GEOS1040 Earth: Our Dynamic Planet Week 6 Practical Activities
GEOS1040 Earth: Our Dynamic Planet
Week 6
Our day to day lives are impacted by changes in the weather but changes in the climate
happen over a much longer time scale. Climate is the average of the day-to-day weather
over durations of generally 30 years or more. Two weather elements that are extremely
important to the overall climate are temperature and precipitation. These two parameters
will be the focus of today’s practical activities.
In this practical you will:
Investigate how the Earth is classified into different climate zones and how these
might change in the future
Learn about Australia’s highly variable rainfall
Collect weather data with a handheld weather meter and compare the data you
collect with established weather stations on the Bureau of Meteorology website
Activity 1 (60 minutes): Understanding Köppen Climate Zones
The Köppen climate classification system is a widely used method of classifying the
world's climates based on their temperature and precipitation characteristics. It was
developed by German botanist and climatologist Wladimir Köppen in the early 20th
century and has since undergone various revisions.
The Köppen climate classification system divides the world into five major climate groups,
which are further subdivided into smaller climate types. These are based on the monthly
temperature and precipitation for a twelve-month period, averaged over a long period of
time (generally 30 years or more). The five major groups are: A (tropical), B (dry/arid),
C (temperate), D (continental), and E (polar) (Figure 1).
Within the five major climate types, there are 31 sub-classifications depending on
temperature and precipitation. This is known as the Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification
(Figure 3) (see Table 1 for a summary table of the Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification).
The five major climate types are described below.
Tropical (A)
Tropical climates are characterized by high temperatures throughout the year, with
average temperatures above 18°C every month. These climates are further divided into
three types:
Af: Tropical rainforest climate, with high rainfall throughout the year.
Am: Tropical monsoon climate, with a distinct wet and dry season.
Aw: Tropical savannah climate, with a wet summer and a dry winter.
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Dry/arid (B)
Dry climates are characterized by low precipitation, with less than 250 mm of rainfall per
year. These climates are further divided into four types:
BWh: Hot desert climate, with very low rainfall and very high temperatures in the
summer.
BSh: Hot steppe climate, with low rainfall and very high temperatures in the
summer.
BWk: Desert climate, with very low rainfall and high temperatures but with one
month with a mean temperature below 0°C.
BSk: Steppe climate, with low rainfall and high temperatures during the summer
and with one month with a mean temperature below 0°C.
Temperate (C)
Temperate climates are characterized by moderate temperatures and precipitation. These
climates are further divided into three types to describe precipitation variation. Each of
these three types can be further divided by the degree of summer heat which is denoted
by adding “a”, “b”, “c”, or “d” to the end of the classification label:
Cw: Dry winter climates with rainy summers.
Cf: Marine/humid climates with high rainfall throughout the year.
Cs: Mediterranean climate, with warm and dry summers and cool and wet winters.
Continental Climates (D)
Continental climates are characterized by large seasonal temperature variations and
moderate precipitation. These climates are further divided into four types (noting that they
can be further categorised by replacing the * below with either a “w”, “f”, or “s” as per the
Temperate climate zones described above):
D*a: Hot summer continental climate, with hot summers and cold winters.
D*b: Warm summer continental climate, with short summers and long, cold winters.
D*c: Continental subarctic climate, with very cold winters and cool summers.
D*d: Subarctic continental climate with severe winters, with very cold winters and
short, cool summers.
Polar Climates (E)
Polar climates are characterized by extremely cold temperatures and low precipitation.
These climates are further divided into two types:
ET: Tundra climate, with cold temperatures throughout the year and very low
precipitation.
EF: Ice cap climate, with extremely cold temperatures and no significant
precipitation.
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Figure 1: World map indicating the location of the five major Köppen Climate Zones. Source:
[Link]
Figure 2: Köppen-Geiger climate Zone classifications across Australia based on a 30-year period from 1961 to 1990.
Source: [Link]
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Table 1: Summary of the Köppen-Geiger climate zone classifications.
Type Description
A Tropical
Af Tropical rain forest
Am Tropical monsoons
As Tropical savanna with dry summer
Aw Tropical savanna with dry winter
B Dry
BW Desert (arid)
BS Steppe (semi-arid)
C Mild temperate
Cs Mild temperate with dry summer
Cw Mild temperate with dry winter
Cf Mild temperate, fully humid
D Snow
Ds Snow with dry summer
Dw Snow with dry winter
Df Snow, fully humid
E Polar
ET Tundra
EF Frost
Third letter
Type Description
h Hot arid
k Cold arid
a Hot summer
b Warm summer
c Cool summer
d Cold summer
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Figure 3: New and improved Köppen-Geiger climate zone classifications across the world. Part (a) shows the present-
day map (1980–2016) and panel (b) the future map (2071–2100). Source: [Link]
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Instructions:
1. Using the interactive map available on the UN International Groundwater
Resources Assessment Centre webpage (see link below), classify the cities in the
following table into their Köppen-Geiger climate zone classifications (using the full
classification shown in the legend in Figure 3 and the corresponding description
from Table 1). To use the map, click on “View Layer” and then you can toggle layer
visibility using the eye symbol or change the transparency of the layer using the
slider on the left hand side of the webpage. If you are unsure where some of these
cities are, use Google Maps to find their location on Earth.
[Link]
City, Country Köppen Climate Zone (Type & Description)
Sydney,
Australia
Alice Springs,
Australia
Lagos, Nigeria
Cape Town,
South Africa
Paris, France
New Delhi,
India
Tokyo, Japan
Brasilia, Brazil
Cairo, Egypt
Toronto,
Canada
Akureyri,
Iceland
Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
Nuuk,
Greenland
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2. Describe the changes that you observe in climate classification globally based on
your observations of Figure 3 (i.e., compare panel a and b). You can also look at an
interactive version of this figure online: [Link] How are the
classification of climate zones predicted to change for each continent? Is there a
specific climate classification that is predicted to become more or less prominent for
each continent? Describe the directional trends that you observe in predicted
changes to the climate zones.
3. Using the information in Figure 2, provide a summary of the way in which the
Australian climate is classified based on the Köppen Climate Zones. How might you
expect this classification to change into the future? Which major climate zones
would you expect to be more prominent within Australia and why? Which major
climate zones would you expect to be less prominent within Australia and why?
Refer to both Figure 2 and Figure 3 when answering this question.
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4. Reflect on why long-term data is needed for calculations relating to the Köppen
climate zone classifications.
5. Open the interactive map available on the Köppen-Geiger Explorer (see link below)
and read the information in the pop-up box. Click “Understood, let’s go!” and then
read the information under the three headings on the right hand side of the window:
“Climate Periods”, “Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP)”, and “Features” by
clicking on each heading in turn. Make some notes below on how many climate
periods and how many SSPs this tool allows you to investigate.
[Link]
6. Browse the map until you can see Germany. Set the sliders on the “Period Range”
to cover the period “1901-1930” to “1931-1960”. Describe the geographic
distribution of climate zones within Germany for the period 1931-1960.
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7. Now set the sliders on the “Period Range” to cover the period “1901-1930” to “2071-
2099” and set the SSP to 5-8.5. Describe the geographic distribution of climate
zones within Germany for the period 2071-2099.
8. Click within the area of Germany and review the Sankey diagram in the bottom right
hand-corner, ensuring that you have selected “Main classes”. (Note that the title of
this diagram should read “Germany Climate Zone Transitions: from 1901-1930 to
2071-2099”.) This diagram shows you how the area of the of different Köppen-
Geiger Zones is forecast to change with climate change under this SSP projection
with the size of the coloured boxes representing the relative area of each zone. The
period of 1901-1930 is represented by the bars on the left and the period 2071-
2099 is represented by the bars on the right with the transition shown by the grey
ribbons. Hover your mouse over the coloured boxes to see the information that
pops up. The number in the grey box, is the size of that climate zone in km 2 (e.g.,
268k means that that climate zone covers 268,000 km2). Make some notes on how
the main climate zones of Germany are projected to change over this time period
and for this SSP (5-8.5).
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9. Click the layers icon in the bottom right of the map window ( ) and change the
selection from “Climate Zones” to “Changed Climate Zones” to see a map of which
areas in Germany will experience changes in climate zones under this SSP
projection. How much of Germany will experience a change in climate zone and
which geographic region of the country is most affected? [Don’t forget to switch you
layers back to “Climate Zones” for later questions!]
10. Now set the SSP to 1-1.9 leaving the “Period Range” to cover the period “1901-
1930” to “2071-2099”. Describe how the projected changes to climate zones differ
between this SSP scenario and SSP 5-8.5. Why are these differences present? Will
the same area of Germany experience a change in climate zones for SSP 1-1.9 as
SSP 5-8.5 (Hint: Toggle between layers like you did in Step 9)? What are the
implications of climate change for climate zones in Germany and how might these
changes influence day-to-day life for Germans?
11. Repeat Steps 6-10 again but focusing on India and make notes on:
a. The geographic distribution of climate zones within India for the period 1931-
1960
b. The geographic distribution of climate zones within India for the period 2071-
2099 under SSP 5-8.5
c. How the main climate zones of India are projected to change over the period
1901-1930 to 2071-2099 for SSP 5-8.5
d. How much of India will experience a change in climate zone and which
geographic region of the country is most affected
e. How the projected changes to climate zones differ between SSP 1-1.9 and
SSP 5-8.5 and why these differences are present
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f. The implications of climate change for climate zones in India and how might
these changes might influence day-to-day life for Indians
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Activity 2 (30 minutes): Rainfall in Australia
Australia’s weather and climate are impacted by a range of different short- and long-term
variables, which impact the environment that we experience living in Australia. Compared
to many other parts of the world, Australia’s rainfall varies greatly year by year. In the
worst drought years, such as 1902 and 2019, some places had an annual rainfall less than
one-fifth of the long-term average. On the other hand, the driest parts of Australia can
occasionally get extremely heavy rainfall, often following weather events like tropical
cyclones.
The El Niño–Southern Oscillation Climate Driver
A major driver of the high rainfall variability that we experience in Australia is the climate
driver El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). ENSO is a complex climate phenomenon that
involves the interaction between the atmosphere and the ocean in the tropical Pacific
Ocean and is characterised by the periodic warming and cooling of the sea surface
temperatures (SSTs) in the Pacific Ocean.
During normal, or neutral, ENSO conditions, the trade winds blow from east to west across
the Pacific Ocean, pushing warm surface waters towards the western Pacific, including
Australia. This causes the SSTs to be warmer in the western Pacific than in the eastern
Pacific, creating a temperature gradient that drives atmospheric circulation patterns
(Figure 4).
During an El Niño event, the SSTs of the eastern and central Pacific Ocean warm above
their usual levels, easterly winds in the tropics weaken, and drought often affects eastern
and northern Australia (Figure 5). In Australia, the 14 strongest El Niño events in Australia
started in 1905, 1914, 1940, 1941, 1946, 1965, 1972, 1977, 1982, 1991, 1994, 1997, 2002
and 2015.
Conversely, during a La Niña event, the eastern and central Pacific Ocean SSTs are
unusually cool which often brings heavy rain to many parts of Australia (Figure 6). The 13
strongest La Niña events in Australia started in 1910, 1916, 1917, 1938, 1950, 1955, 1956,
1971, 1973, 1975, 1988, 1998, and 2010.
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Figure 4: ENSO in a neutral phase. Source: [Link]
australias-rainfall
Figure 5: ENSO in a El Niño phase. Source: [Link]
australias-rainfall
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Figure 6: ENSO in a La Niña phase. Source: [Link]
australias-rainfall
Indigenous knowledge of Australia’s weather and climate
Indigenous weather knowledge in Australia has been developed over thousands of years.
Indigenous seasonal calendars divide the year into different seasons based on
environmental changes, such as the blooming of certain plants or the migration of specific
animals. An example of an Indigenous seasonal calendar for Northern Queensland is
shown in Figure 7. These calendars have been passed down through generations and are
still used today to guide hunting and gathering, and for cultural ceremonies. This
knowledge provides a more complex understanding of how weather and climate affect
Australia both in a short- and long-term way, with practical impacts for the biodiversity of a
region, and this knowledge is important to understand when we think about making
Australia more resilient to a future with a changing climate.
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Figure 7: Indigenous Yirrganydji calendar from northern Queensland. Source:
[Link]
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Instructions:
1. Visit the Bureau of Meteorology climate data portal:
[Link]
2. Have a look at the different climate data that is available over both daily and
monthly periods. Select “Data about:” to be “Rainfall” and “Type of Data” as
“Monthly” (Figure 8).
3. Select “Newcastle, NSW” as your chosen location and then “Newcastle Nobbys
Signal Station” as your chosen weather station (Figure 8). Then click “Get Data”
Figure 8: Monthly climate statistics available from the BoM.
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4. You will now investigate which of the El Niño years had the least rainfall recorded at
Nobbys Signal Station: 1972 or 2019.
a. Navigate down the table of rainfall data to the year 1972 and click on the
year.
b. Scroll down until you see the “Annual total for 1972” (at the bottom of the first
table) and record this value below.
c. Review the table titled “Summary statistics for all years” then click the “Plot
statistics and this year” button at the bottom right of the Summary statistics
table.
5. Copy your annual plot of rainfall statistics at Nobbys signal station for the year 1972
below and record the annual total rainfall:
Annual total rainfall for 1972:
6. Repeat this process and copy your plot of the annual rainfall statistics at Nobbys
signal station for the year 2019 below and record the annual total rainfall:
Annual total rainfall for 2019:
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7. Compare and contrast these two plots. Which year had less annual rainfall overall?
How did rainfall change throughout the year for both of these years? Did the
maximum monthly rainfall occur in the same month for 1972 and 2019? Which of
these years had drier summer conditions?
8. Visit the Indigenous Weather Knowledge website and explore the different seasonal
calendars that exist for different parts of Australia: [Link]
9. Open the page containing information on the Banbai Indigenous Weather
Knowledge. Describe how the Banbai Indigenous weather calendar differs from our
European classification of weather into four discrete seasons?
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10. Explain how Banbai indigenous weather knowledge incorporates the understanding
of flora and fauna into knowledge of changing weather throughout the year:
11. How might the incorporation of indigenous weather knowledge be important for
water resource management in Australia in the face of a warming climate?
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Activity 3 (30 minutes): Collecting weather data and comparing
to established weather stations
Collecting weather data is a critical part of understanding and predicting weather patterns
and conditions for different places around the world. It is also critical for understanding
long-term climatic changes. There are many methods for collecting weather data, including
ground-based observations, satellite and radar technologies, and weather balloons.
Ground-based observations involve collecting data from handheld weather meters or
weather stations located on the ground. Weather stations typically measure temperature,
precipitation, wind speed and direction, humidity, and other weather variables at regular
intervals. More advanced weather stations can also measure atmospheric pressure and
solar radiation.
Satellites and radar technologies allow for broader-scale observations of weather patterns
and conditions. Satellites can provide information on cloud cover, temperature,
precipitation, and wind patterns over large areas, while radar technologies can detect the
location and intensity of storms and precipitation in real-time.
Weather balloons are another important tool for collecting weather data. These balloons
carry instruments that measure atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, and wind
speed and direction as they ascend through the atmosphere. The data collected by these
balloons provides critical information for weather forecasting and research.
In this activity you will use a handheld weather meter (Figure 9) to collect some basic
weather readings outside the building and then compare these data to the Bureau of
Meteorology (BOM) weather station at Nobbys.
Figure 9: The Tenmars handheld weather meter.
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Instructions:
1. Get into groups and collect a handheld weather meter.
2. Look at the instructions and ask your demonstrators to show you how to use your
weather meter to collect weather readings.
3. Take your weather meter outside and find a clear, open space. Record the time
when you are taking your weather observations.
Time: _______
4. Use your weather meter to fill in the middle column in the table below.
Weather Parameter Weather Meter Value BOM value
Temperature (oC)
Absolute air pressure (hPa)
Average wind speed (m/s)
Relative humidity (%)
5. Go onto the Bureau of Meteorology website and go to the MetEye page:
[Link]
6. Scroll into the map to see the weather more closely for the Newcastle area.
7. Using the options available to you in the “LATEST WEATHER” section, note down
the current temperature, wind speed, and relative humidity. Add these BOM values
to the third column of your data table.
8. Now go to the Interactive Weather map to have a look at the air pressure for the
Newcastle region and note down the current air pressure in your data table:
[Link]
precip&tz=AEDT&area=NSW&model=R&chartSubmit=Refresh+View
9. Explain why there might be a difference in values between your hand-held weather
meter and the BOM values for the Newcastle region? How might the difference in
technology between your weather meter and the weather station play a role? Do
you think the readings taken by the BOM are more reliable than the readings you
have taken with your handheld weather meter. Explain why or why not.
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10. Many of the weather values for Newcastle are collected at the Nobbys Signal
Station AWS. How might the difference in location between the Nobbys weather
station at the coast and your location further inland drive differences in weather
readings between your observations and those collected at the Nobbys AWS?
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