Equation of state of a gas(ideal gas an element that can take part in a chemi-
equation): Is one which relates pressure cal reaction.
P,volume V and temperature T of a given
155. Atomic number: This is the number of
mass of a gas.
protons in the nucleus of an atom.
145. Heat transfer: This is the transition of
156. Atomic mass: This is the number of pro-
heat from a hot region to a cold region.
tons and neutrons in the nucleus of an
146. Conduction: This is the transfer of heat atom.
through matter from a region of high tem-
perature to a region of low temperature 157. Isotopes: These are atoms of the same
without the movement of matter as a whole. element with the same atomic number but
different mass numbers and number of neu-
147. Convection: This is the transfer of heat trons.
through fluids from a region of high tem-
perature to aregion of low temperature b 158. Radioactivity: This is the spontaneous
with the movement of the fluid as a whole. disintegration of unstable nucleus to form
a stable nucleus with emission of radia-
148. Radiation: This is the transfer of heat tions.
through a vacuum by means of electro-
magnetic waves. 159. Radioactive decay: This is a sponta-
neous break down of radioactive nuclide
149. Cooling correction: This is the extra with emission of radiations.
temperature that is added to the observed
maximum temperature to compensate for 160. Decay constant:This is a fractional num-
the heat lose to the [Link] This ber of radioactive atoms that decay per
is the number of degree Celsius that should second
be added to the observed maximum tem- 161. Nuclear fusion: This is the process by
perature to cater for heat losses during rise which two light nuclei combine to form a
or fall. heavy nucleus with a release of energy.
150. Critical temperature :This is the max- 162. Nuclear fission: This is the process by
imum temperature required to liquefy a which a heavy nucleus splits into two light
gas. OR This is the temperature above nuclei with release of energy.
which a gas can’t be liquefied no matter
how great the pressure may be. 163. Activity: This is the the number of disin-
tegrations of a radioactive source per sec-
151. Critical pressure :This is the minimum
ond.
pressure required to liquefy a gas at its
critical temperature. 164. Electron volt:This is the kinetic energy
acquired by an electron when accelerated
152. Critical volume :This is the volume oc-
by a p.d of 1 volt
cupied by one mole of a gas at its critical
temperature. 165. Mass defect:This is the mass equivalent
of energy required to split up the nucleus
153. Isothermal change:This is the change in
into its constituent nucleons.
volume and pressure of a gas at constant
temperature 166. Binding energy:This is the energy re-

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quired to split the nucleus into individual use of a diode.

nucleons.
178. Cathode rays: These are streams of elec-
167. Binding energy per nucleon:This is the trons moving at a very high speed.
total energy required to split the nucleus
179. Radio isotope:Are nuclides which are un-
of an atom into its constituent particles
stable and undergo radioactive decay emit-
divided by the mass number of the atoms.
ting alpha,or beta particles or gamma rays
168. Radioactive decay constant, λ:This is during return to stable [Link] Radioiso-
the fractional number of atoms which de- tope is an isotope which undergoes sponta-
cay per second. neous decay (radioactivity) with emission
of radiations.
169. Half-life: This is the time taken by a ra-
dioactive substance to decay to a half its 180. X-Rays: These are electromagnetic radi-
original value. ations of short wavelength produced when
cathode rays are stopped by a heavy metal.
170. Thermionic Emission: This is a process
by which electrons are emitted from the 181. Soft X-Rays: These are produced when
metal surface by application of heat en- a low potential difference is applied a cross
[Link] Is the process by which hot met- the x-ray tube.
als emit electrons from thin surfaces.
182. Hard X-Rays: These are produced when
171. Photoelectric Emission: This is the emis- a high potential difference is applied a cross
sion of electrons from the metal surface the x-ray tube.
when electromagnetic radiations of a fre-
quency greater than the threshold frequency Definitions for S.I units
of that metal, falls on it.
183. newton(N): This is a force that gives a
172. Work function:This is the minimum en- body of unit mass an acceleration of one
ergy required to remove an electron from metre per second squared.
a metal surface.
184. joule(J): This is the work done when a
173. Diode: This is an electrical device that force of one newton moves a body through
conducts electricity in only one direction. a distance of one metre in the direction of
174. Threshhold frequency:Is the frequency force.
below which no photoelectric emission oc- 185. watt(W): This is the rate of transfer of
curs however intense the incident radia- energy of one joule in one second.
tion is.
186. Pascal(Pa): This is the pressure exerted
175. Ionisation energy: This is the energy re- when a force of one newton is acting nor-
quired to remove an electron from an atom mally on an area of one metre squared.
in its ground state to infinity so that it is
completely lost COMMON SCIENTIFIC LAWS ,THEO-
REMS AND PRINCIPLES
176. Excitation energy: This is the energy
required to remove an electron from an 1. Newton’s laws of motion:
atom in its ground state to a higher en-
1st Law : It states that everybody continues
ergy level
in its state of rest or uniform motion
177. Rectification: This is a process of chang- in a straight line unless compelled by
ing alternating current to direct current by some external force to act otherwise.

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2nd Law :The rate of change of momentum of (iv) Frictional force is independent of the
a body is directly proportional to the area of contact of the given surfaces
force applied and takes place in the when the normal reaction is constant.
direction of the force.
8. Hooke’s law: It states that the exten-
r
3 d Law :To every Action there is an equal sion of a an elastic material is directly pro-
and opposite reaction. portional to the applied force provided the
proportional limit is not exceeded
2. Principle of moments:
It states that when a number of parallel 9. Work energy theorem:The work done
forces are in equilibrium the sum of clock- by the resultant external force on a body
wise moments about any point is equal to is equal to the change in the kinetic energy
the sum of anticlockwise moments about of the body.
the same point.
10. The principle of conservation of me-
3. The principle/Law of conservation of chanical energy:It States that in a me-
energy: It states that energy can neither chanical system the total mechanical en-
be created nor destroyed but it only be- ergy is a constant provided that no dissi-
comes transferred to a different form of pative forces act on the system.
energy.
11. Kinetic theory of matter: It states that
4. Archimedes’ principle: It states that matter consists of molecules which are in
when a body is wholly or partially im- constant vibrations for solids and conti-
mersed in a fluid ,the fluid exerts an up- nous random motion for gases and liquids.
ward force on the body equal to the weight
12. Kinetic theory of Gases:Gases consist
of the fluid that is displaced by the body.
of molecules which are always in continous
5. The law of floatation: It states that a random motion colliding with each other
floating body displaces its own weight of and with the wall of the container and the
the fluid in which it floats. higher the temperature,the higher the ki-
netic energy of the gas molecules
6. Graham’s law of diffusion:At constant
temperature gases diffuse at rates which 13. The principle of conservation of lin-
are inversely proportional to the square ear momentum: It states that ,for a sys-
roots of their densities. tem of colliding objects,their total linear
momentum in a given direction remains
7. Laws of friction
constant provided no external force acts
on [Link] when two or more bodies col-
(i) Frictional force is directly proportional lide the total momentum remains constant
to the normal reaction. provided no external forces act on a sys-
tem of colliding bodies
(ii) Frictional force between two surfaces 14. Bernoulli’s Principle: The sum of the
opposes their relative motion. pressure at any part plus the kinetic en-
ergy per unit volume plus the potential
energy per unit volume there are always
(iii) Frictional force is independent of the
constant
relative velocity of the two surfaces
in motion. 15. Boyle’s law: It states that the pressure of
a given mass of a gas at constant temper-

c 2022 KAZIBA Stephen 11

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ature is inversely proportional to its vol- (b) Stefan’s law

ume. It states that the total energy
radiated per unit surface area per
16. Charles’ law: It states that the volume
second (E) of a black body is
of a fixed mass of gas is directly propor-
proportional to the fourth power
tional to the absolute temperature pro-
of the absolute temperature T of
vided pressure is kept constant.
the body. That is,E ∝ T 4
17. Pressure law: It states that pressure of (c) Dalton’s law of partial pressure
a fixed mass of a gas at constant volume is Inn a mixture of gases ,which do
directly proportional to its absolute tem- not interact chemically the to-
perature. tal pressure equals the sum of
18. Inverse square lawIt states that the force the partial pressure of the con-
of attraction between two given masses is stituent gases
inversely proportional to the square of the (d) Newton’s law of cooling
distance between them. It states that the rate of heat
19. Keplers law loss by a body is directly pro-
portional to its excess tempera-
1st law (law of elliptical paths) :All plan- ture over that of the surround-
ets move in elliptical orbits with the sun ing under conditions of forced
at one focus. convections of air.
(e) Decay law
2nd law (Law of equal areas) :A line It states that the rate of disinte-
joining any planet to the sun sweeps out gration is directly proportional
equal areas in equal times ( dA
dt
= constant) to the number of active atoms
present.
3rd law (law of harmonic) :The square
of the period of any planet is proportional (f) Laws of photo electric emission
to the cube of the planet’s mean distance
from the suni.e T 2 αR3 i. There’s no time lag between
20. Newton’s law of Universal gravita- irradiation and emission of
tion:It states that the force of attraction photoelectrons.
between two objects of known masses is di- ii. The number of electrons emit-
rectly proportional to the product of mag- ted per second (photo-current)
nitude of their masses and inversely pro- is proportional to the inten-
portional to the square of the distance be- sity of incident radiation.
tween them.
iii. There’s a minimum frequency
called threshold frequency be-
21. LAWS OF BLACK BODY RADIATION low which no photoelectric
emission occurs however much
(a) Wien’s displacement law
the intensity is.
It states that the product of max-
imum wavelength, λmax and the iv. The maximum kinetic energy
absolute temperature, T of a body of electrons is directly pro-
is equal to a constant. portional to the frequency but
That is,λmax T=constant. independent of the intensity

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of radiation. imum at the deepest part of the fire.

This maximum relative intensity cor-
Common explanations
responds to all the different wave-
1. Explain why passengers in a bus jerks for- lengths being emitted and since these
ward when the bus suddenly stops moving. wavelengths are in the visible region,
Before the car brakes are applied both a combination of all these colors re-
the passenger and the bus are mov- sults into white.
ing with the same [Link] apply-
6. Why it’s much cooler in the valley than on
ing the brakes the ,force is exerted
top of hills at night
on the bus and not the passenger,and
At night, air loses heat and its den-
because of inertia the passenger con-
sity increases. Therefore, the more
tinues to move in a straight line,thus
denser air, which is cool, tends to
moving forward
move down to the deeper areas like
2. Explain why a long spanner is preferred to valleys while the less dense air, which
a short one in undoinga tight bolt. is warm, stays on top like hills. This
Undoing a tight is due to moment makes valleys to be cooler than hills
of a force .A long spanner provides at night.
a greater moment of a force than a
short one hence less force is applied 7. Why a baby has to be wrapped on a cold
day
3. Explain why bicycle frames are hollow. On a cold day, the temperature of
Bicycle frames are hollow because it the body is higher than that of the
makes them lighter,it minimizes the surroundings. Therefore, there’s a
effect of propagating compressive forces net rate of heat loss from the body
and it allows easy fitting which depends on the temperature
4. Why metals are better conductors than difference between the body and the
non-metals surrounding. Therefore, a baby should
In metals, heat is transmitted by move- be wrapped to avoid loss of heat from
ment of free electrons and by inter- the baby to the surrounding.
atomic vibrations. In non-metals, heat 8. Why a bottle of soda left in a freezer overnight
is transmitted only through inter-atomic breaks
vibrations since non-metals don’t have There’s a high percentage of water in
free electrons. Since electrons are soda. Therefore, until the tempera-
very small and highly mobile, heat ture decreases up to 40 C, it still be-
transfer due to motion of electrons haves like any other liquid. However,
is faster than heat transfer due to in- when the temperature exceeds 40 C,
teratomic vibrations. Therefore, met- it begins expanding due to anoma-
als are better conductors of heat than lous expansion of water. This ex-
non-metals. pansion makes the bottle of soda to
5. Explain why the deepest part (centre) of break.
a fire looks brightest (white)
9. Why cloudy nights are warmer than cloud-
At the centre of a fire, temperature
less nights
is highest. Since the quality of radi-
ation (relative intensity of different
wavelengths) depends on temperature, At night, radiational cooling usually
the relative intensity is therefore max- occurs. This is the cooling of the

c 2022 KAZIBA Stephen 13

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earth’s surface and the air near the • The point of intersection of the
surface and it’s caused by infrared plumblines is the centre of grav-
radiation from the earth’s surface and ity for the irregular object
from the [Link] clouds there-
12. An experiment to determine the accelera-
fore act like a blanket and this blan-
tion due to gravity using a pendulum bob
keting effect prevents heat from es-
caping through the atmosphere and • Apendulum bob is fixed on one
go into space. Thus cloudy nights end of the string and then sus-
are warmer than cloudless nights pended on a retort stand.
10. Why adiabatic expansion of a gas results • The initial length l of the string
into cooling is measured using a metre rule
In an adiabatic process heat, heat and recorded
is not allowed to enter or leave the
• The bob is displaced through a
cylinder containing the gas. When a
small angle and released
gas expands adiabatically, its molecules
bounce off the moving piston with • The time t ,for 10 oscillations is
reduced speeds thus reducing the mean noted using a stopclock.
kinetic energy of the molecules. Since
• The period T for one oscillation
mean kinetic energy is proportional
is calculated from T = 10t
to absolute temperature, and heat
is not allowed to enter the cylinder • The procedure is repeated with
containing the gas, the temperature different values of the length l of
of the gas will therefore decrease. This the string
results into cooling.
• The measured values are tabu-
11. Describe an experiment to determine the lated in a table including values
centre of gravity of an irregular lamina(object) of l, t,T,T2 ,

• Three small holes are made at l(m) t(s) T(s) T2 (s2 )

well spaced intervals round the
edge of the irregular object(card
board)
• A graph of T2 against l is plotted
• A stout pin is then put through
giving a straight line through the
one of the holes and held firmly
origin
by a clamp and stand so that the
card can swing freely on it. • The slope M of the graph is cal-
culated
• A pendulum bob fixed on a string
is suspended on the pin • The acceleration due to gravity
2
g is determined from g= 4π
M
• When the cardboard stops swing-
ing,two marks are made on the 13. Explain why scalds of steam burn are more
cardboard where the string passes severe than that of boiling water
When steam makes contact with the
• A plumbline is drawn through
body, it condenses on the body thus
the points marked
it loses its hidden (latent) heat to
• The procedure is repeated with the [Link] condensed water also
the other holes looses heat to the body from 1000 C

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to the body [Link] total tion

heat lost by the body by steam is
• When the area of contact is re-
thus greater than that lost by boiling
duced, the number of contact points
water [Link] results into a more
remain approximately the same,
burning
and hence the resisting force is
14. why longer jumper bends legs when land- not affected, which explains why
ing on sand friction is independent of area.
The force F exerted on a long jumper This explains the second law.
on coming to rest is F = changetime
in momentum
taken
• An increase in weight (and hence
Since the change in momentum is con-
normal reaction) of the upper sur-
stant. Therefore the knees are bent
face increases the pressure at the
so as to increase the time taken to
welded joints. This leads to a
come to rest which reduces the rate
greater degree of interlocking, and
of change of momentum, therefore
hence a bigger force is required
the force on the jumpers legs is re-
to cause motion. This explains
duced thus less pain on the legs.
why friction is dependent on (di-
15. Explain why more energy is required to rectly proportional to) normal re-
push a wheelbarrow uphill than on a level action, and hence explains the
ground. third law.
When pushing a wheelbarrow on a
a
level ground, work is done only against 17. Account for the terms v
2 and b in van der
the frictional force. While when push- waals equation p + va2 (v − b) = RT for
ing up hill, work is done against the one mole of a gas.
frictional force plus the component
of the weight of the wheelbarrow along • va2 is the pressure defect which
the plane of the hill. accounts for the existence of in-
16. Using the molecular theory, explain the termolecular forces of attraction
laws of friction between solid surface • The co-factor b accounts for the
finite volume of the molecules
• Surfaces have projections of small themselves.
[Link] in contact the sur- 18. Main features for the relative intensity against
faces rest on each others projec- wavelength of a black body
tions and therefore the pressure
exerted on the surfaces is very
high. As a result, molecules of • The curves at lower temperatures
the surfaces are pushed into close lie completely inside those at higher
proximity, hence forming welds temperatures,
on welded joints. This creates
• At each temperature T, the en-
some degree of interlocking be-
ergy emitted is maximum for a
tween these irregular projections
certain wave length λmax which
of the surfaces. Therefore these
decreases with rising tempera-
welds have to be broken before
ture.
motion can take place, hence an
opposing force is developed . This • The intensity for each wavelength
explains the friction opposes mo- increases with increase in wave-

c 2022 KAZIBA Stephen 15

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length but the increase is faster 15. An experiment to determine the specific
on the side of the shorter wave- charge of an ion by bainbridge mass spec-
length than for longer wave length trometer
MUST KNOW EXPERIMENTS 16. structure and action of a CRO and X ray
tube
1. An experiment to determine acceleration
due to gravity using a simple pendulum/a 17. An experiment to show that cathode rays
spiral spring travel in straight lines
2. An experiment to determine the coeffe- 18. structure and action of ionisation cham-
icient of static/kinetic friction ber,G.m tube ,cloud chamber and the graphs
3. An experiment to determine the universal involved
gravitational constant G MUST KNOW DERIVATIONS
4. An experiment to determine young’s mon- 1. Equations of linear motion
dulus of a metal wire/steel wire
2. Principle of conservation of linear momen-
5. An experiment to determine the relative tum using newtons laws of motion
density of a liquid using archimede’s prin-
ciple and the principle of moments 3. law of conservation holds for a falling body/up
ward body
6. An experiment to measure the tempera-
ture of a hot body using an optical py- 4. energy stored per unit volume of a stretched
rometer wire

7. An experiment to measure the tempera- 5. centripetal accerelation of a body i.e a =

v2
ture on a celsius scale using a constant r
volume gas thermometer 6. Period of a satellite
8. An experiment to determine the specific 7. p = 31 ρc¯2
heat capacity of a solid/liquid using elec-
trical method[Using continuous flow method 8. Dalton law of partial pressure i.e P1 +P2 =
in case of a liquid]( or using method of P
mixtures) 9. Ideal gas equation i.e PV=nRT
9. An experiment to determine the specific 10. R=Cp − Cv
latent heat of vaporisation of a liquid by
the method of mixtures[Electrical method] Does and Donts
10. An experiment to determine the thermal 1. Force diagrams to have arrows(directions)
conductivity of a good conductor of heat 2. Include conditions for some Laws and prin-
by searl’s method ciples e.g provided no external force · · ·
11. An experiment to determine the thermal
3. Stating a formula earns you a mark (0.5)
conductivity of a poor conductor of heat
4. Diagrams must be working,Do not label
12. An experiment to approximate a black body
what you are not sure [Link] marks for
13. An experiment to determine the specific correct explanations coming from a wrong
charge of an electron by thomson’s method diagram
14. An experiment to measure the electronic 5. Cathode rays travel in straight lines but
charge using millikans oil drop approach not in a straight line

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6. Always start with the questions you know

most to gain confidence
7. spend a maximum of 30 minutes on each
question
8. Do not answer more than the required num-
ber of questions
9. Always label your diagrams since they nor-
mally take any four correctly labelled parts
10. mention the use of each part of the dia-
gram in an experiment.

The illiterates of the future are not those who

are not able to read and write,but those who are
unwilling to learn,unlearn and re learn

c 2022 KAZIBA Stephen 17

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